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1

Brimicombe, N. W. "Modelling hot air balloons." Physics Education 26, no. 4 (July 1991): 238–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9120/26/4/007.

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2

Hexom, Shelley. "Incorporate Hot Air Balloons Into Your Event." Special Events Galore 16, no. 2 (January 21, 2016): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/speg.30269.

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3

Weber, Robert J., and M. Jenice French. "Inventiveness of Inventions: Forks, Phonographs and Hot Air Balloons." Physics Teacher 33, no. 8 (November 1995): 541. http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.2344293.

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4

Watson, Steven M., and Russ Price. "Hot air balloons fill gap in atmospheric and sensing platforms." Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 77, no. 32 (1996): 305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/96eo00215.

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5

Das, Tuhin, Ranjan Mukherjee, and Jonathan Cameron. "Optimal Trajectory Planning for Hot-Air Balloons in Linear Wind Fields." Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics 26, no. 3 (May 2003): 416–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.2514/2.5079.

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6

Kuriniy, S. M., M. M. Krivorotov, and E. A. Baranichenko. "Peculiarities of using hot-air balloons in tests of parachute systems." VESTNIK of Samara University. Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering 16, no. 3 (November 23, 2017): 76. http://dx.doi.org/10.18287/2541-7533-2017-16-3-76-80.

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7

Galvin, J. F. P. "Forecasting for hot-air balloons and airships in the Midlands of England." Meteorological Applications 6, no. 4 (December 1999): 351–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1350482799001292.

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8

Austerfield, Peter J. "From hot air to hydrogen: filling and flying the early gas balloons." Endeavour 14, no. 4 (January 1990): 194–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0160-9327(90)90044-r.

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9

Cruz, Felipe Fernandes. "Hacking Airspace: The Insurgent Technology of Brazil's Hot Air Balloons, 1970–Present." Technology and Culture 62, no. 1 (2021): 27–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/tech.2021.0001.

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10

Folkes, J. "Balloons, airships and kites – lighter than air: past, present and future." Aeronautical Journal 112, no. 1133 (July 2008): 421–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0001924000002384.

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Abstract One hundred years on from the advent of aeronautics at Queen Mary, University of London, developments in lighter than air technology have progressed at a somewhat slower pace than the technology for heavier than air. Innovations afforded by the ‘discovery’ of helium, the development of the modern day hot air balloon and the application of new materials have all contributed to today’s technical innovations. A review is given of the past history of lighter than air, a note is made of the current state of the art and a brief overview of future applications is discussed. The author’s personal experience in long distance gas balloon flights is mentioned.
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11

Barak, Moshe, and Eli Raz. "Hot-air balloons: Project-centered study as a bridge between science and technology education." Science Education 84, no. 1 (January 2000): 27–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1098-237x(200001)84:1<27::aid-sce3>3.0.co;2-8.

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12

Bowman, Daniel C., Paul E. Norman, Michael T. Pauken, Sarah A. Albert, Darielle Dexheimer, Xiao Yang, Siddharth Krishnamoorthy, Attila Komjathy, and James A. Cutts. "Multihour Stratospheric Flights with the Heliotrope Solar Hot-Air Balloon." Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 37, no. 6 (June 2020): 1051–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jtech-d-19-0175.1.

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AbstractStandard meteorological balloons can deliver small scientific payloads to the stratosphere for a few tens of minutes, but achieving multihour level flight in this region is more difficult. We have developed a solar-powered hot-air balloon named the heliotrope that can maintain a nearly constant altitude in the upper troposphere–lower stratosphere as long as the sun is above the horizon. It can accommodate scientific payloads ranging from hundreds of grams to several kilograms. The balloon can achieve float altitudes exceeding 24 km and fly for days in the Arctic summer, although sunset provides a convenient flight termination mechanism at lower latitudes. Two people can build an envelope in about 3.5 h, and the materials cost about $30. The low cost and simplicity of the heliotrope enables a class of missions that is generally out of reach of institutions lacking specialized balloon expertise. Here, we discuss the design history, construction techniques, trajectory characteristics, and flight prediction of the heliotrope balloon. We conclude with a discussion of the physics of solar hot-air balloon flight.
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13

Rogulski, Mariusz. "The use of low-cost measuring devices for testing air quality in hard-to-reach locations." E3S Web of Conferences 44 (2018): 00151. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20184400151.

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Air quality assessment is traditionally carried out by ground monitoring. With the development of technology and the creation of small, low-cost sensors, it became possible to effectively study lower tropospheric layers by using light aircraft and balloons. The article presents the use of designed small, portable devices using low-cost dust sensors to research air pollutants with using a hot air balloon. The results of measurements of PM10 concentration using tethered balloon flights and during free flight are presented.
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14

Louchev, Oleg A. "Steady state model for the thermal regimes of shells of airships and hot air balloons." International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 35, no. 10 (October 1992): 2683–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0017-9310(92)90109-6.

