Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'HVDC insulation'

The work begins with a theoretical description of conductivity and the importance of this material property in the electrical power industry. The various theories describing high voltage conduction in highly insulating dielectric liquids are analysed to ascertain their propensity to explain the exponential rise in the conductivity of the insulating liquid at high fields.The work goes further to analyse the various methods and standards that are presently utilised in the measurement of conductivity of highly insulating oils. The short-comings of the present methods particularly the IEC 61620 and 60247 are identified. The physics behind the peculiar behaviour of the conductivity when stressed under high electric fields is described and analysed.Measurements carries out according to a standard, may not lead to useful results. Therefore, it is preferable to determine the conductivity under practical aspects and also to measure the different parameters on which the conductivity depends (1). A new method of carrying out conductivity measurements based on the use of triangular and sinusoidal input high voltage is used in this work.Conductivity analysis is carried out based on this method while time dependency, frequency dependency and field dependencies are studied.The results of the various results show a strong dependency of the resistance of the oil on the input electric field up to two powers of ten; when the electric field is varied from zero to 10 kV/mm for all frequencies. The frequency of input voltage has a minimum effect of the results of the conductivity up to 0.1 Hz; the only observable change is the increasing values of the capacitive current component of the measured total current.The time dependency of the resistance values shows a very remarkable variation of conductivity. There is an average of 3 times in the conductivity when the oil is stressed over a 24 hour period.Finally Comsol Multiphysics simulation is carried out to compare to the results of the experimental results obtained in the laboratory. The results of the current as well as the resistance values obtained using the comsol simulation bears great similarity to that of the laboratory experiments.

Thesis (MScEng (Electrical and Electronic Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Limited research results are available on the aging impacts of surface discharges for High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) excitation on practical insulators using the Tracking Wheel Tester (TWT) methodology. This thesis gives details of an experimental investigation to compare the aging performance of insulator samples using the TWT for High Voltage Alternating Current (HVAC) and positive and negative polarity HVDC excitation. Two series of tests were performed. The first series of tests evaluated the aging of six insulator rods, namely three Room Temperature Vulcanized Silicone Rubber (RTV SR) coated glass samples and three uncoated glass samples. Three creepage distances were used for each of the test materials, namely 277 mm, 346 mm and 433 mm. The tests were conducted with HVAC excitation and the test methodology described in the IEC 61302 standard. The second series of tests involved the testing of actual insulator samples. The test voltage and conductivity of the salt water solution were also adapted. Six insulators from different manufacturers, representing different materials and specific creepage distances, were tested with HVAC and positive and negative polarity HVDC excitation. The test samples consisted of Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM), High Temperature Vulcanized Silicone Rubber (HTV SR), porcelain and SR coated porcelain insulators. The aging performance of the different test samples for the three types of excitation are compared in terms of peak leakage current, visual observations of surface degradation and hydrophobicity properties. The leakage current data for HVAC excitation shows that the insulators from the different manufacturers perform differently, even for the same type of material. The results also indicate differences in the way the surfaces degrade, as well as the rate of degradation. For insulators representing the same specific creepage distance, but different materials, it has been shown that the material does influence the aging performance. Comparison of the leakage current data for the HTV SR insulators from the same manufacturer, but with different specific creepage distances, shows that the specific creepage distance affect the aging performance significantly. In general, the test insulators showed higher peak leakage currents with HVDC excitation compared to HVAC excitation. The results for positive polarity HVDC excitation show that the dry band arcing, as well as the discharges, has the same form for all six insulators. The colour of the dry band discharges ranged from a blue-ish orange to a dark yellow, depending on the intensity of the leakage currents. The hydrophobic insulators, namely the HTV SR, EPDM and RTV SR coated porcelain insulators, had lost hydrophobicity within the first week of testing. The results for negative polarity HVDC excitation show severe surface degradation compared to the results for HVAC excitation. The effect of positive polarity HVDC excitation, however, seems to be more severe in terms of leakage currents and aging compared to negative polarity HVDC excitation.

Since its first introduction in 1998, extruded direct current (DC) cable technology has been growing rapidly leading to many cable system installations with operation voltages up to 320 kV. Cable manufacturers invest heavily on technology development in this field and today extruded DC cable systems for operation voltages as high as 525 kV are commercially available. The electrical field distribution in electrical insulation under DC voltage is mainly determined by the conduction physics, therefore a good understanding of the DC conduction is necessary. In case of Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) insulation, the presence of the peroxide decomposition products (PDP) is believed to influence its electrical properties. The PDP are volatile and therefore they may diffuse out of the samples during sample preparation and testing. Besides, the morphology of the XLPE is known to evolve over time even at moderate temperatures. Since the material may change during preparation, storage and even measurement, the procedure during all stages of the study should be chosen carefully. In this work, the physics of the dielectric response and conduction in XLPE is briefly discussed. The existing measurement techniques relevant to characterization of DC conduction in XLPE insulation materials are reviewed. The procedure for high field DC conductivity measurement is evaluated and recommendations for obtaining reproducible results are listed. Two types of samples are studied, i.e. thick press molded samples and thick plaque samples obtained from the insulation of in-factory extruded cables. For press molded samples, the influence of the press film used during press molding and the effect of heat-treatment on the electrical properties of XLPE and LDPE are studied. High field DC conductivity of XLPE plaque samples is measured with a dynamic electrode temperature to simulate the standard thermal cycles. Investigations show that using PET film during press molding leads to higher apparent DC conductivity and dielectric losses when compared to using aluminum foil. The influence of heat-treatment is different depending on the press film. High field DC conductivity measurements and chemical composition measurement of samples obtained from the cable insulation are in good agreement with the results obtained from the full scale measurements. Finally a non-monotonic dependence of apparent DC conductivity to temperature of some samples pressed with PET film is discovered which to the author’s best of knowledge has not been previously reported in the literature.<br>Sedan det första införandet i 1998 har extruderad likspänning (DC) kabeltekniken vuxit snabbt och har lett till många existerande kabelsysteminstallationer med driftspänningar upp till 320 kV. Kabeltillverkare investerar kraftigt i teknikutveckling inom detta område och idag finns extruderade DC kabelsystemen tillgängliga för driftspänningar så höga som 525 kV. Elektrisk fältfördelning i isolationsmaterial under hög DC spänning, beror framförallt på materialets elektriska ledningsfysik, därför är en bra förståelse av DC ledningsförmåga nödvändig. Isolationsmaterial av tvärbunden polyeten (PEX) innehåller tvärbindningsrestgaser som tros påverka materialets elektriska egenskaper. Restgaserna är flyktiga och kan diffundera bort från proven under preparering och mätning, även under måttliga temperaturer. PEX materialets morfologi ändras även med tiden. Med tanke på att materialet kan ändras under provpreparering, lagring och även vid mätning, så måste samtliga steg ovan väljas mycket försiktigt. I detta arbete diskuteras grundläggande fysik för dielektrisk polarisering och ledningsförmåga i PEX-isolation tillsammans med granskning av existerande mätteknik relevant för karakterisering av ledningsförmåga i PEX. Procedurer för mätning av DC ledningsförmåga under höga elektriska fält är undersökta och rekommendationer för reproducerbar mätningar är framtagna. Två typer av prover är studerade, tjocka pressade plattor och tjocka plattor som ursvarvats från kommersiell tillverkade högspänningskablar. För pressade plattor, studerades effekten utav press-filmens påverkan på de elektriska egenskaperna hos PEX och LDPE. Påverkan av värmebehandling på DC ledningsförmåga av PEX plattor studerades också. Slutligen studerades DC ledningsförmåga av PEX och LDPE plattor under höga DC fält och med dynamisk temperatur på elektroderna med syftet att efterlikna standardvärmecyklingar. Undersökningarna visade att användningen av PET filmer under pressning av plattor ledde till högre DC ledningsförmåga och högre dielektriska förluster i proven i jämförelse med användning av aluminiumfolie. Påverkan utav värmebehandling är olika beroende på typ av film som används pressningen. Det finns en stark korrelation mellan resultaten från DC konduktivitet och kemisk komposition mätningar från plattor skaffat från kabelisolation och resultaten från fullskaliga kabelmätningar. Slutligen, upptäcktes ett icke monotont beroende av DC konduktivitet hos PEX och LDPE plattor på temperatur som tidigare inte rapporterats i litteraturen.<br><p>QC 20160125</p>

