Academic literature on the topic 'Huaylas, Callejón de (Peru)'

The objective of this study was to compare the quality of traditional and automated nursing records in the medical services of four hospitals in Callejón de Huaylas - Peru. Investigation of quantitative approach quasi experimental. The population consisted of 32,940 nursing records from the medical records, and the sample consisted of 816 records, selected by stratified probability sampling. The instruments used were; Quality inventory of the nursing record and the software called the Automated Nursing Record System (SIARE) version 1.0. The results show that the difference in quality of the traditional and automated nursing records, with the student's t test obtained a mean of 7.284, a SD of 1.172, a t value = 29.815, with d.f. 22 and a p value = 0.000, resulting in significant differences between the quality scores of the traditional and automated nursing records of the medicine services of the hospitals of the Callejón de Huaylas. It is concluded that the quality (structure, continuity of care and patient safety) of the automated records is high in comparison with traditional nursing records.

Abstract. Pronounced hygric seasonality determines the regional climate and, thus, the characteristics of rain-fed agriculture in the Peruvian Callejón de Huaylas (Cordillera Blanca). Peasants in the Cuenca Auqui on the eastern slopes above the city of Huaraz attribute recently experienced challenges in agricultural production mainly to perceived changes in precipitation patterns. Statistical analyses of daily precipitation records at nearby Recuay (1964 to 2013) and Huaraz (1996 to 2013) stations do not corroborate the perceived changes. Either insufficient temporal resolution of available precipitation records or other environmental and sociopolitical factors impacting traditional farming methods may be the reason for the lack of concordance between the two information sources investigated in this study.

Abstract. Pronounced hygric seasonality determines the regional climate and, thus, the characteristics of rain-fed agriculture in the Peruvian Callejón de Huaylas (Cordillera Blanca). Peasants in the Cuenca Auqui on the eastern slopes above the city of Huaraz attribute recently experienced challenges in agricultural production mainly to perceived changes in precipitation patterns. Statistical analyses of daily precipitation records at nearby Recuay (1964 to 2013) and Huaraz (1996 to 2013) stations do not corroborate the perceived changes. Either insufficient temporal resolution of available precipitation records or other environmental and sociopolitical factors impacting traditional farming methods may be the reason for the lack of concordance between the two information sources investigated in this study.

Mountain cities specializing in tourism increasingly aim at valorizing cultural and natural heritage to compete for global attention. In this context, the postmodern urbanization of mountains plays a decisive role: driven by touristification processes, it alters the sociospatial and economic configuration of mountain cities and their hinterlands, which are becoming vertically arranged “operational landscapes”, and profoundly changes city–mountain interactions. To foster sustainable development in urbanizing mountain destinations, it is crucial to understand these settlements’ embeddedness in both (1) nature and culture and (2) space and time. The Andean city of Huaraz is a case in point: an intermediate center in highland Peru, it is characterized by a strategic location in the Callejón de Huaylas (Santa Valley), influenced by Hispanic and Quechua culture and dominated by the glaciers of the Cordillera Blanca. Combining (1) a theoretical framework that considers planetary urbanization, touristification and vertical complementarity and (2) a case study technique inspired by urban environmental profiles, we trace the development of the city–mountain relation in Huaraz, focusing on the way in which the material and non-material dimensions of the surrounding mountains influence urban development. We conclude with a call for overcoming a set of three persisting dichotomies that continue to impair sustainable development.