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15

Gaskin, J. A., I. S. Smith, and W. V. Jones. "Introduction." Journal of Astronomical Instrumentation 03, no. 02 (November 2014): 1403001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s2251171714030019.

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In 1783, the Montgolfier brothers ushered in a new era of transportation and exploration when they used hot air to drive an un-tethered balloon to an altitude of ~2 km. Made of sackcloth and held together with cords, this balloon challenged the way we thought about human travel, and it has since evolved into a robust platform for performing novel science and testing new technologies. Today, high-altitude balloons regularly reach altitudes of 40 km, and they can support payloads that weigh more than 3000 kg. Long-duration balloons can currently support mission durations lasting ~55 days, and developing balloon technologies (i.e. Super-Pressure Balloons) are expected to extend that duration to 100 days or longer; competing with satellite payloads. This relatively inexpensive platform supports a broad range of science payloads, spanning multiple disciplines (astrophysics, heliophysics, planetary and earth science). Applications extending beyond traditional science include testing new technologies for eventual space-based application and stratospheric airships for planetary applications.
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16

Baudin, Rodolphe. "Aeromania and Enlightenment: The Politics of Hot Air Balloons in Karamzin's "Letters of a Russian Traveler"." ВИВЛIОθИКА: E-Journal of Eighteenth-Century Russian Studies 7 (November 19, 2020): 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.21900/j.vivliofika.v7.606.

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This paper focuses on Karamzin’s depiction, in Letters of a Russian Traveler, of Abbé Miolan’s failed hot air balloon flight in Paris in July 1784. After briefly tracing the history of aeromania in late eighteenth-century France and England, as well as its contemporary Russian reception, notably by Catherine the Great, the paper identifies Karamzin’s sources of information on the event and analyses the reasons why the Russian writer mentioned it in his travelogue. It demonstrates that Karamzin’s depiction of a physical experiment embodying European capacity for innovation in the late eighteenth century was not an expression of scientific curiosity. Instead, the young writer used the episode as a metaphor of social and political management, in order to reflect on the questions of social autonomy and the relation of the enlightened public with State power in both France and Russia. By depicting Miolan’s failed flight as a condemnable nuissance to public order, reminiscent of the revolutionary trouble he had witnessed during his journey through France, Karamzin showed his endorsement of Catherine’s conservative conception of the Enlightenment. By depicting how the French public sphere dealt with Miolan and possibly implicitly comparing it with the way Catherine had dealt with Radishchev, he nevertheless showed the superiority of self-regulation over political violence in managing the nobility’s growing longing for autonomy.
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17

Edwards, Paul. "Heidegger's Quest for Being." Philosophy 64, no. 250 (October 1989): 437–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031819100044235.

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An almost unbelievable amount of false philosophy has arisen through not realizing what ‘existence’ means…. [It] rests upon the notion that existence is, so to speak, a property that you can attribute to things, and that the things that exist have the property of existence and the things that do not exist do not. That is rubbish (Bertrand Russell).I have dared to puncture several metaphysical balloons and nothing came out of them but hot air (Voltaire).
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18

Langer, Johannes. "Are Truth Commissions Just Hot-Air Balloons? A Reality Check on the Impact of Truth Commission Recommendations." Desafíos 29, no. 1 (April 7, 2017): 177. http://dx.doi.org/10.12804/revistas.urosario.edu.co/desafios/a.4866.

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Las comisiones de la verdad (CDV), ampliamente reconocidas como herramientas clave de los mecanismos de justicia transicional (MJT), tienen el objetivo de lograr verdad, justicia y reconciliación después de dictaduras o conflictos violentos. Sin embargo, los actores políticos que promueven estos mecanismos no han, a menudo, ejercido una adecuada reflexión crítica sobre las medidas políticas sugeridas. Por el contrario, suelen argumentar desde puntos de vistas normativos, desestimando pruebas empíricas reales. Durante la última década, se ha debatido si los MJT funcionan realmente y qué impacto tienen. Partiendo de tres casos específicos (Kenia, Sierra Leona y Timor Oriental), este trabajo analiza la (no) aplicación de las recomendaciones resultantes de informes finales de CDV creadas después de conflictos armados. El trabajo se centra en el impacto de las comisiones de la verdad con respecto a la democracia, paz y reforma institucional, para averiguar qué impacto real tienen las CDV. El análisis sigue de cerca el enfoque cuadripartito de Skaar, Maica y Eide (2015) para medir el impacto de las CDV y muestra sus posibilidades y limitaciones.
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19

Guevara, Benjamin G. "Editorial Commentary: Balloons for Rotator Cuff Tears: A Viable Treatment or Just a Bunch of Hot Air?" Arthroscopy: The Journal of Arthroscopic & Related Surgery 37, no. 2 (February 2021): 487–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.arthro.2020.11.018.

