Academic literature on the topic 'Horticultural income'

One important issue of agricultural development in the dry land area of North Lombok Regency is how to increase the Planting Index (IP) supported by the availability of sufficient water, especially for the development of horticultural commodities. The increase in the Planting Index is expected to lead to an increase in community welfare, specifically an increase in farmers' incomes. The development of horticulture is intended to provide added value to farmers' income by applying environmentally friendly Good Agricultural Practices with production management in accordance with the conditions of natural resources. One area of dry land that has sufficient potential for horticultural development in North Lombok Regency is Kayangan Village. Problems faced by dry land farmers include the level of knowledge and skills of farmers, especially in the management of horticultural commodities and the relatively low level of farmer participation. To overcome these problems, innovation technology transfer is needed through the development of environmentally friendly horticultural crops by regulating cropping systems and improving cultivation technology to increase farmers' incomes. Counseling and training, as well as demonstration plots for improved cultivation technology and regulation of horticultural cropping patterns were carried out during May-November 2019. Community service activities were considered quite successful in terms of the enthusiasm and perseverance of participants in participating in counseling and training, as well as demonstration plots (tomato plants, chili peppers, melons, intercropped tomatoes and pachoi). The results of the demonstration plot showed a significant increase both in crop productivity and increased income per unit area of arable land. On going assistance from all parties, especially the local government, is expected to sustainably develop horticultural commodities in order to increase the income of dry land farmers

The study aims to analyze the income and profitability of horticultural nursery farmers in Bandungan District, Semarang Regency. The study was conducted in March to April 2018 in Bandungan District, Semarang Regency. The research method used was a survey method. The data taken in this study were primary data and secondary data. Data were collected by direct interviews with farmers based on questionnaires. The sampling technique used snowball sampling with a sample of 30 farmers. The data obtained were then tabulated and analyzed by one sample t test. The results showed that the average income in horticultural nursery farming was IDR 61,019,233/year. The average income per respondent of horticultural plant nurseries in Bandungan District was IDR 5,084,936/month. The income of horticulture nursery farming was greater than the UMK of Semarang Regency. The average farm profitability per respondent of horticultural plant nurseries in Bandungan District was 48.81%. The average profitability of farming per plant was 64.26%. The profitability value of farming in Chili Rawit, Chili Curly, Tomato, Eggplant, Cauliflower in Bandungan District is profitable because the profit rate was greater than Bank BRI's deposit interest rate and loan interest rates.

This study aims to determine the extent of the role of women as wage earners in the family as horticulture traders in Modoinding Sub-District. This research was conducted in October 2019 until January 2020. The data used in this study are primary and secondary data. Sample selection method used the purposive sampling. Primary data collection was obtained through direct interviews using a questionnaire to 13 respondents, who are married, still have a husband and are a native of Modoinding. Secondary data were obtained from literature, official sources from related institutions, and other sources related to this research. Data analysis used the calculation of wife's income as horticultural traders, husband and children. The results showed that, the income of women horticultural traders could add to the economy in the family. The income earned by women horticultural traders per month is IDR. 1,500,000 - up to IDR. 5,500,000, - with work time per day from 8 hours to 17 hours. More income was generated from the wife's income as a trader with more time spent by the wife than the husband. So it can be said that the wife is the main breadwinner in the family. The research was 60% of children with income less than IDR. 2,000,000 - Income of more than IDR. 2,000,001 to IDR. 3,000,000 a month wass 20%, and income above IDR. 4,000,001 a month was 20%.*eprm*

The aim of this study is to determine changes in the structure of horticultural farms in EU countries in the years 2007-2017 and their incomes and determine the share of subsidies of the Common Agricultural Policy in the income of horticultural farms in studied groups. Horticultural farms from the European Union Farm Accountancy Data Network (EUFADN) of all EU countries were surveyed. A dynamic analysis of the structure of farm numbers in particular groups of economic size (ES6) was carried out, and then the average change in income and the share of subsidies in income within these groups in 2007 and 2017 were presented. As a result of the conducted research, changes in the number of horticultural farms in various groups of economic size were taken into account and the assumptions concerning the decreasing scale of fragmentation of horticultural farms were confirmed by a decrease in the number of the economically weakest groups and an increase in the number of medium and large farms. It was noted that, in the studied groups, the strongest income growths concerned farms with medium or high economic strength, which may mean that income had a significant impact on the process. Moreover, it results from the conducted research that existing institutional solutions additionally supported the tendency to reduce the scale of fragmentation of horticultural farms in the EU-12 due to the fact that the shares of subsidies were higher in groups with higher economic strength.