Abstract During the 1930s, the German and Austrian Alpine Society sponsored three mountaineering-scientific expeditions to the Peruvian Andes, focusing especially on the Cordillera Blanca and adjacent valley known as the Callejón de Huaylas. They climbed mountains, conducted scientific studies, produced detailed maps, explored the highlands, and interacted with Peruvian intellectuals. Similar German expeditions went to Asia, Africa, and elsewhere in South America during this decisive period for the Nazi empire. This essay analyzes the writings and publications of the German and Austrian mountaineer-scientists who went to Peru, especially the Austrian leader Hans Kinzl, as well as examining government documents, technical reports, tourism publicity, diplomatic correspondence, and travel accounts to understand how Peruvian policy makers, engineers, scientists, intellectuals, tourism boosters, regional authorities, urban-based ruling classes, and rural residents in the mountains interacted with the European mountaineer-scientists during and after their expeditions. Most Peruvian groups initially welcomed the foreign mountaineer-scientists, using their activities to pursue their own agendas during the 1930s and 1940s. By the 1960s, however, many had become opposed to foreign mountaineers and scientists “intervening” in the Andes. World War II, natural disasters, the weak nation-state, coast-sierra divisions, growing Peruvian expertise in science and engineering, and the rise of an Andean tourism economy influenced how Peruvians perceived and interacted not only with the foreign mountaineer-scientists, but also with the Andean alpine landscape. Moreover, the dynamic physical environment also shaped historical processes: from science and engineering to landscape perceptions, tourism economies, national development, and international relations.

Se planteó el siguiente problema: ¿Cuáles son los factores de riesgo asociados al embarazo en adolescentes en el Callejón de Huaylas durante el año 2012?, con el objetivo general de identificar los factores de riesgo asociados al embarazo en adolescentes en el Callejón de Huaylas, hipótesis: Los factores de riesgo asociados al embarazo en adolescentes en el Callejón de Huaylas son los factores individuales, socio-culturales y familiares. Investigación epidemiológica de casos y controles, con una muestra de 180 adolescentes embarazadas (casos) y 360 adolescentes no embarazadas (controles). Se usó como instrumentos dos cuestionarios, la información se procesó mediante el programa SPSS V19.0, realizándose la contrastación de la hipótesis mediante la prueba estadística Odds Ratio (OR). Resultados: Las variables que mostraron más altos valores de asociación significativa fueron: conocimiento de métodos anticonceptivos (OR = 5,420), alcoholismo en el hogar (OR=5,184) y uso de métodos anticonceptivos (OR = 4,528); ante lo cual se concluyó que los factores socio-culturales y familiares se constituyen en factores de riesgo del embarazo en adolescentes en el Callejón de Huaylas, no sucediendo lo mismo con los factores individuales, los cuales no mostraron asociación significativa con el embarazo precoz, a excepción del conocimiento y uso de métodos anticonceptivos

El presente trabajo tiene por objetivo diseñar la ruta gastronómica del Callejón de Huaylas identificando sus productos agrícolas, sus formas de preparar alimentos servirlos y valorarlos.Descripción etnográfica y sociográfica de los lugares entorno físico y cultural, vivencias culturales del suscrito en base a la observación como integrante de la actividad turística en la región.

Para realizar las predicciones de series de tiempo uno de los métodos más usados es el método ARIMA, y consistió en determinar los modelos ARIMA de las precipitaciones mensuales, en las estaciones meteorológicas ubicadas en el Callejón de Huaylas: Yanacocha, Punta Mojón, Lampas Alto, Recreta, Cahuish, Querococha, Schacaypampa, Pachacoto, Ticapampa, Huancapetí, Huaraz, Chancos, Llanganuco, Parón y Caraz.<br />Los modelos ARIMA de las precipitaciones mensuales se obtuvieron mediante el software Census X12 —ARIMA.<br />Los modelos ARIMA de las precipitaciones mensuales son más variados que los modelos ARIMA de los caudales en el Callejón de Huaylas.