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20

Pérez, Percy Poquis, Brian Meneses Claudio, and Alexi Delgado. "Design of a Hot Air Balloons for Wireless Internet Transmission in Awajún Communities in Huampami, Amazonas-Perú." International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering 11, no. 9 (September 20, 2021): 55–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.46338/ijetae0921_07.

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Abstract— One of the problems that causes educational inequality is the lack of access to Internet service, this is what happens in the Awajún communities in Huampami Amazonas– Perú, a remote area abandoned by the Peruvian state where Internet access is scarce. According to the province, at the primary level, in Condorcanqui only 5.29% have access to the internet, while at the secondary level 32.43% have access to the Internet service. That is why in this research work, it is proposed to bring the internet service through a point-to-point link using hot air balloons, because this wireless technology has a better performance in terms of service availability, latency, and transmission speed. Finally, through the Radio Mobile software and Google Earth, the simulation of the point-to-point link is carried out where a line of sight is obtained as a result, which indicates that it is feasible to make a radio link, in addition a reception level of - 49.8 dBm and a distance between the two points of 7.79km, it is also determined that the hot air balloon must be at a height of 90 meters for the coverage to be greater. Keywords— Education; Point to Point Link; Radio Mobile; rural zone; radiolink
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21

Maruca, Bennett A., Raffaele Marino, David Sundkvist, Niharika H. Godbole, Stephane Constantin, Vincenzo Carbone, and Herb Zimmerman. "Overview of and first observations from the TILDAE High-Altitude Balloon Mission." Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 10, no. 4 (April 26, 2017): 1595–607. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amt-10-1595-2017.

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Abstract. Though the presence of intermittent turbulence in the stratosphere has been well established, much remains unknown about it. In situ observations of this phenomenon, which have provided the greatest details of it, have mostly been achieved via sounding balloons (i.e., small balloons which burst at peak altitude) carrying constant-temperature hot-wire anemometers (CTAs). The Turbulence and Intermittency Long-Duration Atmospheric Experiment (TILDAE) was developed to test a new paradigm for stratospheric observations. Rather than flying on a sounding balloon, TILDAE was incorporated as an add-on experiment to the payload of a NASA long-duration balloon mission that launched in January 2016 from McMurdo Station, Antarctica. Furthermore, TILDAE's key instrument was a sonic anemometer, which (relative to a CTA) provides better-calibrated measurements of wind velocity and a more robust separation of velocity components. During the balloon's ascent, TILDAE's sonic anemometer provided atmospheric measurements up to an altitude of about 18 km, beyond which the ambient air pressure was too low for the instrument to function properly. Efforts are currently underway to scientifically analyze these observations of small-scale fluctuations in the troposphere, tropopause, and stratosphere and to develop strategies for increasing the maximum operating altitude of the sonic anemometer.
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22

Gregg, Jeff, and Diana Underwood Gregg. "A Context for Integer Computation." Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School 13, no. 1 (August 2007): 46–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.5951/mtms.13.1.0046.

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The National Research Council (2001) notes that a variety of metaphors have been used to introduce negative numbers in school, “including elevators, thermometers, debts and assets, losses and gains, hot air balloons, postman stories, pebbles in a bag, and directed arrows on a number line” (p. 245). In addition, standard textbooks have typically employed either a chip model, where positive integers are represented by black chips and negative integers by red chips; a charged-field model, showing +/−; or a number-line model. Some contexts or models are not really metaphors because, for example, negative numbers do occur in temperatures, in accounting, and in some sports scoring (e.g., scores under par in golf). However, these contexts become metaphorical when they are used to model arithmetical operations with integers. Each model or context must construct a scenario that makes it plausible to explain, for instance, why subtracting an integer is the same as adding its opposite or why a negative times a negative is a positive.
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23

Goel, S., and B. Lohani. "Error analysis of motion correction method for laser scanning of moving objects." ISPRS Annals of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences II-5 (May 28, 2014): 139–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprsannals-ii-5-139-2014.

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The limitation of conventional laser scanning methods is that the objects being scanned should be static. The need of scanning moving objects has resulted in the development of new methods capable of generating correct 3D geometry of moving objects. Limited literature is available showing development of very few methods capable of catering to the problem of object motion during scanning. All the existing methods utilize their own models or sensors. Any studies on error modelling or analysis of any of the motion correction methods are found to be lacking in literature. In this paper, we develop the error budget and present the analysis of one such ‘motion correction’ method. This method assumes availability of position and orientation information of the moving object which in general can be obtained by installing a POS system on board or by use of some tracking devices. It then uses this information along with laser scanner data to apply correction to laser data, thus resulting in correct geometry despite the object being mobile during scanning. The major application of this method lie in the shipping industry to scan ships either moving or parked in the sea and to scan other objects like hot air balloons or aerostats. It is to be noted that the other methods of "motion correction" explained in literature can not be applied to scan the objects mentioned here making the chosen method quite unique. This paper presents some interesting insights in to the functioning of "motion correction" method as well as a detailed account of the behavior and variation of the error due to different sensor components alone and in combination with each other. The analysis can be used to obtain insights in to optimal utilization of available components for achieving the best results.
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24

Satir, Tanzer, and Bhaskar Kura. "Ship Ballast Water Management in Turkish Ports and Waterways." Marine Technology Society Journal 45, no. 2 (March 1, 2011): 23–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.4031/mtsj.45.2.6.