This paper analyzes the impact of entry ports reduction on horticultural production on the economic activities, prices and also toward social welfare by using Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model. The simulation shows higher import restriction on horticultural products will not only increase the factor income (at current value), but will also increase the composite prices. The higher effect of the latter leads to social welfare reduction, but on the other hand favors the agriculture household types. This finding shows import restriction on horticulture product serves as income redistribution policy instrument. With regard to this, the monetary authority should take the issue into account, especially in order to anticipate the effect of composite prices increase, which could lead to the need of extra efforts in managing price stability. Keywords: import reduction; prices, inflation, CGE; social welfare; income distribution.JEL Classification: E25, E27

This paper analyzes the impact of entry ports reduction on horticultural production on the economic activities, prices and also toward social welfare by using Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model. The simulation shows higher import restriction on horticultural products will not only increase the factor income (at current value), but will also increase the composite prices. The higher effect of the latter leads to social welfare reduction, but on the other hand favors the agriculture household types. This finding shows import restriction on horticulture product serves as income redistribution policy instrument. With regard to this, the monetary authority should take the issue into account, especially in order to anticipate the effect of composite prices increase, which could lead to the need of extra efforts in managing price stability. Keywords: import reduction; prices, inflation, CGE; social welfare; income distribution.JEL Classification: E25, E27

From the mid-19th century to the 20th century in Central and Eastern Europe, apple, pear and cherry orchards were founded on the exemplar of fruit orchards in highly developed countries. The assessment of the economic farms situation, including farms with permanent crops (orchards) in the EU countries is monitoring by FADN. In the FADN classification, horticultural crops are fruit trees. In the FADN classification, horticultural crops are all fruit trees. The purpose of this article is to diagnose and assess the income situation of European fruit growing. The diagnosis has been conducted on the data basis from the FAO, Eurostat and the Central Statistical Office. The cultivation area has been decreasing in West European fruit-growing since the 1990s, particularly in Germany and France - for example apple tree. At the same time is observed an increase of apple orchards in Poland. The research showed that income on fruit farms is unstable. The highest one is registered in fruit farms in Belgium (46.8 thousand euros), the Netherlands (34.2 thousand euros) and Austria (25.3 thousand euros). Simultaneously, the British horticulture was experienced the crisis. It recorded the loses evaluated on 13.4 thousand Euros per year.

Horticulture is one of the agricultural sub-sector consisting of vegetables, fruits, biofarmaka mplants (medicinal plants) and floriculture (ornamentals) became one of the commodities subject of international trade, which the demand is increasing in line with increasing household income and growth population. During the period 2005-2014, the average growth value of horticultural exports of developing countries amounted to 69,81 percent higher than the average growth of exports in developed countries as big as 40,78 percent. The global trading of horticulture is faced with price volatility and trade barriers problems. In addition, the increasing demand of these commodities also in line with the increase in household incomes and population growth. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the competitiveness of horticulture commodities in the international market and the factors that influence trade flow. The results of Export Product Dynamic (EPD) show that there are two horticultural export commodity that has dynamic market position in world market, there are bananas (HS.080300) and pineapples (HS.080430). Generally, the panel data analysis results show that prices, trade barriers, population, real GDP per capita, economic distances, and real exchange rates significantly affect export volumes. Keywords: Competitiveness, Exports, Horticulture, Gravity model