The present work was performed at HVDC ABB as an initial study on how to adopt probabilistic concepts into the VCSHVDC insulation coordination. Due to large voltage levels in HVDC applications the corresponding insulation need to be properly addressed to ensure a safe, economical and reliable operation. Traditionally, only the maximum overvoltage is considered, where no adoption to the shape of the overvoltage distribution is regarded. Use of probabilistic concepts in the insulation coordination procedure can ideally reduce insulation margins with a maintained low risk of flashover. Analysis and understanding of probabilistic concepts of AC systems is needed in order to implement the concepts into VSC-HVDC. With use of advanced VSC-HVDC models, faults are simulated with varied fault insertion time in PSCAD. The resulting overvoltages from the simulation is gathered using different statistical methods in order to obtain the approximated overvoltage distribution. It was found from the simulation results that use of a Gaussian distribution is inappropriate due to shape variety in the overvoltage distributions. Instead, Kernel Density Estimate can serve as a flexible tool to approximate overvoltage distributions with a variety in number of modes and shape. The retrieved approximated overvoltage distributions are compared with the insulation strength in order to calculate the risk of flashover. The comparison shows that the insulation can be tuned in order to match set requirements. The thesis work should be seen as pilot study, where key problems have been pointed out and recommended further studies are proposed.

<p>After extensive research during the last decades extruded polymeric insulation is now becoming an alternative to the traditional oil-paper systems for high voltage DC (HVDC) cables. Durability is of great importance for power cables, and the main purpose of this work has been to increase the knowledge of factors controlling the endurance of an extruded polymeric insulation under HVDC conditions. The effect of electrical and thermal ageing on electrical properties like space change accumulation, DC breakdown strength and electrical tree initiation has been investigated and related to changes in morphology, oxidation level and antioxidant concentration.</p><p>Low density polyethylene (LDPE) with and without an antioxidant additive was selected as insulating material. Test objects with plane electrodes or needle-plane electrodes were prepared by pressure moulding and equipped with aluminium electrodes. Iron particles with a diameter of 45 – 55 μm were introduced to simulate conducting contaminations in the insulation. The test objects were subjected to thermal ageing of 70°C and 90°C and the applied electrical field during ageing ranged from zero to 150 kV/mm. ageing was conducted both with constant DC polarity and with polarity reversals. The ageing period ranged from 4 weeks to 5 months.</p><p>Thermal oxidation was observed in LDPE without antioxidant and this clearly affected the electrical properties. The DC breakdown voltage was reduced by 40% and this was explained by enhanced high-field conduction and increased joule heating due to the oxidation products. It was found that oxidation was prohibited when the thickness of the aluminium electrodes increased. </p><p>Introduction of iron particles reduced the short term DC strength by 20 – 30%, but during long term ageing with constant DC voltage no difference was observed between test objects with and without particles. This was probably caused by screening of the particles by accumulated space charge. </p><p>The experiments showed that abrupt grounding or polarity reversal initiated electrical trees from the needle-electrodes. The longest trees were observed when the test objects had first been subjected to thermal and electrical ageing. The tree formation was caused by the high electrical field arising when the accumulated homocharge around the needle was converted to heterocharge at polarity or grounding,</p><p>The following main conclusions were made from the work:</p><p>*Oxidation is detrimental and must be avoided in HVDC insulation.</p><p>* The antioxidant additive can have a negative influence on the electrical properties under HVDC stress.</p><p>*Polarity reversal or abrupt grounding can initiate electrical trees from protrusions present at the electrode-insulation interface of a HVDC insulation system. </p>

This thesis focuses on measuring techniques and results of resistivity in four commercially available insulating transformer oils: mineral oil, ester oil and two isoparaffin oils. Two measuring techniques, the industrially used diagnostic system for electrical insulation IDA and the Labview implemented Triangular Method, are used for resistivity measurements and the techniques are compared, a correction algorithm to the triangular method is suggested. Dielectric properties of mineral &amp; ester and isoparaffin A&amp;B mixtures are investigated, it is experimentally shown that the transformer oils that show high resistivity also show low loss factor. The effect moisture has on resistivity in mineral and ester oil are shown both in terms of relative humidity and actual water content in parts per million. A previous measurement cell is redesigned, the cell is manufactured in copper and gold. It is found that the material choice of the cell significantly affects the resistivity measurements. The electrical double layer and contact resistance between the oil and cell are investigated as a way to explain the difference in measured resistivity. These experiments are limited to the mineral oil and isoparaffin oil A, it is found that contact resistance is a plausible explanation. The electrical double layer is fairly constant for both oils and the Debye length of the double layer is negligible compared to the total distance between the electrodes of the cell. Lastly, the field of insulating transformer oils and its future is discussed, from data obtained regarding the dielectric properties and environmental aspects of the four transformer oils used in this study. A positive trend which combines the high insulating properties with good biodegradability qualities is found. Suggesting a positive future in the field of insulating transformer oils. The results found in this thesis can be used as a basis for future theses regarding transformer oils used for HVDC applications.

Nanocomposites of polyethylene and metal oxide nanoparticles have shown to be a feasible approachto the next generation of insulation in high voltage direct current cables. In order to reach an operationvoltage of 1 MV new insulation materials with reduced conductivity and increased breakdown strengthas compared to modern low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is needed.In this work polyethylene MgO nanocomposites for electrical insulation has been produced andcharacterized both from an electrical and material perspective. The MgO nanoparticles weresynthesized into polycrystalline nanoparticles with a large specific surface area (167 m2 g–1). Meltprocessing by extrusion resulted in evenly dispersed MgO nanoparticles in LDPE for the silane surfacemodified MgO as compared to the unmodified MgO. All systems showed a reduction in conductivityby up to two orders of magnitude at low loading levels (1–3 wt.%), but where the surface modifiedsystems were able to retain reduced conductivity even at loading levels of 9 wt.%. A maximuminteraction radius to influence the conductivity of the MgO nanoparticles was theoretically determinedto ca. 800 nm. The interaction radius was in turn experimentally observed around Al2O3 nanoparticlesembedded in LDPE using Intermodulation electrostatic force microscopy. By applying a voltage on theAFM-tip charge injection and extraction around the Al2O3 nanoparticles was observed, visualizing theexistence of additional localized energy states on, and around, the nanoparticles. Ptychography wasused to reveal nanometre features in 3D of electrical trees formed under DC-conditions. Thevisualization showed that the electrical tree grows by pre-step voids in front of the propagatingchannels, facilitating further growth, much in analogy to mechanical crack propagation (Griffithconcept). An electromechanical effect was attributed as possible mechanism for the formation of the voids.<br>Nanokompositer av polyeten och metalloxidpartiklar anses vara möjliga material att använda i morgondagens isolationshölje till högspänningskablar för likström. För att nå en transmissionsspänning på 1 MV behövs isolationsmaterial som i jämförelse med dagens polyeten har lägre elektrisk ledningsförmåga, högre styrka mot elektriskt genomslag och som kan kontrollera ansamling av rymdladdningar. De senaste årens forskning har visat att kompositer av polyeten med nanopartiklar av metalloxider har potential att nå dessa egenskaper. I det här arbetet har kompositer av polyeten och nanopartiklar av MgO för elektrisk isolation producerats och karaktäriserats. Nanopartiklar av MgO har framställts från en vattenbaserad utfällning med efterföljande calcinering, vilket resulterade i polykristallina partiklar med en mycket stor specifik ytarea (167m2 g-1). MgO-nanopartiklarna ytmodifierades i n-heptan genom att kovalent binda oktyl(trietoxi)silan och oktadekyl(trimetoxi)silan till partiklarna för att skapa en hydrofob och skyddande yta. Extrudering av de ytmodifierade MgO nanopartiklarna tillsammans med polyeten resulterade i en utmärkt dispergering med jämnt fördelad partiklar i hela kompositen, vilket ska jämföras med de omodifierade partiklarna som till stor utsträckning bildade agglomerat i polymeren. Alla kompositer med låg fyllnadsgrad (1–3 vikt% MgO) visade upp till 100 gånger lägre elektrisk konduktivitet jämfört med värdet för ofylld polyeten. Vid högre koncentrationer av omodifierade MgO förbättrades inte de isolerande egenskaperna på grund av för stor andel agglomerat, medan kompositerna med de ytmodifierade fyllmedlen som var väl dispergerade behöll en kraftig reducerad elektrisk konduktivitet upp till 9 vikt% fyllnadshalt. Den minsta interaktionsradien för MgO-nanopartiklarna för att minska den elektriska konduktiviten i kompositerna fastställdes med bildanalys och simuleringar till ca 800 nm. Den teoretiskt beräknade interaktionsradien kompletterades med observation av en experimentell interaktionsradie genom att mäta laddningsfördelningen över en Al2O3-nanopartikle i en polyetenfilm med intermodulation (frekvens-mixning) elektrostatisk kraftmikroskop (ImEFM), vilket är en ny AFM-metod för att mäta ytpotentialer. Genom att lägga på en spänning på AFM-kantilevern kunde det visualiseras hur laddningar, både injicerades och extraherades, från nanopartiklarna men inte från polyeten. Det tolkades som att extra energinivåer skapades på och runt nanopartiklarna som fungerar för att fånga in laddningar, ekvivalent med den gängse tolkningen att nanopartiklar introducera extra elektronfällor i den polymera matrisen i nanokompositer. Nanotomografi användes för att avbilda elektriska träd i tre dimensioner. Avbildningen av det elektriska trädet visade att tillväxten av trädet hade skett genom bildning av håligheter framför den framväxande trädstrukturen. Håligheterna leder till försvagning av materialet framför det propagerande trädet och förenklar på det sättet fortsatt tillväxt. Bildningen av håligheter framför trädstrukturen uppvisar en analogi till propagering av sprickor vid mekanisk belastning, i enlighet med Griffiths koncept.<br><p>QC 20161006</p>