Este trabalho investigou a sociocriosfera nos Andes Centrais e examinou as percepções, adaptações e os impactos dos desastres glaciais nos povoados do Callejón de Huaylas, Peru. Trata-se de um estudo de caso que se utiliza de conceitos de cultura, adaptação, risco, perigo e desastre para compreender de forma integrada os efeitos advindos de mudanças climáticas regionais e as relações existentes entre os povoados do Callejón de Huaylas com as geleiras adjacentes. O trabalho teve como base os aportes teórico-metodológicos da Geografia Física e da abordagem cultural na Geografia para entender os problemas físicos e humanos advindos da ocupação de uma região inóspita. A investigação foi estruturada em três momentos: primeiramente, foi realizada a construção dos cenários físicos dos desastres glaciais, por meio de uma série de instrumentos – como mapas geológico, geomorfológico, de declividade, de uso e ocupação do solo e dos principais riscos glaciais do flanco ocidental do Nevado Huascarán (Cordilheira Branca). Posteriormente, foi investigado o processo civilizatório andino no Callejón de Huaylas – com base, principalmente, em evidências arqueológicas, foi gerado o mapa de localização dos assentamentos pré-colombianos, de acordo com os estágios de desenvolvimento cultural. O terceiro momento refere-se à identificação dos efeitos pós-coloniais e de ocupação humana em zonas de alto perigo na região periglacial, aumentando o risco dessas comunidades. Assim, no campo dos cenários físicos, a integração dos registros geológicos e geomorfológicos mostrou o dinamismo das regiões periglaciais andinas, ou seja, desde longa data a paisagem vem sendo definida pela dinâmica glacial Os principais vetores da dinâmica do fluxo de massas, desencadeada por ação glacial direta e indireta, permitiu a delimitação das principais regiões de perigo. Nessas regiões, situa-se grande parte da infraestrutura agrícola atual, e no caso da cidade de Huaraz (9°31'42"S e 77°31'37"O), grande parte das áreas urbanas, mostrando o grande risco ao qual está submetida. Por outro lado, sítios arqueológicos como Keushu (9°5'24"S e 77°41'59"O), não se encontram em zonas de grande perigo de fluxos decorrentes da dinâmica glacial. No cenário do processo civilizatório, os assentamentos das culturas pré-colombianas localizavam-se, predominantemente, em zonas elevadas, distantes dos trajetos de aluviões. Portanto, consideramos que as culturas pré-colombianas adaptaram-se aos perigos dos desastres glaciais. Nesse sentido, é pertinente reconhecer que essas populações gestaram um essencial etnoconhecimento andino. As cidades modernas mais populosas, como Huaraz, que estão em áreas de alto risco de desastres glaciais, tem origem na época colonial. Assim, o período colonial resultou não apenas na espoliação das riquezas dos Andes, mas, sobretudo, na desestruturação de um sistema cognitivo milenar. O processo de desterritorialização produzido pelos desastres glaciais provocou, para além de perdas econômicas, perdas de relações, que afetam a existência da pessoa produzindo, portanto, perdas irreparáveis. A reterritorialização dos locais suscetíveis aos desastres glaciais se dá pela necessidade de se ter um lugar (para plantar, para viver), mas também devido aos sentimentos topofílicos que se referem ao elo afetivo existente entre a pessoa e o lugar. Em suma, este trabalho mostra que o modelo de sociedade pós-colonial tende a inviabilizar possíveis estratégias de adaptação às mudanças climáticas no Callejón de Huaylas.
This work investigated the sociocryosphere of the central Andes, examining perceptions, adaptations and impacts of glacial disasters on the towns of the Callejón de Huaylas, Peru. It is a case study that uses concepts of culture, adaptation, risk, hazard and disaster to comprehend in an integrated way the effects of regional climate changes and the existing relations between the villages of the Callejón de Huaylas and adjacent glaciers. The work is based on the Physical Geography theoretical-methodological contributions and the cultural approach in Geography to understand the physical and human problems arising from the occupation of an inhospitable region. The research was structured in three moments. Firstly, the physical scenarios of glacial disasters were constructed through a series of instruments - such as geological, geomorphological, slope, land use and occupation maps and the main glacial hazards of the western flank of the Nevado Huascarán (Cordillera Blanca). Subsequently, the Andean civilization process was investigated in the Callejón de Huaylas - based, mainly, on archaeological evidence, the map of the pre-Columbian settlements location was generated, according to the cultural development stages. The third point concerns the identification of post-colonial effects and human occupation in the periglacial region high-danger zones, increasing the risk of these communities. Thus, in the field of physical scenarios, the integration of geological and geomorphological records showed the dynamism of Andean periglacial regions, that is, the landscape has long been defined by glacial dynamics. The main mass flow dynamics vectors, triggered by direct and indirect glacial action, allowed the delimitation of the main danger regions A large part of the present agricultural infrastructure is located in these regions, and in the case of the city of Huaraz (9°31'42"S e 77°31'37"O), a great part of the urban areas, showing the great risk to which it is submitted. On the other hand, archaeological sites like Keushu (9°5'24"S e 77°41'59"O) are not in zones of great danger of flows from glacial dynamics. In the civilization process scenario, the pre-Columbian cultures settlements were located, mainly, in elevated zones, far from the alluvial paths. Therefore, we consider that pre-Columbian cultures have adapted to the hazards of glacial disasters. In this sense, it is pertinent to recognize that these populations have generated an essential Andean ethno-cognition. The most populous modern cities, such as Huaraz, in areas of high risk of glacial disasters, originated in the colonial time. Thus the colonial period resulted not only in the spoliation of the riches of the Andes, but above all, in the deconstruction of a millenarian cognitive system. The process of deterritorialization produced by glacial disasters has caused, in addition to economic losses, loss of relationships, which affect the person's existence, thus producing irreparable losses. The reterritorialization of sites susceptible to glacial disasters is due to the need to have a place (to plant, to live), but also due to the topophilic feelings that refer to the affective link between the person and the place. In short, this work shows that the postcolonial society model tends to make impossible strategies to adapt to climate change in the Callejón de Huaylas.