Horticulture is one of the agricultural sub-sector consisting of vegetables, fruits, biofarmaka mplants (medicinal plants) and floriculture (ornamentals) became one of the commodities subject of international trade, which the demand is increasing in line with increasing household income and growth population. During the period 2005-2014, the average growth value of horticultural exports of developing countries amounted to 69,81 percent higher than the average growth of exports in developed countries as big as 40,78 percent. The global trading of horticulture is faced with price volatility and trade barriers problems. In addition, the increasing demand of these commodities also in line with the increase in household incomes and population growth. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the competitiveness of horticulture commodities in the international market and the factors that influence trade flow. The results of Export Product Dynamic (EPD) show that there are two horticultural export commodity that has dynamic market position in world market, there are bananas (HS.080300) and pineapples (HS.080430). Generally, the panel data analysis results show that prices, trade barriers, population, real GDP per capita, economic distances, and real exchange rates significantly affect export volumes. Keywords: Competitiveness, Exports, Horticulture, Gravity model

It is very important to understand horticulture of other countries neighboured in Pan-Pacific region for the better regional cooperation. Korea lies at the eastern extremity of Asia, having a typical temperate weather with four distinctive seasons. Her annual precipitation ranges from 900 to 1,300 mm, two thirds of which is concentrated during 3 months from June to August. Korea is a small (98,000 km2) and critically overpopulated (43 millions) country. Out of total 2.2 million hectares of cultivated land, about 453,000 ha. are under horticultural crop; 316,500 ha. for vegetables, 133,000 ha. for fruit trees and 3,500 ha. for ornamental crops. Twenty eight percent of average farm income was earned from horticultural crops. Horticultural farming in Korea is small in size but very labor intensive. Figures on per capita consumption and international trade of major horticultural crops will be presented. National organization for research, education and extension, and the Korean Society for Horticultural Science will be introduced.

Magister Artium - MA
Hunger is more than just a feeling, it is the lack of access to safe nutritious food, which in turn may result in anger towards government, low performance, sadness and a limited will to survive. Urban agriculture has been identified as a source of livelihood for many urban residents and could fundamentally change food insecure cities like Cape Town. The Philippi Horticultural Area (PHA) is one such place with an enormous amount of potential to assist the City of Cape Town (CCT) to overcome food insecurity challenges. The PHA is the focus of this thesis that aims to determine the impacts that housing and industrial developments in the PHA have had, and might have in the future, on food security in the Greater Cape Town Area (GCTA). The specific objectives of the study are as follows: (1) To investigate the urban agricultural distribution of the PHA; (2) to investigate agricultural facilitation, people empowerment and the use of land for agricultural purposes; (3) To determine the level of access to food for people within and around the PHA; and (4) To examine the links between the urban agricultural food sector and food production. Mixed method research was employed, hinging on the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) as the conceptual framework. Snowball sampling was used to select 68 participants who were interviewed. One key finding of the study showed that the PHA had a significant value to the participants, many of whom called the place ‘home’. Another finding is that urban agriculture provides fresh food produce to many local residents. In-depth discussions with officials and farmers, both commercial and small-scale farmers in the PHA, revealed that the PHA is a valuable portion of farmland, and contributes significantly towards food security in and around the PHA. With the use of the SLA as the conceptual framework, the study contributes towards other livelihood outcomes dependant on urban agriculture to improve access, availability and stability of food security within the PHA. Although urban agriculture is a minimal contributor to food security in the PHA, there are other benefits enjoyed by low-income communities such as food aid given by farmers to assist low-income housing communities, educational opportunities to enhance small growers in the PHA, small-scale community garden outreach and employment.