Thesis (MScEng (Electrical and Electronic Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: From a systems operation and design perspective, it is important to understand the behaviour of HVDC system insulation when presented with high voltage transients, such as induced by lightning and switching operations. Therefore, this thesis investigates the design, operation and performance of a circuit arrangement that can be used in high voltage laboratories to generate impulse voltage waveforms superimposed on a dc bias voltage. The circuit arrangement consists of an impulse generator and a dc source that supplies continuous dc voltage to stress the test object, which can be any type of insulator, i.e. composite, porcelain, glass, gap arrangements, etc. The composite waveform obtained from the test arrangement is used experimentally to investigate the impulse flashover of insulators. For modelling and analysis purposes, the test circuit was transformed to a Laplace equivalent in order to derive the applicable nodal voltage equations. After substitution of circuit parameter values, the voltage equations are then transformed to time domain equations that predict the time-domain behaviour of the circuit. To validate this mathematical approach, the voltage waveforms obtained with this mathematical model is compared with the waveforms measured under laboratory conditions and also with waveforms simulated with HSPICE software. These comparisons are performed using graphical representations. Good correlation was obtained and the results are presented in this thesis. The final stage of this thesis discusses the application of the designed test arrangement for flashover and withstands tests on a silicon rubber insulator. The determination of the flashover values is done by using the existing statistical methods. The insulator was tested under dry conditions and also under polluted wet conditions for both positive and negative impulses compared to the DC bias voltage polarity. The results show that the dc bias voltage does not affect the total voltage flashover of the insulator significantly. It was also observed that wetting affects the flashover for negative impulse more severely, while the influence of wetting is minimal with positive impulse voltages<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Vanuit ‘n stelselbedryf en ontwerp perspektief, is dit is belangrik om die gedrag van HSGS stelsels te verstaan wanneer dit onderwerp word aan hoogspanning oorgangsverskynsels soos veroorsaak deur weerlig en skakeloperasies. Daarom ondersoek hierdie tesis die ontwerp, werking en werkverrigting van ‘n stroombaanopstelling wat gebruik kan word in hoogspanningslaboratoriums om impulsspannings gesuperponeer op gelykspanning voorspannings op te wek. Die stroombaan bestaan uit ’n impulsgenerator en ‘n gs-bron wat die langdurige gs-spanning voorsien aan die toetsvoorwerp, wat enige tipe isolator kan wees. bv. porselein, glas, gapings, ens. Die saamgestelde golfvorm wat met die toetsopstelling verkry word, is eksperimenteel gebruik om die impulsoorvonking van isolators te ondersoek. Vir die doel van modellering and analise, is die stroombaan na ‘n Laplace ekwivalent getransformeer om die toepaslike knooppunt spanningsvergelykings af te lei. Na substitusie van die stroombaan parameter waardes, word die spanningsvergelykings getransformeer na die tydgebied vergelykings wat die tydgebied gedrag van die stroombaan voorspel. Om die wiskundige benadering te toets, word die spanningsgolfvorms wat met die wiskundige model voorspel word, vergelyk met golfvorms wat onder laboratorium toestande gemeet is en ook met golfvorms wat met HSPICE programmatuur gesimuleer is. Hierdie vergelykings word gedoen met behulp van grafiese voorstellings. Goeie korrelasie is verkry en die resultate word in die tesis gegee. Die finale stadium van hierdie tesis bespreek die toepassing van die ontwerpte toetsopstelling vir oorvonk- en weerstaantoetse op ‘n silikonrubber isolator. Die bepaling van die oorvonkwaardes word gedoen deur bestaande statistiese metodes te gebruik. Die isolator is onder droë en nat besoedelde toestande gedoen, vir beide positiewe sowel as negatiewe impulse met verwysing na die GS voorspan spanning. Die resultate toon dat die gsvoorspanning nie die oorvonkspanning van die isolator beïnvloed nie. Dit is ook waargeneem dat die benatting die oorvonking neer beïnvloed met ‘n negatiewe impuls terwyl die invloed minimaal is met positiewe impulsspannings.

La tesi si è svolta nel corso di uno stage di quasi nove mesi all'interno del laboratorio elettrico di alta tensione del reparto R&D di Prysmian, leader mondiale dei sistemi elettrici in cavo. La tesi si è articolata nelle fasi seguenti: 1) analisi dei fondamenti teorici dei sistemi elettrici in cavo ad alta tensione in corrente continua (HVDC); 2) caratterizzazione elettrica di materiali isolanti innovativi per lo sviluppo di sistemi in cavo HVDC. Più in dettaglio tale caratterizzazione è consistita nelle fasi seguenti: a) progettazione e/o realizzazione dei set-up di prova; b) esecuzione delle prove di conducibilità elettrica su provini piani di materiale isolante costituiti da diverse mescole candidate per la realizzazione di cavi modello nella seconda parte della caratterizzazione (vedi seguito); c) elaborazione dei dati delle prove di cui al punto b) per ricavare i parametri σ0, α e β della conducibilità di ogni mescola isolante testata - e quindi l’andamento della conducibilità delle mescole in funzione della temperatura e del gradiente elettrico – così da selezionare le mescole migliori per la realizzazione dei cavi modello (cavi in scala ridotta con dimensioni standardizzate realizzati ai fini di prove di sviluppo); d) esecuzione delle prove di tenuta in AC sui cavi modello selezionati; e) esecuzione delle prove di rigidità ad impulso atmosferico su cavi modello; f) esecuzione delle prove di stabilità termica su cavi modello. I risultati di tutte le prove condotte hanno consentito di determinare quali fossero, tra tutte le mescole prese in esame, le più performanti dal punto di vista elettrico.

Abstract Adding a dc circuit to an existing transmission line is one method of significantly increasing the power transfer capability of a transmission corridor. The resulting hybrid system has significant coupling between the ac and dc circuits, not only because of the proximity of the circuits, but also from the fact that they may share the same sending end or receiving end ac systems. The resultant interaction produces overvoltages on the dc system which can be somewhat higher than for a conventional dc scheme. This thesis investigates the overvoltages on a hybrid ac-dc transmission system and suggests some design considerations which could be taken into account to reduce stresses on certain critical components which result from such an arrangement. Blocking filters consisting of a parallel L-C combination in series with the dc converter were included to limit the flow of fundamental frequency current in the dc line. This thesis also investigates the proper blocking filter configuration to be used as an incorrectly chosen blocking filter can cause resonance overvoltages on the dc line at fundamental frequency. A method of eliminating dc components of the currents in the transformer windings of a dc converter is presented. The method uses the technique of firing angle modulation. It is shown that merely eliminating the fundamental frequency component on the dc side may not remove this dc component. The impact of such control action at one converter on the other converters in the dc transmission system is also presented. It is also shown that the undesirable side effects of such a scheme include increased generation of non-characteristic harmonies on both the ac and dc sides. The study is performed using an electromagnetic transients simulation program and theoretical calculations.