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AbstractThe introduction of invasive marine species into a new environment by ballast water attached to ship hulls has been identified as one of the four greatest threats to the world’s oceans. The other three are land-based sources of marine pollution, overexploitation of living marine resources, and physical alteration/destruction of marine habitat. Ballast is any material used to add weight to balance an object. One example includes the sandbags carried on conventional hot air balloons, which can be discarded to lighten the balloon’s load, allowing it to ascend. Ballast water is water carried by ships to ensure stability, trim, and structural integrity. Shipping moves over 80% of the world’s commodities and transfers approximately 3‐5 billion tons of ballast water internationally each year. A similar volume may also be transferred domestically within countries and regions each year. Ballast water is absolutely essential to the safe and efficient operation of modern shipping, providing balance and stability to unladen ships. However, it may also pose a serious ecological, economical, and health threat to the marine environment.Turkey is a Eurasian country that stretches across the Anatolian peninsula in western Asia and southeastern Europe. Turkey is surrounded by three seas: the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, and the Aegean Sea. The Turkish straits that separate Europe and Asia are one of the busiest waterways of the world. Turkey has several ports and berthing facilities. The number of ships coming to ports or passing through the straits has been increasing in the last decade. Half of these ships are carrying ballast water. Turkey has not ratified the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments (BWM) as yet but will soon prepare ballast water strategies. This paper discusses two different topics: ship ballast water management strategies and treatment technologies. The authors recommend the best strategies for prevention of ship ballast water pollution in the Turkish straits and ports.
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25

"Forks, phonographs, and hot air balloons: a field guide to inventive thinking." Choice Reviews Online 30, no. 11 (July 1, 1993): 30–6203. http://dx.doi.org/10.5860/choice.30-6203.

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26

Meneguz-Moreno, Rafael A., J. Ribamar Costa, and Alexandre Abizaid. "Drug-Coated Balloons: Hope or Hot Air: Update on the Role of Coronary DCB." Current Cardiology Reports 20, no. 10 (August 31, 2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11886-018-1025-4.

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27

Garcia, Raphaël F., L. Martire, Y. Chaigneau, A. Cadu, D. Mimoun, M. Bassas Portus, A. Sournac, et al. "An active source seismo-acoustic experiment using tethered balloons to validate instrument concepts and modelling tools for atmospheric seismology." Geophysical Journal International, December 12, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggaa589.

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Summary The measurements of acoustic waves created by a quake are of great interest for planets with hot and dense atmospheres, like Venus, because surface deployments of seismometers will last only a few hours whereas free flying balloons could fly many days. Infrasound sensors can also be used to constrain sub-surface properties during active seismic experiments. This study presents a controlled source seismo-acoustic experiment using infrasonic sensors and accelerometers mounted on a tethered helium balloon. Both the acoustic waves generated below the balloon by seismic surface waves, and the ones generated by strong ground motions above the seismic source are clearly observed and separated on the records of the various instruments. This data set allows various validations and investigations. First, it validates the ground to air coupling theory and our numerical modelling tools. Then, it allows us to demonstrate that antenna processing of infrasound sensors deployed below the balloon can estimate the arrival incidence angle of the acoustic waves within 10○. Finally, a polarization analysis of the accelerometers taped on the balloon envelope is presented. It demonstrates that accelerometer records are strongly dependent on their location on the balloon due to its deformations and rotations. However the different acoustic signals can be distinguished through their polarization, and a best sensor location is estimated at the bottom of the balloon envelope. These results are a first step towards detecting and locating seismic activity using airborne acoustic sensors on Venus and elsewhere. However, some observations of earthquake signals in a more realistic geometry are still missing.
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28

Cooke, Melinda. "Ocean Meets Sky by T. Fan." Deakin Review of Children's Literature 8, no. 4 (May 16, 2019). http://dx.doi.org/10.20361/dr29446.