A series of threats face campesino communities' water management practices in the Callejón de Huaylas (upper region of the Santa Watershed). Competition for water resources is escalating due to increasing demand, decreasing supply, and a rise in contamination levels, leaving campesino communities in a precarious state as a result of their marginalized position in Peruvian society. Competition for water resources occurs between upstream and downstream users and amongst sectors including mining, agriculture, hydropower, and domestic water users. The national government recently passed an integrated water resource management system to improve water governance. However, bureaucratic tendencies make it unlikely that campesinos will receive an adequate share of resources. Campesino communities in the Callejón need to adopt new strategies to improve their position vis á-vis other sectors and resist capture of resources. Campesinos are important to the discussion of water resource management because they have long established systems of self-regulated management and need to be included in the new system of watershed governance. This research first examines local water management strategies and integrated water management through four characteristics: 1) how is water framed, 2) is decision-making participatory, 3) is water management appropriate to the local and regional level, and 4) is it possible to monitor activity and impose consequences for unauthorized water usage. Interviews with campesino community members and leaders, local officials, regional representatives, and non-governmental organizations found opportunities to collaborate between groups and transfer some management responsibilities to a more regional watershed scale. Second, this research examines the opportunities and barriers to scaling up traditional management practices to meet regional needs while ensuring local water availability. Scaling decision-making is imperative for successful integrated water management and will allow campesino communities to continue to manage their water to meet local needs. Shifting the decision-making scale may facilitate more effective watershed governance with campesino community participation.