Polyethylene composites which contain low concentrations of metal-oxide nanoparticles e.g. ZnO and MgO are emerging materials for the use in insulations of extruded high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) cables. The challenge in the development of the composites with ultra-low electrical conductivity is to synthesize uniform and high-purity metal-oxide nanoparticles, which are functionalized with hydrophobic groups in order to make them compatible with polyethylene. The thesis reports different approaches to prepare this new generation of insulation materials. Different reaction parameters/conditions – zinc salt precursor, precursor concentrations and reaction temperature – were varied in order to tailor the size and morphology of the ZnO nanoparticles. It was shown that different particle sizes and particle morphologies could be obtained by using different zinc salt precursors (acetate, nitrate, chloride or sulphate). It was shown that 60 °C was a suitable reaction temperature in order to yield particles with different morphologies ranging from nano-prisms to flower-shaped superstructures. For removal of reaction residuals from the particles surfaces, a novel cleaning method based on ultrasonication was developed, which was more efficient than traditional water-replacement cleaning. After cleaning, the presence of one atomic layer of zinc-hydroxy-salt complex (ZHS) on the nanoparticle surfaces was suggested by thermogravimetry and infrared spectroscopy. A method involving three steps – silane coating, heat treatment and silica layer etching – was used to remove the last trace of the ZHS species from the nanoparticle surface while preserving its clean and active hydroxylated surface. The surface chemistry of these nanoparticles was further tailored from hydroxyl groups to hydrophobic alkyl groups with different lengths by reactions involving methyltrimethoxysilane (C1), octyltriethoxysilane (C8) and octadecyltrimethoxysilane (C18). MgO nanoparticles were prepared by aqueous precipitation of Mg(OH)2 followed by a partial transformation to MgO nanoparticles via heat treatment at 400 °C. The surface regions of the MgO nanoparticles convert into a hydroxide phase in humid media. A novel method to obtain large surface area MgO nanoparticles with a remarkable inertness to humidity was also presented. The method involved three steps:  (a) thermal decomposition of Mg(OH)2 at 400 °C; (b) silicone oxide coating of the nanoparticles to prevent inter-particle sintering and (c) a high temperature heat treatment at 1000 °C. These MgO nanoparticles showed essentially no sign of formed hydroxide phase even after extended exposure to humid air. The functionalized metal-oxide nanoparticles showed only a minor adsorption of phenolic antioxidant, which is important in order to obtain nanocomposites with an adequate long-term stability. Tensile testing and scanning electron microscopy revealed that the surface-modified metal-oxide nanoparticles showed improved dispersion and interfacial adhesion in the polyethylene matrix with reference to that of unmodified metal-oxide nanoparticles. The highly “efficient” interfacial surface area induced by these modified nanoparticles created the traps for charge carriers at the polymer/particle interface thus reducing the DC conductivity by more than 1 order of magnitude than that of the pristine polyethylene.<br>Polyetenkompositer med mycket låga halter av ZnO och MgO metalloxid nanopartiklar är en växande kategori material för användning som isolering av extruderade kablar avsedda för likriktad högspänning. En utmaning i utvecklingen av dessa material kan relateras till den praktiska kompositframställningen, vilken innefattar framställning av högrena metalloxid nanopartiklar som ytmodifieras med hydrofoba molekylstrukturer för att möjliggöra blandning med den hydrofoba polyetenplasten. Denna avhandling behandlar olika metoder för att framställa denna generation av isoleringsmaterial. Vid syntesen av de rena nanopartiklarna krävdes optimering av ett antal olika reaktionsparametrar för att uppnå tillfredställande slutresultat i form av partikelstorlekar och partikelmorfologier. Dessa inkluderade val av zinksalt, zinksaltkoncentration vid utfällning, samt reaktionstemperatur vid framställningen. Experimenten avslöjade att olika partikelstorlekar och partikelmorfologier kunde framställas som endast korrelerat mot källan av zinkjonerna, och berodde av vilka motjoner som zinkatomerna haft i zinksaltet (acetat, nitrat, klorid eller sulfat). Optimering av reaktionstemperaturen visade att ca 60 °C utgjorde en lämplig start för utvärdering av synteserna, som resulterade i olika partikelmorfologier i form av pyramidformade nanopartiklar till blomformationer. Utöver de specifika reaktionsparametrarna utvecklades även en ny ultrasonikeringsmetod för att rena ytorna hos partiklarna från motjoner relaterade till de valda specifika salterna. Metodiken som visade sig avsevärt mer effektiv än sedvanlig rening att utfällda nanopartiklar via repetitivt vattenutbyte, och skapade förutsättningar etablering av kolloidal stabilitet och fragmentering av aggregat i vattensuspensionerna. Efter ultrasonikeringsreningen beräknades de kvarvarande zinkhydroxidsalterna (ZHS) utgöra endast ett atomlager ZHS utifrån termogravimetriska data kompletterade med infraröd spektroskopi. En metod att eliminera de kvarvarande ZHS-komplexen från ytan av partiklarna tillämpades/utvecklades, inkluderade ytbeläggning av partiklarna med silan, följt av värmebehandling samt etsning av den resulterande kiseloxidytan, för att uppnå en ren hydroxylyta på partiklarna. Ytkemin hos dessa partiklar modifierades från att bestå av hydroxylgrupper till att utgöras av hydrofoba alkylgrupper med olika längder relaterade metyltrimetoxysilan (C1), oktyltrietoxysilan (C8), eller oktadekyltrimetoxysilan (C18). Även MgO nanopartiklar framställdes via vattenutfällning av Mg(OH)2 partiklar, vilka omvandlades till MgO nanopartiklar via en lågtemperatur värmebehandling vid 400°C. Ytan av dessa partiklar omvandlades dock till hydroxid i fuktig miljö. En ny metod att bibehålla den stora ytarean av MgO nanopartiklarna med anmärkningsvärd motståndskraft mot att omvandlas till hydroxid utvecklades således. Metoden består av (a) en låg temperatur omvandling av Mg(OH)2, (b) en kiseloxidytbehandling av nanopartiklarna för att undvika partikelsintring vid högre temperaturer och (c) en hög temperaturbehandling vid 1000 °C. De framställda partiklarna uppvisade ingen anmärkningsvärd känslighet mot luftfuktighet och bibehöll MgO sammansättningen efter exponering mot fukt. De modifierade metalloxid nanopartiklarna visade mycket liten adsorption av fenoliska antioxidanter, vilket medförde en långtidsstabilitet hos polyeten nanokompositerna. De ytmodifierade metalloxidpartiklarna visade även förbättrade möjligheter för dispergering och yt-kompatibilitet med/i polyetenmatrisen i jämförelse med omodifierade metalloxidpartiklar, utifrån mätningar baserade på dragprovning och svepelektronmikroskopi. Slutligen, de utvecklade ytorna på de modifierade nanopartiklarna skapade ett polymer/nanopartikel gränssnitt som kunder fungera som laddningsansamlingsområden i nanokompositerna, vilket resulterade i en storleksordning minskad ledningsförmåga hos kompositerna jämfört med den rena polyetenen.<br><p>QC 20160829</p>