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Fan, Terry. Ocean Meets Sky. Illustrated by Eric & Terry Fan, Simon and Schuster Books for Young Readers, 2018. In this poetic and beautifully illustrated book by the Fan Brothers, readers are invited into a young child’s world of imagination. Finn lives by the ocean and on the morning of what would have been his Grandfather’s 90th birthday, he gazes out to the sea and remembers the words of his Grandfather, “It’s a good day for sailing.” As six year olds are apt to do, he begins to build a boat. Finn’s boat is “hard work,” but takes him on a magical and mystical journey. Finn’s world becomes more fantastical and the illustrations more surreal with each turning page. When he “finally reaches the place of his grandfather’s stories,” there are no longer any words. Instead one enters into a silence and stillness found not only in the depths of the ocean but in space above. The authors reinforce this silence by imposing pictures of noiseless conveyances, such as hot air balloons, zeppelins and ancient ships over the picture of a great blue whale. This wordless portion of the book not only allows the reader to bring their own stories to the pictures, but celebrates the orality of the Grandfather’s stories by not limiting them to a predetermined text. What Ocean Meets Sky so poignantly depicts is the sadness and loneliness Finn feels at missing his Grandfather. When he states, “I didn’t think the open sea would be so lonely,” one cannot help but be reminded of Max’s similar look of despondency in Where the Wild Things Are, when he sends the wild things to bed, “without any supper.” And like Max, once Finn resolves his inner turmoil, he is able to return home to “a voice calling to him from far away.” He says goodbye to his Grandfather, whose face is superimposed onto the moon. It is a bittersweet illustration, showing Finn’s love in the smallest gesture of a waving hand. The book is suitable for readers between four and eight years of age. However the story and illustrations have such depth that I would not hesitate to read it with older children or encourage them to explore it on their own. The Fan Brothers are both alumni of the Ontario college of Art and Design and their detailed and enchanting illustrations make the book worthwhile for readers of all ages. Highly recommended: 4 out of 4 starsReviewer: Melinda Cooke Melinda Cooke has been an elementary school teacher for many years. She loves sharing books with her students and delights in the stories as much as her students.
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Almila, Anna-Mari. "Fabricating Effervescence." M/C Journal 24, no. 1 (March 15, 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.5204/mcj.2741.