En este artículo me propongo analizar y presentar los avances de una investigación más amplia, acerca de las diferentes manifestaciones musicales existentes en la actualidad en el Callejón de Huaylas. Departamentode Ancash

La participación de la comunidad organizada es un elemento fundamental en el éxito de los programas sociales y los proyectos de desarrollo. Los organismos multilaterales y las agencias de cooperación promueven su incorporación a lo largo de todo el ciclo de vida de los proyectos. Los programas sociales del Estado no han sido ajenos a ello y los estándares de calidad promovidos actualmente, en particular en el marco de los programas de alimentación escolar para lograr una adecuada gestión de los mismos, incluyen la participación comunitaria como un factor clave de éxito. En este marco, diversos estados, entre los cuales se encuentra el Perú, han incorporado distintos modelos de gestión en los programas sociales y, especialmente, en los programas de alimentación escolar, que se basan en la participación de la comunidad. No obstante, pocas veces se ha discutido las consideraciones que se debe tener en cuenta al convocar a distintos actores a ser parte de las intervenciones. Se ha estudiado mucho cuáles son los beneficios de esta participación, pero se ha investigado poco sobre las limitaciones que enfrenta la comunidad o la población organizada para mejorar los niveles y la calidad de su participación. Las investigaciones en el caso del Programa Nacional de Alimentación Escolar (PNAE) Qali Warma aún son escasas y es poco lo que se ha investigado en torno al mismo, por ser de reciente creación (2013). La presente investigación, basada en 13 estudios de caso sobre la participación de los padres de familia en los Comités de Alimentación Escolar (CAE) de las provincias de Huaraz y Carhuaz en el Callejón de Huaylas, en la región Áncash, busca contribuir con evidencia que permita identificar cómo la participación de los padres de familia se convierte en un factor clave para el éxito del programa social, cuáles son los desafíos que se debe enfrentar para generar una mayor participación, y los aprendizajes y retos que esto implica para la política pública.
The community participation is a key factor for the success of social programs and development projects. Multilateral and cooperation agencies promote its incorporation throughout the project life cycle. Social programs have been part of this tendency and the quality standards currently promoted, in particular to reach a proper management of school feeding programs, include community participation as a key success factor. Within this framework, several states, including Peru, have incorporated different management models into their social programs and, specially, their school feeding programs, which are based on community participation. However, the considerations to be taken into account in convening different actors to be part of the interventions have rarely been discussed. Much has been learned about the benefits of this participation, but little research has been done on the constraints faced by the community or the organized population to improve the levels and quality of their participation. Research in the case of the National School Feeding Program (PNAE) Qali Warma is still scarce and little research has been done on it since it was recently created (2013). This research, based on 13 case studies on the participation of parents in the School Feeding Committees (CAE) of the provinces of Huaraz and Carhuaz in the Huaylas Corridor, in the Áncash region, seeks to contribute with evidence to identify how participation of parents becomes a key factor for the success of the social program, which are the constraints that must be removed to generate greater participation, and the learning and challenges for public policy.
Tesis

La Región Ancash es una de las más ricas en aguas termominerales del país, en ella se encuentra el Callejón de Huaylas el cual es surcado por el río Santa y sus afluentes; en sus márgenes existen numerosas fuentes termominerales, entre ellas El Pato (Huaylas), La Merced (Carhuaz), Chancos (Carhuaz) y Monterrey (Huaraz). Estas fuentes fueron seleccionadas para este estudio en base a su caudal de afloración, que es un factor a tener en cuenta para su explotación; para cada fuente se hicieron 45 determinaciones entre propiedades físicas, contenido de metales, no metales y gases libres.
Tesis

Wari Tombs in the Callejón de Huaylas, Department of AncashExcavations of Wari period chullpas in the Callejon de Huaylas have produced important new evidence of mortuary patterns in that region, while also furnishing associated artifacts that can be compared with materials from the adjacent coast. Based on evaluations of former research results the authors propose the existence of a single socio-political unit that united the coast and highlands of Ancash during the time period under study.
Excavaciones arqueológicas en chullpas de la época wari en el Callejón de Huaylas ofrecen nuevas e importantes evidencias acerca del patrón funerario de la zona y permiten correlacionar los materiales asociados con la costa de Áncash. Con una evaluación de las investigaciones previas realizadas, los autores proponen la existencia de una unidad sociopolítica entre la costa y sierra de Ancash para la época estudiada.