Desde a liberalização da economia em Moçambique, em 1987, o país está a passar por várias transformações políticas, econômicas e sociais. As mudanças que se operaram no país colocam desafios e oportunidades às famílias, que como forma de estabilizarem a sua renda e o consumo realizam uma série de atividades sobrevivência. Visando analisar as estratégias de sobrevivência e os mecanismos de redistribuição do Estado para com os produtores idosos no cinturão verde da Cidade de Maputo, a presente pesquisa quanti-qualitativa, usando uma amostra aleatória de 68 produtores, representando igual número de famílias nas Mahotas e Vale do Infulene é baseada na hipótese teórica de que o acesso aos ativos é decisivo para que as pessoas realizem as atividades que lhes permitem gerar a renda necessária para a sua sobrevivência; essa hipótese é baseada principalmente na abordagem dos Modos de Vida largamente utilizada nos estudos rurais nos países em desenvolvimento; no local a pesquisa procurou responder às questões: (i) quais as atividades e fontes de renda garantem a sobrevivência das famílias; (ii) qual a importância das diferentes atividades e fontes de renda na renda familiar; (iii) qual a relação entre a produção agrícola e as atividades que as famílias realizam fora da machamba; (iv) quais as formas de acesso à terra; (v) qual a ligação entre o crédito, assistência técnica e a diversificação agrícola; e (vi) quais os mecanismos de reciprocidade que asseguram a sobrevivência das famílias e como é esses mecanismos estão ligados às atividades econômicas. Os resultados indicam que a renda agrícola é fundamental para a sobrevivência familiar; ela representa 41% da renda média total familiar; no entanto, a renda agrícola estava correlacionada com os ganhos de emprego formal e as remessas da África do Sul, o que sugere que os ganhos na atividade agrícola podem estar sendo usados para a melhoria da produção agrícola; no entanto, apenas 19% das famílias tinham renda através do emprego formal; as diversas atividades informais de sobrevivência são segregadas em função da divisão biológica do sexo; no entanto, não houve diferenças significativas entre a renda hortícola dos homens e a renda das mulheres, o que sugere que as estratégias para aumentar a eficiência da produção agrícola não deviam ser orientadas pela divisão de sexos. As diversas formas de acesso à terra incluem: (i) a ocupação livre ou distribuição após a independência ou cheias de 2000- é a forma predominante (66%); (ii) a compra (43%); (iii) o aluguel (18%); (iv) a transmissão por herança (15%); e (v) a atribuição pelas associações (18%). Os diferentes mecanismos de acesso foram suficientes para alocar a terra aos produtores; por outro lado, a falta de título não constituía motivo para que os produtores de sentissem inseguros em relação à posse da terra; no entanto a falta de terra própria e família para ajudar eram interpretados como sinônimos de pobreza. O aceso ao crédito tem efeitos significativos na renda, porém apenas uma pequena parte dos produtores (38%) tinha recebido crédito; o xitique representa um mecanismo importante de proteção social e finanças informais, no entanto, não é suficiente para substituir a demanda pelo de crédito; no local, apesar de existir várias instituições de microcrédito, o acesso ao crédito dessas instituições pelos produtores tem muitas restrições. A assistência técnica através dos serviços de extensão rural ainda não se traduz em diferenças significativas na renda dos produtores; a maior parte dos produtores (79%) considera importante a diversificação da produção para a melhoria da renda; no entanto, o nível de diversificação produtiva é ainda baixo. Atualmente vários fatores impedem a realização do potencial de diversificação produtiva: (i) o medo de roubo de cultivos nas machambas; (ii) o receio de alagamento de cultivos; (iii) a falta de sistemas de irrigação e infraestruturas de comercialização; (iv) o menor tamanho das machambas; (v) a falta de sementes de qualidade; etc. A regressão múltipla entre a renda hortícola e a renda das atividades familiares fora da machamba indica que o aumento de 1% de renda fora da machamba pode produzir um aumento de 0,54% sobre a renda total; por outro lado, o aumento de 1% na renda hortícola pode produzir mais ou menos o mesmo impacto, o que sugere que as políticas de redução da pobreza no local devem ter uma característica dual; isto é, que por um lado promovam o desenvolvimento da agricultura enquanto ao mesmo tempo fortalecem o desenvolvimento das atividades fora da machamba. Os mecanismos de redistribuição do Estado para com os produtores idosos são deficientes.
Since liberalization of the economy in Mozambique in 1987, several changes are taking place in the country. This study is aiming to analyze livelihood strategies adopted by farmers and their families around Maputo city. For these purpose 68 farmers representing an equal number of families were selected randomly in Mahotas and Vale do Infulene. Using quantitative and qualitative methods the study tested the theoretical hypothesis that access to assets is critical for people to undertake productive activities that allow them to generate income for their survival, and that social networks and reciprocity play an important role on family development, and diversification of activities and sources of income is an households strategy to stabilize the income uncertainties. It sought to examine the relationship between agricultural production and non agriculture activities, the forms of access to land, access to credit and technical assistance, solidarity mechanisms and redistribution mechanisms used by the government for supporting elderly farmers. Results indicate that agricultural income is critically important for family survival, it represents around 41% of average total household income, however, the agricultural income were correlated with gains in formal employment and remittances from South Africa, which indicates that these sources may be used for improving agricultural production on the other hand, only 19% of households had an income through formal employment. Various forms of access to land were sufficient to allocate land to producers; extension assistance still does not translate into significant differences on farmer’s income, and the level of crop diversification is still low. Access to credit has significant effects on income, however, only a small proportion of farmers had received credit, the xitique represents an important social protection mechanism and informal finance, however, is not sufficient to replace the formal credit. Apart from agriculture, to ensure the survival and management of uncertainty of income, families perform a variety of informal activities, however activities are segregated by gender, there were no significant differences between male and female agricultural incomes suggesting that strategies to increase agricultural production efficiency should not be separated by biological division of sex. Forms of land access include: free distribution or occupation- is the predominant form (66%), purchasing (43%), rent (18%), the transmission by inheritance (15 %) and assignment by associations (18%). Lack of title does not represent tenure insecurity, however lack of land itself is perceived as synonymous of poverty. Multiple regression analysis indicates that an increase of 1% of income non agriculture income can produce an increase of 0.54% of total income, on the other hand, an increase of 1% horticultural income may produce more or less the same impact, which suggests that policies for poverty reduction should have a dual character, that is, on one hand to promote agriculture development while at the same time strengthen the development of non-farm activities. The social protection mechanisms used by government towards the elderly farmers are inefficient.