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Introduction In November 2020, upon learning that the company’s Covid-19 vaccine trial had been successful, the head of Pfizer’s Vaccine Research and Development, Kathrin Jansen, celebrated with champagne – “some really good stuff” (Cohen). Bubbles seem to go naturally with celebration, and champagne is fundamentally associated with bubbles. Yet, until the late-seventeenth century, champagne was a still wine, and it only reached the familiar levels of bubbliness in the late-nineteenth century (Harding). During this period and on into the early twentieth century, “champagne” was in many ways created, defined, and defended. A “champagne bubble” was created, within which the “nature” of champagne was contested and constructed. Champagne today is the result of hundreds of years of labour by many sorts of bubble-makers: those who make the bubbly drink, and those who construct, maintain, and defend the champagne bubble. In this article, I explore some elements of the champagne bubble, in order to understand both its fragility and rigidity over the years and today. Creating the Champagne Bubble – the Labour of Centuries It is difficult to separate the physical from the mythical as regards champagne. Therefore the categorisations below are always overlapping, and embedded in legal, political, economic, and socio-cultural factors. Just as assemblage – the mixing of wine from different grapes – is an essential element of champagne wine, the champagne bubble may be called heterogeneous assemblage. Indeed, the champagne bubble, as we will see below, is a myriad of different sorts of bubbles, such as terroir, appellation, myth and brand. And just as any assemblage, its heterogeneous elements exist and operate in relation to each other. Therefore the “champagne bubble” discussed here is both one and many, all of its elements fundamentally interconnected, constituting that “one” known as “champagne”. It is not my intention to be comprehensive of all the elements, historical and contemporary. Indeed, that would not be possible within such a short article. Instead, I seek to demonstrate some of the complexity of the champagne bubble, noting the elaborate labour that has gone into its creation. The Physical Champagne and Champagne – from Soil to Bubbles Champagne means both a legally protected geographical area (Champagne), and the wine (here: champagne) produced in this area from grapes defined as acceptable: most importantly pinot noir, pinot meunier (“black” grapes), and chardonnay (“white” grape). The method of production, too, is regulated and legally protected: méthode champenoise. Although the same method is used in numerous locations, these must be called something different: metodo classico (Italy), método tradicional (Spain), Methode Cap Classique (South Africa). The geographical area of Champagne was first legally defined in 1908, when it only included the areas of Marne and Aisne, leaving out, most importantly, the area of Aube. This decision led to severe unrest and riots, as the Aube vignerons revolted in 1911, forcing the inclusion of “zone 2”: Aube, Haute-Marne, and Seine-et-Marne (Guy). Behind these regulations was a surge in fraudulent production in the early twentieth century, as well as falling wine prices resulting from increasing supply of cheap wines (Colman 18). These first appellations d’origine had many consequences – they proved financially beneficial for the “zone 1”, but less so for the “zone 2”. When both these areas were brought under the same appellation in 1927, the financial benefits were more limited – but this may have been due to the Great Depression triggered in 1929 (Haeck et al.). It is a long-standing belief that the soil and climate of Champagne are key contributors to the quality of champagne wines, said to be due to “conditions … most suitable for making this type of wine” (Simon 11). Already in the end of the nineteenth century, the editor of Vigneron champenois attributed champagne’s quality to “a fortunate combination of … chalky soil … [and] unrivalled exposure [to the sun]” (Guy 119) among other things. Factors such as soil and climate, commonly included in and expressed through the idea of terroir, undoubtedly influence grapes and wines made thereof, but the extent remains unproven. Indeed, terroir itself is a very contested concept (Teil; Inglis and Almila). It is also the case that climate change has had, and will continue to have, devastating effects on wine production in many areas, while benefiting others. The highly successful English sparkling wine production, drawing upon know-how from the Champagne area, has been enabled by the warming climate (Inglis), while Champagne itself is at risk of becoming too hot (Robinson). Champagne is made through a process more complicated than most wines. I present here the bare bones of it, to illustrate the many challenges that had to be overcome to enable its production in the scale we see today. Freshly picked grapes are first pressed and the juice is fermented. Grape juice contains natural yeasts and therefore will ferment spontaneously, but fermentation can also be started with artificial yeasts. In fermentation, alcohol and carbon dioxide (CO2) are formed, but the latter usually escapes the liquid. The secret of champagne is its second fermentation, which happens in bottles, after wines from different grapes and/or vineyards have been blended for desired characteristics (assemblage). For the second fermentation, yeast and sugar are added. As the fermentation happens inside a bottle, the CO2 that is created does not escape, but dissolves into the wine. The average pressure inside a champagne bottle in serving temperature is around 5 bar – 5 times the pressure outside the bottle (Liger-Belair et al.). The obvious challenge this method poses has to do with managing the pressure. Exploding bottles used to be a common problem, and the manner of sealing bottles was not very developed, either. Seventeenth-century developments in bottle-making, and using corks to seal bottles, enabled sparkling wines to be produced in the first place (Leszczyńska; Phillips 137). Still today, champagne comes in heavy-bottomed bottles, sealed with characteristically shaped cork, which is secured with a wire cage known as muselet. Scientific innovations, such as calculating the ideal amount of sugar for the second fermentation in 1836, also helped to control the amount of gas formed during the second fermentation, thus making the behaviour of the wine more predictable (Leszczyńska 265). Champagne is characteristically a “manufactured” wine, as it involves several steps of interference, from assemblage to dosage – sugar added for flavour to most champagnes after the second fermentation (although there are also zero dosage champagnes). This lends champagne particularly suitable for branding, as it is possible to make the wine taste the same year after year, harvest after harvest, and thus create a distinctive