Social and Political Transformation in the Callejón de Huaylas (III to X Centuries)Archaeological investigations between 1997-1999 in the Callejón de Huaylas, Peru -localized around the Pierina gold mine- have discovered prehispanic settlements corresponding to diverse chronological periods. The article focuses on the Early Intermediate Period and Middle Horizon, examining Recuay settlement pattern, and showing how it was transformed Wari control that probably intruded into the Callejón de Huaylas in the 6th century. However, local domestic patterns appear to have remained little changed, suggesting that new demands for taxes must not have been excessive. Only a few signs of foreign domination are evident.
Consecutivos proyectos de investigacion y rescate arqueológico realizados entre 1997 y 1999 en el área de explotación de la mina Pierina, Callejón de Huaylas, han permitido estudiar un conjunto de asentamientos prehispánicos de diversos periodos cronológicos. En este artículo se pone énfasis en los sitios del Período Intermedio Temprano y Horizonte Medio, se explica el patrón de asentamiento recuay y cómo fue transformado y absorbido por las fuerzas exógenas wari que irrumpen en el Callejón de Huaylas alrededor del siglo VI. El sistema de articulación local, sin embargo, persiste y solo se pueden detectar algunas señales de dominación externa.

La elevada demanda de energía ha aumentado el interés en el uso de biomasa lignocelulósica para la producción de biocombustibles, en el cual las enzimas hidrolíticas termófilas y termoestables juegan un rol importante. En este contexto, el objetivo de la presente investigación fue aislar y seleccionar bacterias termotolerantes celulolíticas y xilanolíticas de las fuente termales Chancos, Olleros y Huancarhuaz, ubicados en el Callejón de Huaylas, Ancash – Perú. El aislamiento de las bacterias se hizo a partir de muestras frescas, enriquecidos ex situ y enriquecidos mediante cebos dejados in situ; se usó medio basal salino (MBS), 50°C y 6,5 de pH. La selección se realizó mediante la coloración con Rojo Congo sobre placas de cultivo suplementados con carboximetil celulosa (CMC) o xilano. Para la identificación taxonómica se analizó el gen 16S rDNA. Se cuantificó la actividad endoglucanasa, celulasa total y xilanasa de las cepas seleccionadas. A los extractos enzimáticos con los mejores resultados se les determinó la temperatura óptima, pH óptimo, y la estabilidad térmica. Se aislaron 62 cepas de bacterias, de las cuales 29 mostraron halos de hidrólisis en CMC y xilano. Mediante el análisis del gen 16S rDNA se encontró que las cepas seleccionadas correspondían a Bacillus licheniformis, B. subtilis y Cohnella laeviribosi. La mayor actividad de celulasa y xilanasa se obtuvo en B. subtilis DCH4, B. subtilis DO6, B. licheniformis EPO2 y C. laevibosi EHB4. Ensayos posteriores en estas cepas mostraron actividades endoglucanasas óptimas entre 45-60°C y pH entre 5-6. Las actividades xilanasas óptimas se obtuvieron entre 55-65°C y pH entre 6-7. El 50% de la actividad endoglucanasa de C. laevibosi EHB4 se mantuvo después de una incubación a 80°C por 1 hora, resultado similar se obtuvo en la actividad xilanasa de B. licheniformis EPO2. Se ha demostrado la presencia de bacterias termotolerantes celulolíticas y xilanolíticas en las fuentes termales de Chancos, Olleros y Huancarhuaz. Las cepas C. laevibosi EHB4 y B. licheniformis EPO2 podrían ser utilizadas en el desarrollo de procesos de bioconversión de biomasa lignocelulolítica.
The high demand of energy has increased interest in the use of lignocellulosic biomass to produce biofuel, wherein thermophilic and thermostable hydrolytic enzymes play an important rol. In this context, the aim of this investigation was to isolate and select thermotolerant cellulolytic and xylanolytic bacteria from Chancos, Olleros and Huancarhuaz hot springs located in the Callejon de Huaylas, Ancash - Peru. Isolation of bacteria was performent using fresh samples, ex situ enrichment and in situ baiting, in basal salt medium at 50°C and pH 6,5. The selection was performed by staining Congo Red on culture plates supplemented carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) or xylan. For taxonomic identification 16S rDNA gen was used. Endoglucanase, total cellulase and xylanase activities were quantified in selected strains. Some crude enzyme extracts that shown the best results were tested to determinated optimum temperature, optimum pH, and thermal stability. It was isolated 62 bacterial strains and 29 showed hydrolysis halo on CMC and xylan plates. The 16S rDNA gene analysis determined that the selected strains correspond to Bacillus licheniformis, B. subtilis and Cohnella laeviribosi. The highest cellulase and xylanase activities were obtained to B. subtilis DCH4, B. subtilis DO6, B. licheniformis EPO2 and C. laevibosi EHB4. Subsequent assays in these strains showed endoglucanase activity optimum betwee n 45-60°C and 5-6 of pH. The xylanase activity optimum was obtained at 55-65°C and pH 6-7. Fifty percent of the endoglucanase activity of C. laevibosi EHB4 after incubation at 80 ° C for 1 hour is maintained, a similar result was obtained in the xylanase activity of B. licheniformis EPO2. It was been demostrated the presence of cellulolytic and xylanolytic thermotolerant bacteria in Chancos, Olleros and Huancarhuaz hot springs. C. laevibosi EHB4 and B. licheniformis EPO2 may contribute to the development of lignocellulosic biomass bioconversion process. Keywords: Thermotoleran, hot spring, cellulases, xylanases, Bacillus, Cohnella.
Tesis