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The worldwide increase in the popularity of high voltage direct current (HVDC) power transmission application has led to questions regarding the performance of high voltage alternating current (HVAC) insulators when energized under HVDC excitation. These questions have led researchers conduct numerous research projects worldwide. A particular question NamPower (the power utility in Namibia) has faced is: how do these insulators perform and age when energized under HVDC excitation in heavily polluted environments? This question was only partly answered by some insulator ageing tests conducted under laboratory conditions for HVDC excitation. However, the natural ageing tests on insulators, which are preferred, have to date been confined predominantly to HVAC excitation voltages. Thus, this research was initiated to investigate the natural ageing performance of insulators under both HVAC and HVDC excitations, when subjected to harsh marine pollution environments. This research project involved performance and ageing tests on three identical sets of line insulators made from different insulator materials, energised under HVAC and both polarities HVDC excitations respectively. The tests were conducted at Koeberg insulator pollution test station (KIPTS), which is a natural marine pollution insulator test station located near Cape Town, along the west coast of South Africa, approximately 50 m from the sea. The set of insulators consisted of EPDM silicone alloy rubber, HTV silicone rubber, RTV silicone rubber coated porcelain, Porcelain and Glass insulators. The HVAC excitation voltage was chosen as 12.7 kV r.m.s. phase-to-ground and it was decided to use a HVDC excitation voltage equal to this value. The research results showed that the insulators made from HTV silicone rubber performed better than the insulators made from EPDM silicone alloy rubber under all excitation voltages. It is also showed that RTV silicone rubber coated porcelain insulators performed better than Glass and Porcelain insulators under all excitation voltages.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die wêreld wye toename in gewildheid van hoë spanning gelyk stroom (HSGS) krag transmisie aplikasie het gelei na vrae oor die effektieweteit van hoë spanning wissel stroom (HSWS) insolators in HSGS aplikasies. Hierdie vrae het gelei na baie navorsings projekte. Een vraag waarmee NamPower (die krag voorsienings maatskapy in Namibia) gekonfronteer was, was hoe gaan die insolators wat onderworpe is aan ’n HSGS toevoer reageer in ’n baie besoedelde omgewing. Hierdie vraag was slegs gedeeltelik beantwoord deur verouderings toetse op insolators wat gedoen is in ’n labaratorium met ’n HSGS toevoer. Inteendeel, die meeste natuurlike verouderings toetse op insolators, soos verkies, is meestal gedoen met ’n HSWS toevoer. Om hierdie rede was hierdie navorsing begin om natuurlike verouderings toetse te doen op insolators onderworpe beide aan HSWS en HSGS toevoere binne ’n marien besoedelde omgewing. Hierdie navorsings projek gaan oor prestering en verouderings toetse op drie, identiese, transmissie lyn insolator stelle, wat onderskeidelik onderworpe was aan HSWS en beide polariteite HSGS toevoere. Die toetse was gedoen by Koeberg insolator besoedeling toets stasie (KIBTS) wat naby Kaapstad geleë is langs die weskus van Suid Africa omtrent 50 m van die see. ’n Stel toets insolators bestaan uit EPDM silikon allooi rubber, HTV silikon rubber, RTV silikon rubber bedekte porselein, Porselein en Glas insolators. Die HSWS waarde waarmee die insolators getoets was, was 12.7 kV w.g.k., fase-na-grond, en dit was besluit om ’n HSGS waarde gelyk aan hierdie spannings waarde te gebruik. Die navorsings resultate wys dat insolators wat gemaak is met HTV silikon rubber presteer beter as insolators wat met EPDM silikon allooi rubber gemaak is onder al die verskillende toevoere. Dit wys ook dat RTV silikon rubber bedekte porselein presteer beter as Porselein en Glas insolators onder al die verskillende toevoere.

Satisfaire les besoins en énergie de manière responsable est possible grâce aux énergies renouvelables, notamment éoliennes et solaires. Cependant ces centres de captation d’énergie sont éloignés dans zones de consommation. Le transport de l’énergie via des réseaux HVDC (haute tension courant continu) permet un rendement et une flexibilité avantageuse face au transport HVAC (haute tension courant alternatif). Ceci est rendu possible grâce aux convertisseurs utilisant l’électronique de puissance. Les récents développements sur les semi-conducteurs à large bande interdite, plus particulièrement le carbure de silicium (SiC) offrent la possibilité de concevoir ces convertisseurs plus simples, utilisant des briques technologiques de plus fort calibre (≤ 10 kV). Cependant le packaging, essentiel à leur bon fonctionnement, ne suit pas ces évolutions. Dans cette thèse, nous explorons les technologies actuelles ainsi que les limites physique et normatives liées au packaging haute tension. Des solutions innovantes sont proposées pour concevoir un module de puissance haute tension, impactant que faiblement les paramètres connexes (résistance thermique, isolation électrique et paramètres environnementaux). Les éléments identifiés comme problématiques sont traités individuellement. La problématique des décharges partielles sur les substrats céramiques métallisés est développée et une solution se basant sur les paramètres géométriques a été testée. Le boitier standard type XHP-3 a été étudié et une solution permettant de le faire fonctionner à 10 kV à fort degré de pollution a été développée<br>The supply of carbon-free energy is possible with renewable energy. However, windfarms and solar power plants are geographically away from the distribution points. Transporting the energy using the HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current) technology allow for a better yield along the distance and result in a cost effective approach compared to HVAC (High Voltage Alternative Current) lines. Thus, there is a need of high voltage power converters using power electronics. Recent development on wide bandgap semiconductors, especially silicon carbide (SiC) allow a higher blocking voltage (around 10 kV) that would simplify the design of such power electronic converters. On the other hand, the development on packaging technologies needs to follow this trend. In this thesis, an exploration of technological and normative limitation has been done for a high voltage power module design. The main hot spot are clearly identified and innovative solutions are studied to provide a proper response with a low impact on parasitic parameters. Partial Discharges (PD) on ceramic substrates is analyzed and a solution of a high Partial Discharge Inception Voltage (PDIV) is given based on geometrical parameters. The XHP-3 like power modules are studied and a solution allowing a use under 10 kV at a high pollution degree (PD3) is given

Basierend auf den physikalischen Eigenschaften der unterschiedlichen ölintrinsischen und injizierten Ladungsträger wird ein neues Leitfähigkeitsmodell für Isolieröl und -papier für die Belastung mit hoher Gleichspannung aufgestellt. Das Modell wird mit der Wahl geeigneter Randbedingungen für das elektrische Feld und der Teilchenströme auf die Poisson-Nernst-Planck-Gleichung übertragen. Es steht damit ein Werkzeug zur Verfügung, das dielektrische Verhalten der Öl-Papier-Isolierung zu modellieren, dessen Parameter auf den physikalischen Ladungsträgereigenschaften wie Mobilität und Diffusion basieren. Mit dessen Hilfe werden sowohl die nichtlineare Leitfähigkeit als auch das Durchschlagverhalten als deren Extrapolation feldstärkeabhängig erklärt.