Mestrado em Agronomia Tropical e Desenvolvimento Sustentável - Instituto Superior de Agronomia
Cape Verde is largely dependent on overseas countries with regard to food. Local production is limited, but relevant to food security. This dissertation aims to study the role that agricultural production, namely horticulture, production of rainfed crops and production of sugar cane has on the producers income, food security and improving the quality of life of households. We conducted a case study in the municipality of Ribeira Grande, island of Santo Antão. Surveys were conducted in the localities of Ribeirão and Garça de Cima (105 family household), equally distributed among horticulture farmers, producers of sugar cane and rainfed farmers. It was found that sugar cane producers have a median annual income greater than that of horticulture and rainfed farmers (402154, 337602 and 259764 cape verdeans escudos, respectively). In terms of quality of life indicators horticulture farmers and sugar cane producers have similar results, superior to the rainfed crops systems. In regard to nutritional status, the differences are not relevant. Horticulture farmers have a calorie intake of 2959.71, rainfed producers 2926.65 and producers of sugar cane 2888.86 kcal/EH/d. Regarding protein consumption, horticulture farmers have an intake of 103.12, rainfed farmers of 97.23 and sugar cane producers of 92.05 g/EH/d.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Agriculture)) --University of Limpopo (Turfloop Campus), 2008
A large number of emerging farmers in South Africa is involved in subsistence agriculture as a result of poor resource endowment or due to other constraints. Relatively few agricultural products from emerging farmers reach the formal agricultural market. Livestock production is common among emerging farmers and a large proportion of the national livestock is in the hands of the rural poor. Horticultural crops are generally perishable and require immediate disposal, thus implying that the farmers who produce horticultural crops do so with intention to sell their products. Most studies tend to group farmers regardless of their line of production. Only few studies have attempted to investigate the socioeconomic characteristics of farmers, differentiating the commodities that they produce. The objective of this study is to identify and compare the socioeconomic characteristics that determine the farm income of the emerging livestock farmers and horticultural farmers in South Africa. Such an analysis would allow more targeted policy responses for different groups of emerging farmers. The data used in this study consisted of 202 livestock farmers and 126 horticultural farmers selected through quota sample covering all nine provinces in South Africa. The data were collected by the Development Bank of Southern Africa in 2005. Descriptive Analysis and Discriminant Analysis are applied to determine the factors that matter the most in determining incomes of livestock and horticultural farmers. Farm iv income is used as the dependent variable, and fourteen independent variables were identified. The factors that matter the most in determining livestock farmers’ income are, namely access to finance, farm size, age of the household head, membership to farmer organizations and government support. The factors that matter most in determining horticultural farmer’s income are namely farm size, age of the household head, land type (land ownership), and extension services. The results of this study showed that access to land and age of the household head matter the most to both livestock and horticultural farmers. The study found that poor access to land is one of the major constraints facing emerging farmers in South Africa. Land is also one of the factors that may determine the amount of credit the emerging farmers can obtain and, if farmers produce on communal land, it becomes harder to obtain credit. Memberships to farmer’s organisations, government support and access to finance are characteristics that matter the most to livestock and do not seem to matter that much to horticultural farmers. Farmer organisations often lobby for collective provision of appropriate and needed services for their membership. The services that are often lobbied for are services such as extension, marketing and provision of training to empower women and young people so as to enable them to participate fully in farming activities. The results of this study show that there are differences in socio-economic characteristics that matter the most in determining farm income for livestock and horticulture farmers. v Horticulture farmers should be given much support to improve access to get enough land and training while in livestock farming assistance focus should be on access to finance and support services. vi