This thesis examines maternal decision-making regarding prenatal care and childbirth in the rural, north-central Andes in the province of Carhuaz. Semi-structured interviews (n=30) and participatory action research workshops (n=7) were conducted with local women to elucidate how they conceptualize, experience, and negotiate the shifting landscape of prenatal care and childbirth practices and providers. Semi-structured interviews with obstetricians, midwives, and social workers (n=9) were also conducted to compare perspectives and identify disconnects in knowledge and practices existing between these two groups in order to facilitate an open conversation on how to jointly improve the maternal experience and reduce maternal mortality and morbidity in rural Peru, where these risks are significantly higher than in urbanized, coastal areas. In the face of changing practices and the influx of biomedical ideologies, women are faced with competing and conflicting bodies of knowledge as well as varying concrete and symbolic values and consequences of their decisions, which they must navigate and evaluate in a dynamic environment. Issues of ethnic and gender discrimination and financial and social coercion arose as prominent forces structuring risks and constraining maternal agency. However, women also found ways to both resist and accommodate these challenges, demonstrating the intricate and on-going negotiations that occur throughout gestation and the maternal experience. The results of this investigation illustrate the various and nuanced ways in which macro-level maternal health policies are manifesting on the local level and impacting the lived realities of rural, Andean women.

This chapter reviews archaeological evidence for culture change during the first millennium ad in north-central Peru, and its implications for the spread of language(s). Important developments deriving from regional interaction typified the first centuries ad (north-west Ancash), the seventh century ad (Callejón de Huaylas), and the end of the Middle Horizon (across departments). If major language expansions can be pegged to transformations in material style, they should be sought in these periods and areas. Many different Amerindian languages are known from the region (Culle, Mochica, Quingnam, Quechua, Aymara), although most are now extinct. The cultural heterogeneity in north-central Peru during the Early Intermediate Period may indicate considerable time-depth for such linguistic diversity. The subsequent Middle Horizon marks a period of widespread interaction, though varying in nature and impact through time. This elicits issues for future research in the linguistic prehistory of the central Andes.