L'émergence des énergies renouvelables a entraîné le développement de nouvelles technologies pour la distribution de l'énergie sur de longues distances. Ces dernières sont basées sur le transport via de hautes tensions continues (HVDC) pour éviter les pertes capacitives. Ce réseau de distribution est interconnecté via des Postes Sous Enveloppes Métalliques (PSEM), dont l'isolation est composée de gaz sous pression (SF6) et d'isolants solides (résine époxy), qui doivent résister sous HVDC. Dans ces dispositifs, le champ électrique n'est plus déterminé par la permittivité relative des matériaux, mais par leurs résistivités et les phénomènes d'accumulation de charges. Dans le cas d'un isolant solide présentant une interface avec un gaz, des électrons ou des ions vont être susceptibles de se déplacer suivant les lignes de champ électrique et charger la surface de l'isolant solide. Le comportement des propriétés des isolants (solides et gazeux) constitue un enjeu majeur dans le développement de PSEM HVDC, notamment dans la compréhension des mécanismes d'accumulation et relaxation des charges.Dans ce travail de thèse, la caractérisation de l'isolant solide a d'abord été étudiée, basée sur des mesures de courants faibles bruits. Il est ainsi possible de mesurer le courant de fuite dans le volume et sur la surface des échantillons, dans une enceinte sous pression, à haut champ électrique et pour différentes températures. Ces mesures ont mis en évidence que les résistivités de volume et de surface sont fortement impactées par l'augmentation de la température et la teneur en eau des échantillons. Il a également été montré que la résistivité de surface a un comportement non-linéaire en fonction du champ électrique. Un modèle numérique a été développé pour simuler les résultats obtenus, et implémenter les propriétés de surface de l'isolant solide.Les propriétés isolantes du gaz ont également été étudiées pour différentes géométries de champ électrique, dans le but d'estimer la contribution du courant passant à travers le gaz, sur l'accumulation de charge en surface de l'isolant solide. Des courants non négligeables sont mesurés dans le gaz (~pA-nA). Pour déterminer les mécanismes responsables de la présence de tels courants, il a été caractérisé selon plusieurs paramètres (la rugosité de la surface de l'électrode, la nature du matériau, le champ électrique, la température et l'humidité relative). Cela a mis en évidence que les variations de courants dépendent du conditionnement du dispositif, et sont donc fortement influencés par l'humidité relative adsorbée sur les surfaces du dispositif (électrodes et cuves). En présence d'un système sec, de faibles courants sont mesurés (~pA), et augmentent en fonction de la température. A l'inverse, dans le cas d'un système humide, le courant diminue avec l'augmentation de la température. Ces résultats, combinés à l'influence de la rugosité de l'électrode, suggèrent fortement un mécanisme d'injection de charge à la surface de l'électrode, favorisé en présence d'eau adsorbée.Enfin, les résultats obtenus pour les deux isolants solides et gazeux sont utilisés pour élaborer un modèle numérique ayant une forme proche de celle de l'application industrielle, et permettent d'observer la modification de la distribution du champ électrique en présence de la concentration en eau et du gradient de température. Une estimation du courant circulant au travers des isolants est donc possible.En conclusion, ce travail donne les variations des résistivités de volume et de surface dans une résine époxy en fonction de la température et du champ électrique. Il met également en évidence la forte influence de l'humidité relative et de la température sur les mécanismes d'injection de charges qui contribuent au courant mesuré à travers le gaz. Cette caractérisation approfondie permet de développer une simulation qui prédit les variations de la distribution du champ électrique au sein d'un PSEM sous tension continue<br>The emergence of renewable energy leads to a development of new technologies for energy distribution across long distances. The latter will be based on High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) to avoid capacitance losses. This network is interconnected using Gas Insulated Substation (GIS), which insulation is composed of pressurized gas (SF6) and solid insulators (epoxy resin), which have to withstand HVDC. The electric field is not anymore determined by permittivity of materials, but by resistivities and charge accumulation. In the case of an insulator with an interface with gas, electrons or ions will move across electric field lines and will charge the surface of the solid insulator. The behavior of insulator's properties (gas and solid) constitutes a major challenge for the development of HVDC GIS, to understand the charge relaxation/accumulation mechanisms.In this work, the characterization of solid insulator has first been investigated, based on a low-noise current measurement method. It is thus possible to measure the leakage current through samples and onto their surface, in a pressurized gas, at high electric field and for different temperatures. Those measurements permit to evidence that both volume and surface resistivities are strongly impacted by the increase of temperature and water concentration. It has also been shown that surface resistivity has a non-linear behavior with electric field. A numerical model was developed, to simulate experimental results, showing that the surface properties of the insulator can be implemented.Furthermore, the insulating properties of the gas were also investigated through different electric field geometry (coaxial and uniform), in order to estimate the contribution of current through gas on the charge accumulated on solid insulators. It has been found that a non-negligible current passes through the gas (~pA to nA). To determine the mechanisms responsible for such currents, the latter has been characterized depending on several parameters (electrode surface roughness, material nature, electric field, temperature and relative humidity). It revealed that the variations of currents are strongly impacted by the conditioning of the device and thus by the relative humidity adsorbed on electrodes and enclosure surfaces. In presence of a dry system (dry gas and device) low current were measured (~pA), which increases with temperature. On the contrary, in case of a “wet” system (humid gas and device) the current decreases with increasing temperature. Those results combined with the influence of the electrode roughness, strongly suggest a mechanism of charge injection at the electrode surface, enhanced by water adsorption.Finally, the results obtained for both solid and gaseous insulations are used to develop a numerical model with a shape close to the industrial application, and observe the modification of electric field distribution in presence of water concentration and temperature gradient. An estimation of current flowing through the insulator and gas is thus possible in case of uniform and gradient temperature.In conclusion, this work gives the variations of both volume and surface resistivities in an epoxy resin with temperature and electric field. It also evidences the major influence of relative humidity and temperature on charge injection mechanisms which contribute to the current measured through gas. The extensive characterization performed, enables to develop a simulation which predicts the variations of electric field distribution within an HVDC GIS

The main aim of the thesis was to create design documentation, energyefficient terraced house in the village of Moravian Knínice. The proposed building will be located in the vacant space between buildings. Layout of the building is limited by the size of building lots located in hillside surrounding buildings, and orientation to the cardinal. The thesis deals with the layout, building and construction, buildings, so that it effectively uses renewable energy and efficiently work with them.

The work description is to create a system of measures to prevent the spread and the consequent attenuation of sound in air handling systems serving the cleanrooms. The thesis presents a solution to noise attenuation in the investigated area, and in HVAC duct, which uses a commercially available material in the form of sound insulation hoses. In the systém solution is part of the work focuses on the optimal design of terminal elements to distribute air in a clean room. Processing methods utilize theoretical and experimental approach. The experiment comprises a unique analysis of the sound insulation properties of selected products under specific conditions. The data obtained are analyzed and incorporated into the framework of this work created program module for determining the attenuation and noise propagation in an enclosed space. Math and physical dependence are programmed into their own DLL by programming language DELPHI.

This thesis deals with the design and elaboration process of a project documentation of a sports centre. The designed sports centre building is situated in the southern part of the town of Polička, in the area determined for sports and free time activities complexes and areas. It is a two-floor, non-cellar, flat-roof building. It is based on plain concrete strip foundations and reinforced concrete foundation footing. The bearing, peripheral and partition walls are designed from POROTHERM hollow clay blocks. Reinforced concrete columns are designated in open disposition areas. The ceiling construction is made from SPIROLL pre-stressed concrete floor slabs and point-supported reinforced concrete slabs. The peripheral walls of the first aboveground floor are insulated with external thermal insulation system with a protective gabion facade. The peripheral wall thermal insulation in a bowling restaurant and gym halls extension is designed from a ventilated facade with CEMBRIT METRO facade cladding panels. The building is functionally divided into two main parts with a shared entrance. The sports centre with gyms and other sports facilities form the first part. Three squash courts, a mini-football piste, a special room for spinning and alpinning, a room for group exercising and cloakrooms with sanitary facilities are designed within one part of the sports centre. A restaurant with a bowling area and a kitchen with storerooms and other facilities for employees form the second part. The designed complex is barrier-free. There is aimed to be a car park for fifty cars, four motorbikes and a bus in front of the building. Three parking places are for disabled people.