Mestrado em Engenharia Agronómica - Instituto Superior de Agronomia
The agriculture in Cape Verde is characterized by low and irregular productivity and it can not produce more than 20% of the food needs of the country, where food insecurity and poverty are closely linked to the weakness of the productive base. The horticulture is considered as one of the most profitable, with an important role in food security and the familie´s budget. The main purpose of this present dissertation is the study of the importance of horticulture in the families’ income and food security, through vegetables sale and consumption. A case study was made of the families with and without horticultural production in Fogo island in Cape Verde and it was proved that the households with irrigation have a highly superior annual income than the households without irrigation, and that horticulture had a remarkable contribution to that of that income. In terms of nutrition it was proved that within household’s facilities with irrigated land results in a higher caloric consumption towards those without irrigation. It was also proved that household’s facilities with irrigated land results in a more diversified nourishment, either by the daily frequency of vegetables and/or fruit consumption as well as respective consumption per capita.

Zimbabwe is a semi-arid country reliant on regular rains (November-April). Mean annual rainfall is low, and many rivers in the drier parts of the country are not perennial. In the small-scale horticultural sector, irrigation becomes handy. Rainfall exhibits spatial and temporal variability. This scenario is characterized by shifts in the onset of rains, increases in frequency and intensity of heavy rainfall events, increases in the proportion of low rainfall years, decreases in low-intensity rainfall events, and increases in the frequency and intensity of mid-season dry spells. Drought have increased in frequency and intensity. Agriculture is the main source of income for most smallholder farmers who depend on rain-fed cropping and livestock rearing. Adaptation of agriculture to climate variability and change impacts is vital for livelihood. To develop appropriate strategies and institutional responses to climate change adaptation, a clear understanding of climate change impacts on smallholder farmers at farm-level is vital.

Although the manufacturing sector is known to have a unique role in structural transformation, the industries without smokestacks that include tradable services (e.g. IT, tourism, and transport), horticulture, and agro-industry can provide new opportunities for export development in low-income countries and in turn drive economic growth. With vast natural and man-made tourist attractions and diversified agroecological advantage, Ethiopia is particularly well positioned to exploit the opportunities in industries without smokestacks. This study takes the case of Ethiopia and examines the current state and contribution of the industries without smokestacks to the economy and exports with the aim of improving our understanding of the major bottlenecks and solutions to unlocking the potential of these industries. It gives special attention to the horticulture and tourism industries, given the huge unexploited potential of these sectors in Ethiopia.