and recognisable house style. It is also possible to make champagnes for different tastes. During the nineteenth century, champagnes of different dosage were made for different markets – the driest for the British, the sweetest for the Russians (Harding). Bubbles are probably the most striking characteristic of champagne, and they are enabled by the complicated factors described above. But they are also formed when the champagne is poured in a glass. Natural impurities on the surface of the glass provide channels through which the gas pockets trapped in the wine can release themselves, forming strains of rising bubbles (Liger-Belair et al.). Champagne glasses have for centuries differed from other wine glasses, often for aesthetic reasons (Harding). The bubbles seem to do more than give people aesthetic pleasure and sensory experiences. It is often claimed that champagne makes you drunk faster than other drinks would, and there is, indeed, some (limited) research showing that this may well be the case (Roberts and Robinson; Ridout et al.). The Mythical Champagne – from Dom Pérignon to Modern Wonders Just as the bubbles in a champagne glass are influenced by numerous forces, so the metaphorical champagne bubble is subject to complex influences. Myth-creation is one of the most significant of these. The origin of champagne as sparkling wine is embedded in the myth of Dom Pérignon of Hautvillers monastery (1638–1715), who according to the legend would have accidentally developed the bubbles, and then enthusiastically exclaimed “I am drinking the stars!” (Phillips 138). In reality, bubbles are a natural phenomenon provoked by winter temperatures deactivating the fermenting yeasts, and spring again reactivating them. The myth of Dom Pérignon was first established in the nineteenth century and quickly embraced by the champagne industry. In 1937, Moët et Chandon launched a premium champagne called Dom Pérignon, which enjoys high reputation until this day (Phillips). The champagne industry has been active in managing associations connected with champagne since the nineteenth century. Sparkling champagnes had already enjoyed fashionability in the later seventeenth and early eighteenth century, both in the French Court, and amongst the British higher classes. In the second half of the nineteenth century, champagne found ever increasing markets abroad, and the clientele was not aristocratic anymore. Before the 1860s, champagne’s association was with high status celebration, as well as sexual activity and seduction (Harding; Rokka). As the century went on, and champagne sales radically increased, associations with “modernity” were added: “hot-air balloons, towering steamships, transcontinental trains, cars, sports, and other ‘modern’ wonders were often featured in quickly proliferating champagne advertising” (Rokka 280). During this time, champagne grew both drier and more sparkling, following consumer tastes (Harding). Champagne’s most important markets in later nineteenth century included the UK, where the growing middle classes consumed champagne for both celebration and hospitality (Harding), the US, where (upper) middle-class women were served champagne in new kinds of consumer environments (Smith; Remus), and Russia, where the upper classes enjoyed sweeter champagne – until the Revolution (Phillips 296). The champagne industry quickly embraced the new middle classes in possession of increasing wealth, as well as new methods of advertising and marketing. What is remarkable is that they managed to integrate enormously varied cultural thematics and still retain associations with aristocracy and luxury, while producing and selling wine in industrial scale (Harding; Rokka). This is still true today: champagne retains a reputation of prestige, despite large-scale branding, production, and marketing. Maintaining and Defending the Bubble: Formulas, Rappers, and the Absolutely Fabulous Tipplers The falling wine prices and increasing counterfeit wines coincided with Europe’s phylloxera crisis – the pest accidentally brought over from North America that almost wiped out all Europe’s vineyards. The pest moved through Champagne in the 1890s, killing vines and devastating vignerons (Campbell). The Syndicat du Commerce des vins de Champagne had already been formed in 1882 (Rokka 280). Now unions were formed to fight phylloxera, such as the Association Viticole Champenoise in 1898. The 1904 Fédération Syndicale des Vignerons was formed to lobby the government to protect the name of Champagne (Leszczyńska 266) – successfully, as we have seen above. The financial benefits from appellations were certainly welcome, but short-lived. World War I treated Champagne harshly, with battle lines stuck through the area for years (Guy 187). The battle went on also in the lobbying front. In 1935, a new appellation regime was brought into law, which came to be the basis for all European systems, and the Comité National des appellations d'origine (CNAO) was founded (Colman 1922). Champagne’s protection became increasingly international, and continues to be so today under EU law and trade deals (European Commission). The post-war recovery of champagne relied on strategies used already in the “golden years” – marketing and lobbying. Advertising continued to embrace “luxury, celebration, transport (extending from air travel to the increasingly popular automobile), modernity, sports” (Guy 188). Such advertisement must have responded accurately to the mood of post-war, pre-depression Europe. Even in the prohibition US it was known that the “frivolous” French women might go as far as bathe in champagne, like the popular actress Mistinguett (Young 63). Curiously, in the 1930s Soviet Russia, “champagne” (not produced in Champagne) was declared a sign of good living, symbolising the standard of living that any Soviet worker had access to (at least in theory) (Gronow). Today, the reputation of champagne is fiercely defended in legal terms. This is not only in terms of protection against other sparkling wine making areas, but also in terms of exploitation of champagne’s reputation by actors in other commercial fields, and even against mass market products containing genuine champagne (Mahy and d’Ath; Schneider and Nam). At the same time, champagne has been widely “democratised” by mass production, enabled partly by increasing mechanisation and scientification of champagne production from the 1950s onwards (Leszczyńska 266). Yet champagne retains its association with prestige, luxury, and even royalty. This has required some serious adaptation and flexibility. In what follows, I look into three cultural phenomena that illuminate processes of such adaptation: Formula One (F1) champagne spraying, the 1990s sitcom Absolutely Fabulous, and the Cristal racism scandal in 2006. The first champagne bottle is said to have been presented to F1 grand prix winner in Champagne in 1950 (Wheels24). Such a gesture would have been fully in line with champagne’s association with