Outdoor insulators are one of the most important parts of a power system. The reliability of a power system depends also on the reliability of the insulators. The main functions of an insulator used for outdoor applications are to give the necessary insulation, provide the necessary mechanical support to the transmission line conductor and also to resist the various environmental stresses like pollution, ultra violet rays etc. Traditionally porcelain and glass insulators have been used for outdoor insulator applications. They are good insulators under normal conditions and the cap and pin arrangement allows them to take up the mechanical load of the line. But owing to their large weight and brittle nature they are susceptible to vandalism and also they have increased cost of installation and commissioning. But the main problem of porcelain and glass insulators is its performance under polluted environmental condition. Under wet and polluted conditions, the porcelain insulators allow the formation of a conducting layer on the surface which results in setting up of leakage current, dry band arcing and power loss. This problem is further augmented under dc voltages where the stress is unidirectional and the contaminant deposition is higher as compared to ac. Polymeric insulators are a good alternative for porcelain and ceramic insulators for use especially under dc voltages because of their good pollution performance. The property of surface hydrophobicity resists the setting up of leakage currents and hence polymeric insulators help in reducing power loss. They are also light in weight and vandalism resistant and hence easier to install. But being polymeric, they form conductive tracks and erode when exposed to high temperatures which occur at the surface during dry band arcs and when exposed to corona discharges. The surface hydrophobicity is also temporarily lost when exposed to different electrical stresses. Silicone rubber is the most popular among the various choices of polymers for outdoor insulator applications. They have good surface hydrophobicity and tracking performance. But polymers in their pure form cannot be used as insulators because of their poor mechanical strength. Adding inorganic fillers into the polymer matrix not only improves its mechanical properties but also its erosion resistance. Micron sized Alumina Trihydrate (ATH) is used traditionally to improve the tracking and erosion resistance of polymeric insulators. A very high loading (up to 60%) is used. Adding such a high filler loading to the base polymer hampers its flexibility and the material processing. With the advent of nanotechnology, nano fillers have come into vogue. Studies conducted on nano filled polymers showed exciting results. A small amount of nano fillers in the polymer matrix showed significant improvement in the mechanical strength without hampering its flexibility. The electrical properties like tracking and erosion also improved with filler loading. Hence the use of nano filled silicone rubber is a good alternative for use as a high voltage insulator especially under dc voltages. Reports suggest that adding nano fillers into the silicone rubber matrix improves the tracking and erosion resistance and the corona degradation as compared to the unfilled samples under ac voltages. The literature on the dc performance of silicone rubber nano composites is scarce. So the present study aims to evaluate the performance of silicone rubber nano composites for tracking and erosion resistance and corona degradation under dc voltages. The tracking and erosion resistance under dc voltages was measured using the Inclined Plane Tracking and Erosion Resistance set up as per ASTM D2303 which was modified for dc voltage studies. The performance of nano Alumina and nano Silica fillers were evaluated under negative dc and the performance was compared with micron sized Alumina Trihydrate filled samples. The effect of filler loading was also studied. It was seen that the performance of the silicone rubber improved with filler loading. A small loading percentage of nano fillers were enough to give performance similar to silicone rubber filled with micron sized ATH filler. The silicone rubber performed better under negative dc as compared to ac and positive dc. The positive dc tests showed a migration of ions from the electrodes onto the sample surface. The increased surface conductivity resulted in very heavy erosion in the case of positive dc tested samples. The corona aging studies were also conducted on silicone rubber nano composites. Nano silica was used as filler in this case. Different filler loadings were employed to understand the effect of filler loading. The corona was generated using a needle plane electrode and samples were exposed to both positive and negative dc corona. The samples were exposed to corona for different time intervals – 25 and 50 hours to study the effect of exposure time. The hydrophobicity, crack width and surface roughness were measured after the tests. Adding nano fillers into the polymer matrix improved the corona performance. With filler loading, the performance improved. The samples exposed to positive dc corona performed better than those under negative dc corona. The loss of hydrophobicity, surface cracks and the surface roughness was less in the case of positive dc corona tested samples. With exposure time, the performance of silicone rubber became poorer for positive dc corona tested samples. For the negative dc corona tested samples, the performance seemed to improve with exposure time. The tracking and erosion resistance and the corona aging studies conducted showed that the performance of silicone rubber is improved by adding nano fillers into the polymer matrix. A small amount of nano filler loading was enough to perform similar to a heavily loaded micron filled sample. Hence nano fillers can be used as a good functional material to improve the performance of silicone rubber insulators especially under wet and polluted conditions.

Outdoor insulators are one of the most important parts of a power system. The reliability of a power system depends also on the reliability of the insulators. The main functions of an insulator used for outdoor applications are to give the necessary insulation, provide the necessary mechanical support to the transmission line conductor and also to resist the various environmental stresses like pollution, ultra violet rays etc. Traditionally porcelain and glass insulators have been used for outdoor insulator applications. They are good insulators under normal conditions and the cap and pin arrangement allows them to take up the mechanical load of the line. But owing to their large weight and brittle nature they are susceptible to vandalism and also they have increased cost of installation and commissioning. But the main problem of porcelain and glass insulators is its performance under polluted environmental condition. Under wet and polluted conditions, the porcelain insulators allow the formation of a conducting layer on the surface which results in setting up of leakage current, dry band arcing and power loss. This problem is further augmented under dc voltages where the stress is unidirectional and the contaminant deposition is higher as compared to ac. Polymeric insulators are a good alternative for porcelain and ceramic insulators for use especially under dc voltages because of their good pollution performance. The property of surface hydrophobicity resists the setting up of leakage currents and hence polymeric insulators help in reducing power loss. They are also light in weight and vandalism resistant and hence easier to install. But being polymeric, they form conductive tracks and erode when exposed to high temperatures which occur at the surface during dry band arcs and when exposed to corona discharges. The surface hydrophobicity is also temporarily lost when exposed to different electrical stresses. Silicone rubber is the most popular among the various choices of polymers for outdoor insulator applications. They have good surface hydrophobicity and tracking performance. But polymers in their pure form cannot be used as insulators because of their poor mechanical strength. Adding inorganic fillers into the polymer matrix not only improves its mechanical properties but also its erosion resistance. Micron sized Alumina Trihydrate (ATH) is used traditionally to improve the tracking and erosion resistance of polymeric insulators. A very high loading (up to 60%) is used. Adding such a high filler loading to the base polymer hampers its flexibility and the material processing. With the advent of nanotechnology, nano fillers have come into vogue. Studies conducted on nano filled polymers showed exciting results. A small amount of nano fillers in the polymer matrix showed significant improvement in the mechanical strength without hampering its flexibility. The electrical properties like tracking and erosion also improved with filler loading. Hence the use of nano filled silicone rubber is a good alternative for use as a high voltage insulator especially under dc voltages. Reports suggest that adding nano fillers into the silicone rubber matrix improves the tracking and erosion resistance and the corona degradation as compared to the unfilled samples under ac voltages. The literature on the dc performance of silicone rubber nano composites is scarce. So the present study aims to evaluate the performance of silicone rubber nano composites for tracking and erosion resistance and corona degradation under dc voltages. The tracking and erosion resistance under dc voltages was measured using the Inclined Plane Tracking and Erosion Resistance set up as per ASTM D2303 which was modified for dc voltage studies. The performance of nano Alumina and nano Silica fillers were evaluated under negative dc and the performance was compared with micron sized Alumina Trihydrate filled samples. The effect of filler loading was also studied. It was seen that the performance of the silicone rubber improved with filler loading. A small loading percentage of nano fillers were enough to give performance similar to silicone rubber filled with micron sized ATH filler. The silicone rubber performed better under negative dc as compared to ac and positive dc. The positive dc tests showed a migration of ions from the electrodes onto the sample surface. The increased surface conductivity resulted in very heavy erosion in the case of positive dc tested samples. The corona aging studies were also conducted on silicone rubber nano composites. Nano silica was used as filler in this case. Different filler loadings were employed to understand the effect of filler loading. The corona was generated using a needle plane electrode and samples were exposed to both positive and negative dc corona. The samples were exposed to corona for different time intervals – 25 and 50 hours to study the effect of exposure time. The hydrophobicity, crack width and surface roughness were measured after the tests. Adding nano fillers into the polymer matrix improved the corona performance. With filler loading, the performance improved. The samples exposed to positive dc corona performed better than those under negative dc corona. The loss of hydrophobicity, surface cracks and the surface roughness was less in the case of positive dc corona tested samples. With exposure time, the performance of silicone rubber became poorer for positive dc corona tested samples. For the negative dc corona tested samples, the performance seemed to improve with exposure time. The tracking and erosion resistance and the corona aging studies conducted showed that the performance of silicone rubber is improved by adding nano fillers into the polymer matrix. A small amount of nano filler loading was enough to perform similar to a heavily loaded micron filled sample. Hence nano fillers can be used as a good functional material to improve the performance of silicone rubber insulators especially under wet and polluted conditions.