After maize, the commercial cultivation of jalapeño chili (Capsicum annuum L.; henceforth, jalapeño or chili) is the most important land use in the southern Yucatán peninsular region in terms of the numbers of farmers engaged in the practice and the total area devoted to it. Chili surpasses all other land uses in the way that it ties the region to the national economy and the way that it has altered household economies and land use. Open-backed semi-trailers and large pick-up trucks crowd the paved roads of the region between October and the end of January laden with large bags of jalapeños taken on the way to central gathering areas and, ultimately, the central wholesale market in Mexico City (Fig. 10.1). The flow of chili at this time is so large that even the casual observer would have little problem concurring with Uc Reyes’s (1999: 4.24) claims that ‘su cultivo [chile] constituye la más importante fuente de ingreso para los productores hortícolas de la entidad, además es generador de empleos para los trabajadores del campo.’ (Its cultivation constitutes the most important source of income for horticultural producers, and generates jobs for field workers.) The spread of the jalapeño describes how farmers adopt new crops, change their agriculture, and ultimately change their livelihood. It also teaches how land covers—forest, savanna, and farm field—can travel a new trajectory over a relatively short period of time, changing not only the way a region or landscape looks but the way it is viewed (Gudeman 1978; Watts and Goodman 1997). These changes began in 1975 when colonizing farmers arrived from a traditional chili-growing zone—the Chiapas/Veracruz border—and introduced its commercial cultivation. After the first year they recruited national intermediaries or middlemen (in Spanish: coyote) to purchase and transport their product to the national market in Mexico City. Observing the success of the first jalapeño pioneers, other smallholders began to adopt the practice. Today, the south-central portion of the study region is called the zonas chileras (chile-growing zones); about 85 per cent of the smallholders there cultivate chili on as much as 7,500ha, usually on small plots, about 1.5ha on average (mean = 1.42 ha).

The chapter begins with a history of agricultural policy in India. It goes on to argue that policies aimed at improving outcomes within agriculture alone cannot bring prosperity to those engaged in it. Today, agriculture employs 44 percent of India’s workforce but produces at most 17 percent of GDP. With the overall GDP per capita itself low, agricultural output per worker is extremely low, indicating gross underemployment of labor. Therefore, marketing reforms that shift prices in favor of the farmer and against intermediaries cannot go very far. With self-sufficiency in agriculture, increases in productivity will likely result in lower prices rather than higher revenues. Besides, agricultural growth rarely exceeds 4.5 percent over even a decade-long period. Scope for increased incomes through diversification within agriculture into horticulture, fisheries, and animal husbandry is also limited. The upshot is that the only avenue to increasing agricultural incomes rapidly is to pave the way for half or more of the farm workforce to migrate into industry and services.

An early stylized fact of development economics is that low-income countries have large differences in output per worker across sectors, and the movement of workers from low- to high-productivity sectors—structural transformation—is a key driver of growth. Historically, manufacturing has been the key driver of structural transformation. It can employ large numbers of unskilled workers, is capable of productivity gains and produces tradeable products allowing economies of scale and specialization. But manufacturing growth in Africa has lagged behind other regions, leading some observers to question Africa’s ability to catch up. This view overlooks such emerging industries as ICT, tourism, food processing, horticulture, and new services exports, which share many characteristics with manufacturing. These “industries without smokestacks” are beginning to propel growth in Africa much as traditional manufacturing did in other, fast growing regions.

Mango (Mangifera indica Linn) plays a central role as fruit crop among the horticultural fruits in Mali. Mali is among the largest mango producers in West Africa and among the fastest growing mango exporters in the world. The volume of mangoes produced is estimated at 575000 tons per year. Mango production is an important socio-economic activity in Mali, providing employment in rural areas and income through exportation. The study focused on marketing channels of mango famers in Mali. The secondary data were used to investigate marketing channels of mango in Mali. This paper consists of three parts. In the first part, the socio-economic characteristics of mango farmers in Mali were explained. In the second part, information about the development of Mango production and trade in Mali was given. In the third part, marketing channels of Mango farmers were examined. In general, it is difficult to say that Mango marketing channels operate effectively in Mali. The ineffectiveness of marketing channels occurs mostly at the local market level. It is important to strengthen the marketing infrastructure for Mango's marketing channels in Mali to be more effective. The government of Mali needs to implement a special incentive program, especially for wholesalers, who play an important role in increasing post-harvest losses. There is a need for financial support and training of wholesalers during the transportation, storage and processing of fresh mango. It is also important to extend these supports for mango producers.

This paper synthesises the available literature on the forms, prevalence and drivers of children’s work, and evidence of harm associated with children’s work in shallot production on the Keta Peninsula, Ghana. What emerges is that children have historically played, and continue to play, a key role in this horticultural system and their work contribution is structured by both age and gender. Desires to support parents and earn income drive children’s involvement, and children’s work has potential negative effects on their education.