cars, sport, and modernity. But what about the spraying? Surely that is not in line with the prestige of the wine? The first spraying is attributed to Jo Siffert in 1966 and Dan Gurney in 1967, the former described as accidental, the latter as a spontaneous gesture of celebration (Wheels24; Dobie). Moët had become the official supplier of F1 champagnes in 1966, and there are no signs that the new custom would have been problematic for them, as their sponsorship continued until 1999, after which Mumm sponsored the sport for 15 years. Today, the champagne to be popped and sprayed is Chanson, in special bottles “coated in the same carbon fibre that F1 cars are made of” (Wheels24). Such an iconic status has the spraying gained that it features in practically all TV broadcasts concerning F1, although non-alcoholic substitute is used in countries where sale of alcohol is banned (Barker et al., “Quantifying”; Barker et al., “Alcohol”). As disturbing as the champagne spraying might look for a wine snob, it is perfectly in line with champagne’s marketing history and entrepreneurial spirit shown since the nineteenth century. Nor is it unheard of to let champagne spray. The “art” of sabrage, opening champagne bottle with a sable, associated with glamour, spectacle, and myth – its origin is attributed to Napoleon and his officers – is perfectly acceptable even for the snob. Sparkling champagne was always bound up with joy and celebration, not a solemn drink, and the champagne bubble was able to accommodate middle classes as well as aristocrats. This brings us to our second example, the British sitcom Absolutely Fabulous. The show, first released in 1992, featured two women, “Eddy” (Jennifer Saunders) and “Patsy” (Joanna Lumley), who spent their time happily smoking, taking drugs, and drinking large quantities of “Bolly” (among other things). Bollinger champagne may have initially experienced “a bit of a shock” for being thus addressed, but soon came to see the benefits of fame (French). In 2005, they hired PR support to make better use of the brand’s “Ab Fab” recognisability, and to improve its prestige reputation in order to justify their higher price range (Cann). Saunders and Lumley were warmly welcomed by the Bollinger house when filming for their champagne tour Absolutely Champers (2017). It is befitting indeed that such controversial fame came from the UK, the first country to discover sparkling champagne outside France (Simon 48), and where the aspirational middle classes were keen to consume it already in the nineteenth century (Harding). More controversial still is the case of Cristal (made by Louis Roederer) and the US rap world. Enthusiastically embraced by the “bling-bling” world of (black) rappers, champagne seems to fit their ethos well. Cristal was long favoured as both a drink and a word in rap lyrics. But in 2006, the newly appointed managing director at the family owned Roederer, Frédéric Rouzaud, made comments considered racist by many (Woodland). Rouzard told in an interview with The Economist that the house observed the Cristal-rap association “with curiosity and serenity”. He reportedly continued: “but what can we do? We can’t forbid people from buying it. I’m sure Dom Pérignon or Krug would be delighted to have their business”. It was indeed those two brands that the rapper Jay-Z replaced Cristal with, when calling for a boycott on Cristal. It would be easy to dismiss Rouzard’s comments as snobbery, or indeed as racism, but they merit some more reflection. Cristal is the premium wine of a house that otherwise does not enjoy high recognisability. While champagne’s history involves embracing new sorts of clientele, and marketing flexibly to as many consumer groups as possible (Rokka), this was the first spectacular crossing of racial boundaries. It was always the case that different houses and their different champagnes were targeted at different clienteles, and it is apparent that Cristal was not targeted at black rap artists. Whereas Bollinger was able to turn into a victory the questionable fame brought by the white middle-class association of Absolutely Fabulous, the more prestigious Cristal considered the attention of the black rapper world more threatening and acted accordingly. They sought to defend their own brand bubble, not the larger champagne bubble. Cristal’s reputation seems to have suffered little – its 2008 vintage, launched in 2018, was the most traded wine of that year (Schultz). Jay-Z’s purchase of his own champagne brand (Armand de Brignac, nicknamed Ace of Spades) has been less successful reputation-wise (Greenburg). It is difficult to break the champagne bubble, and it may be equally difficult to break into it. Conclusion In this article, I have looked into the various dilemmas the “bubble-makers” of Champagne encountered when fabricating what is today known as “champagne”. There have been moments of threat to the bubble they formed, such as in the turn of nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and eras of incomparable success, such as from the 1860s to 1880s. The discussion has demonstrated the remarkable flexibility with which the makers and defenders of champagne have responded to challenges, and dealt with material, socio-cultural, economic, and other problems. It feels appropriate to end with a note on the current challenge the champagne industry faces: Covid-19. The pandemic hit champagne sales exceptionally hard, leaving around 100 million bottles unsold (Micallef). This was not very surprising, given the closure of champagne-selling venues, banning of public and private celebrations, and a general mood not particularly prone to (or even likely to frown upon) such light-hearted matters as glamour and champagne. Champagne has survived many dramatic drops in sales during the twentieth century, such as the Great Depression of the 1930s, and the post-financial crisis collapse in 2009. Yet they seem to be able to make astonishing recoveries. Already, there are indicators that many people consumed more champagne during the festive end-of-year season than in previous years (Smithers). For the moment, it looks like the champagne bubble, despite its seeming fragility, is practically indestructible, no matter how much its elements may suffer under various pressures and challenges. References Barker, Alexander, Magdalena Opazo-Breton, Emily Thomson, John Britton, Bruce Granti-Braham, and Rachael L. Murray. “Quantifying Alcohol Audio-Visual Content in UK Broadcasts of the 2018 Formula 1 Championship: A Content Analysis and Population Exposure.” BMJ Open 10 (2020): e037035. <https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/10/8/e037035>. Barker, Alexander B., John Britton, Bruce Grant-Braham, and Rachael L. Murray. “Alcohol Audio-Visual Content in Formula 1 Television Broadcasting.” BMC Public Health 18 (2018): 1155. <https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-018-6068-3>. Campbell, Christy. 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