Basierend auf den physikalischen Eigenschaften der unterschiedlichen ölintrinsischen und injizierten Ladungsträger wird ein neues Leitfähigkeitsmodell für Isolieröl und -papier für die Belastung mit hoher Gleichspannung aufgestellt. Das Modell wird mit der Wahl geeigneter Randbedingungen für das elektrische Feld und der Teilchenströme auf die Poisson-Nernst-Planck-Gleichung übertragen. Es steht damit ein Werkzeug zur Verfügung, das dielektrische Verhalten der Öl-Papier-Isolierung zu modellieren, dessen Parameter auf den physikalischen Ladungsträgereigenschaften wie Mobilität und Diffusion basieren. Mit dessen Hilfe werden sowohl die nichtlineare Leitfähigkeit als auch das Durchschlagverhalten als deren Extrapolation feldstärkeabhängig erklärt.

abstract: High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) technology is being considered for several long distance point-to-point overhead transmission lines, because of their lower losses and higher transmission capability, when compared to AC systems. Insulators are used to support and isolate the conductors mechanically and electrically. Composite insulators are gaining popularity for both AC and DC lines, for the reasons of light weight and good performance under contaminated conditions. This research illustrates the electric potential and field computation on HVDC composite insulators by using the charge simulation method. The electric field is calculated under both dry and wet conditions. Under dry conditions, the field distributions along the insulators whose voltage levels range from 500 kV to 1200 kV are calculated and compared. The results indicate that the HVDC insulator produces higher electric field, when compared to AC insulator. Under wet conditions, a 500 kV insulator is modeled with discrete water droplets on the surface. In this case, the field distribution is affected by surface resistivity and separations between droplets. The corona effects on insulators are analyzed for both dry and wet conditions. Corona discharge is created, when electric field strength exceeds the threshold value. Corona and grading rings are placed near the end-fittings of the insulators to reduce occurrence of corona. The dimensions of these rings, specifically their radius, tube thickness and projection from end fittings are optimized. This will help the utilities design proper corona and grading rings to reduce the corona phenomena.<br>Dissertation/Thesis<br>M.S. Electrical Engineering 2013

Dissertação de Mestrado Integrado em Engenharia Mecânica apresentada à Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia<br>Este trabalho tem como base os efeitos que as alterações climáticas irão ter sobre os gastos a suportar e os consumos energéticos dos edifícios localizados em Portugal no ano 2070. Mais concretamente, avalia-se a viabilidade económica e energética da aplicação de isolamento térmico nos elementos opacos da envolvente dos edifícios e da utilização de sistemas fixos de sombreamento dos vãos envidraçados. Em termos de análise, deu-se relevância à identificação da melhor localização e da espessura ótima do isolamento térmico e á orientação, geometria e comprimento recomendados para as palas de sombreamento.Em termos climáticos são considerados 3 cenários: o clima atual (Histórico); o resultante de alterações climáticas de média intensidade e o resultante de alterações climáticas extremas, conforme formulados pelo Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change das Nações Unidas.São considerados seis edifícios diferentes, um apartamento, uma moradia, uma clínica com internamento, uma escola, uma agência bancária e um supermercado.Os edifícios são considerados implantados em três locais (Funchal, Ansião e Mirandela) pertencentes a zonas climáticas distintas, os quais no seu conjunto representam as várias condições climáticas do clima mediterrânico Português.Considera-se que o controlo do funcionamento dos sistemas de AVAC pode ser efetuado alternativamente através de 7 tipos de controlo diferentes: 3 por set-point baseado no PMV (Predicted Mean Vote); 3 por set-point baseado na temperatura do ar interior; e a situação sem sistemas de AVAC.Seguindo o recomendado na bibliografia consultada, selecionou-se para material isolante térmico o EPS (poliestireno expandido). Foram testadas três localizações alternativas para o isolante térmico (pelo interior, no meio na caixa de ar e pelo exterior do elemento opaco) e foram analisadas espessuras do mesmo desde 0 (sem material isolante) até 12 cm.Consideraram-se sistemas de sombreamento fixos, do tipo pala vertical (à esquerda ou à direita) ou pala horizontal. Para um mesmo caso, todas as palas terão o mesmo comprimento, para as quais foram testados comprimentos desde 0 (ausência de palas) até 150 cm. Dependendo da sua orientação, cada vão envidraçado pode não possuir palas, ser sombreado por apenas uma pala (horizontal ou vertical) ou ser sombreado por duas palas (uma horizontal e outra vertical).Os resultados apresentados foram obtidos recorrendo ao software SEnergEd, o qual permite a simulação do comportamento energético de edifícios e o cálculo do custo anual equivalente do ciclo de vida completo dos mesmos.Para elaboração dos ficheiros com os dados climáticos, para cada um dos cenários de alterações climáticas considerado, foi aplicada uma metodologia denominada por Morphing Procedure, a qual combina valores previstos por Modelos Climáticos Globais (GCMs) com dados climáticos atuais.A análise de resultados assentou nas previsões do custo anual equivalente de cada edifício, do consumo de energia pelos sistemas de AVAC, das necessidades de energia para aquecimento e das necessidades de energia para arrefecimento.Constatou-se que, mesmo em situação de alterações climáticas, o custo anual equivalente e o consumo energético continuam muito ligados à zona climática onde os edifícios estão localizados e à sua tipologia de uso dos mesmos.Globalmente, o aumento da severidade das alterações climáticas leva a um aumento das necessidades de energia para arrefecimento e a uma diminuição das necessidades de energia para aquecimento. No entanto, as necessidades de arrefecimento aumentam mais do que as de aquecimento diminuem, o que leva a um aumento do consumo de energia pelo edifício e, consequentemente, a um aumento do custo anual equivalente da utilização do mesmo.A aplicação de isolamento térmico nos elementos opacos da envolvente dos edifícios apresenta sempre benefícios energéticos e, por norma, também é economicamente vantajosa. No entanto, a verificarem-se alterações climáticas, elas levarão a um decréscimo da sua importância, fazendo com que a sua espessura óptima diminua com o aumento da severidade das alterações ao clima.A aplicação de palas nos vãos envidraçados ganhará importância no futuro, a qual será tanto maior quanto mais severas forem as alterações climáticas. Previu-se que a aplicação destes elementos construtivos não será viável em termos económicos, mas que trará benefícios assinaláveis em termos de poupanças energéticas, nomeadamente se as alterações climáticas forem severas.<br>This work is based on the effects that climate change will have on the costs to be borne and the energy consumption of buildings located in Portugal in the year 2070. In particular, the economic and energy viability of the application of thermal insulation to the opaque elements of the building envelope and the use of fixed glazing gap shading systems are assessed. In terms of analysis, relevance was given to the identification of the best location and optimal thickness of the thermal insulation and to the orientation, geometry and length recommended for the shading visors.In terms of climate, three scenarios are considered: the current climate (Historical); the one resulting from medium-intensity climate change and the one resulting from extreme climate change, as formulated by the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.Are considered six different buildings, an apartment, a house, a clinic with internment, a school, a bank branch and a supermarket.The buildings are considered to be located in three locations (Funchal, Ansião and Mirandela) belonging to distinct climatic zones, which together represent the various climatic conditions of the Portuguese Mediterranean climate.It is considered that the control of the functioning of HVAC systems can be performed alternatively through 7 different control types: 3 per set-point based on PMV (Predicted Mean Vote); 3 per set-point based on indoor air temperature; and the situation without HVAC systems.Following the recommended in the consulted bibliography, EPS (expanded polystyrene) was selected for thermal insulating material. Three alternative locations were tested for thermal insulation (inside, middle in the air box and outside of the opaque element) and thicknesses were analyzed from 0 (without insulating material) to 12 cm.Fixed shading systems of the vertical visor type (left or right) or horizontal visor type were considered. For the same case, all the visors will have the same length, for which lengths have been tested from 0 (absence of visors) up to 150 cm. Depending on their orientation, each glazed gap may not have visors, may be shaded by only one visor (horizontal or vertical) or be shaded by two visors (one horizontal and one vertical).The results were obtained using the Senerged software, which allows the simulation of the energy behavior of buildings and the calculation of the equivalent annual cost of their complete life cycle.For the elaboration of the climate data files, for each of the considered climate change scenarios, a methodology called the Morphing Procedure was applied, which combines values predicted by Global Climate Models (Gcms) with current climate data.The results analysis was based on forecasts of the equivalent annual cost of each building, the energy consumption by HVAC systems, heating energy needs and cooling energy needs.It was found that, even in a climate change situation, the equivalent annual cost and energy consumption are still very much linked to the climate zone where the buildings are located and to their typology of use.Overall, the increase in the severity of climate change leads to an increase in cooling energy needs and a decrease in heating energy needs. However, cooling needs increase more than heating needs decrease, which leads to an increase in energy consumption by the building and, consequently, an increase in the equivalent annual cost of using the building.The application of thermal insulation to the opaque elements of the building envelope always has energy benefits and is generally also economically advantageous. However, if climate change occurs, it will lead to a decrease in its importance, causing its optimal thickness to decrease as the severity of climate change increases.The application of visors to glazed spans will gain importance in the future, which will be all the more severe the climate change. It has been foreseen that the implementation of these constructive elements will not be economically viable but will bring significant benefits in terms of energy savings, particularly if climate change is severe.