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Journal articles on the topic 'Hypoglycin'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2025

Last updated: 1 August 2025

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1

Van Hoof, F., L. Hue, J. Vamecq, and H. S. Sherratt. "Protection of rats by clofibrate against the hypoglycaemic and toxic effects of hypoglycin and pent-4-enoate. An ultrastructural and biochemical study." Biochemical Journal 229, no. 2 (1985): 387–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj2290387.

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An ultrastructural and biochemical study of the toxic and hypoglycaemic effects of hypoglycin and pent-4-enoate was made on the livers of normal and clofibrate-fed rats. Injection of hypoglycin to rats doubles (from 22% to 44%) the volume fraction of mitochondria and decreases (from 1.05% to 0.26%) the volume fraction of peroxisomes in hepatocytes. The fast-acting toxin pent-4-enoate causes few ultrastructural changes except for the accumulation of lipids. In male adult rats fed with 0.5% clofibrate in their diet for 1-2 months, the volume fraction occupied by peroxisomes and mitochondria in h

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2

Hue, L., and H. S. Sherratt. "Inhibition of gluconeogenesis by hypoglycin in the rat. Evidence for inhibition of glucose-6-phosphatase in vivo." Biochemical Journal 240, no. 3 (1986): 765–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj2400765.

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Treatment of rats with hypoglycaemic doses of hypoglycin has been shown to abolish the relative detritiation of [2-3H,U-14C]glucose [Osmundsen, Billington, Taylor & Sherratt (1978) Biochem. J. 170, 337-342], indicating that both the Cori and the glucose/glucose 6-phosphate cycles were inhibited in vivo. This inhibition was confirmed and, in addition, it was shown that the conversion in vivo of both [14C]lactate and [14C]fructose into glucose was decreased after hypoglycin treatment. These results suggest that hypoglycin poisoning results in the inhibition in vivo of glucose-6-phosphatase a

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3

Veitch, R. K., H. S. A. Sherratt, and K. Bartlett. "Organic aciduria in rats made resistant to hypoglycin toxicity by pretreatment with clofibrate." Biochemical Journal 246, no. 3 (1987): 775–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj2460775.

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1. The lethal, hypoglycaemic and hypothermic effects of hypoglycin in fasted rats are prevented if the rats had been fed on a diet containing clofibrate (0.5% w/w). 2. Injection of hypoglycin into fasted rats maintained on a standard diet caused severe prostration, hypothermia and a massive dicarboxylic aciduria [Tanaka (1972) J. Biol. Chem. 247, 7465-7478]. 3. Rats maintained on a diet containing clofibrate appeared normal after injection of hypoglycin, but had a marked dicarboxylic aciduria which was less than that induced in rats on a normal diet. 4. After administration of hypoglycin, buty

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4

Engel, Anna Maria, Ahmed H. El-Khatib, Martin Bachmann, et al. "Release of Hypoglycin A from Hypoglycin B and Decrease of Hypoglycin A and Methylene Cyclopropyl Glycine Concentrations in Ruminal Fluid Batch Cultures." Toxins 17, no. 2 (2025): 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17020046.

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The transformation of hypoglycin A (HGA), hypoglycin B (HGB), and methylene cyclopropyl glycine (MCPrG) in ruminal fluid batch cultures was investigated, and the effect of these toxins on the batch culture microorganisms using microbial metabolites was measured. An experiment was conducted using ovine ruminal fluid batch cultures and the ANKOM RF Gas Production System over four runs, each with an incubation period of 48 h. The fermenters contained 200 mg of (i) a substrate mixture (80% cellulose, 20% starch; CSM), (ii) CSM and 1.5 mL of a solution of pure toxins (a mixture of 500 ng/mL HGA and

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5

Golden, K. D., та E. A. Kean. "Dicarḃoxylic aciduria in hypoglycin poisoning". Clinical Nutrition 9, № 1 (1990): XXV. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0261-5614(90)90136-g.

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6

Pettenello, Martina, Zuzana Čriepoková, Natalia Rovňanová, Veronika Kostolániová, Igor Valocký, and Vladimír Hura. "Atypical myopathy in a horse: first confirmed case in Slovakia." Acta Veterinaria Brno 92, no. 3 (2023): 267–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.2754/avb202392030267.

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Atypical myopathy is an acute and often fatal rhabdomyolysis occurring in grazing horses, caused by ingestion of hypoglycin A, a toxin detected in the seeds and seedlings of sycamore trees. This article describes a case of atypical myopathy in a two-year-old Haflinger colt with clinical signs of weakness, muscle tremors, recumbency and esophageal obstruction. Despite intensive care, the clinical status deteriorated and given the poor prognosis, the horse was euthanized. Diagnosis of atypical myopathy was confirmed by increased concentrations of hypoglycin A and methylenecyclopropyl acetic acid

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7

Pitkin, Fabian, and Sala Randall. "Laboratory Patterns in Hypoglycin A Toxicity." Archives of Clinical and Biomedical Research 01, no. 02 (2017): 76–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.26502/acbr.5017008.

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8

Rendle, David. "‘Atypical’ myopathy — hypoglycin toxicity in horses." Livestock 21, no. 3 (2016): 188–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.12968/live.2016.21.3.188.

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9

Falloon, O’Neil C., Saheeda Mujaffar, and Donna Minott. "Physicochemical and Functional Properties of Protein Isolate from Ackee (Blighia sapida) Seed." West Indian Journal of Engineering 44, no. 2 (2022): 92–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.47412/ajtd3244.

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Ackee seeds are a major waste of the ackee canning industry. The seeds bio-accumulate the toxin hypoglycin but are also a potential source of protein. The objective of this study was to produce a protein isolate from the ackee seed and determine the chemical and functional properties of the isolate. Proteins were extracted from the defatted ackee seed flour using sodium borate buffer (pH 10.0, 50 mM) and aqueous ethanol (75% v/v). The protein isolate was then dried under vacuum and milled into a powder. The ackee seed protein isolate contained low molecular weight proteins comprising principal

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10

El-Khatib, Ahmed H., Anna Maria Engel, and Stefan Weigel. "Co-Occurrence of Hypoglycin A and Hypoglycin B in Sycamore and Box Elder Maple Proved by LC-MS/MS and LC-HR-MS." Toxins 14, no. 9 (2022): 608. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins14090608.

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Hypoglycin A (HGA) and methylenecyclpropylglycine (MCPrG) are formed by some maple trees (Acer species) and have been associated with incidences of atypical myopathy among horses in pastures. In this work, a simple and sensitive ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS/MS) method without derivatization was developed for the quantification of HGA and MCPrG in maple samples and validated according to EU guidelines. The LOQ presented here for HGA (16.4 µg/kg) is considerably lower than the lowest published LOQ (500 µg/kg). This method confirms that sycamore and bo

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11

Melde, K., H. Buettner, W. Boschert, H. P. O. Wolf, and S. Ghisla. "Mechanism of hypoglycaemic action of methylenecyclopropylglycine." Biochemical Journal 259, no. 3 (1989): 921–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bj2590921.

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The effects of methylenecyclopropylglycine (MCPG), the lower homologue of hypoglycin A, on starved rats are described. Upon oral ingestion of MCPG (43 mg/kg), a 50% decrease in blood glucose compared with controls was observed after 4 h. The plasma concentrations of lactate and non-esterified fatty acids were substantially increased during this period. The activity of general acyl-CoA dehydrogenase from isolated rat liver mitochondria was not significantly changed. By contrast, the activity of 2-methyl-(branched-chain)-acyl-CoA dehydrogenase decreased by over 80%. The enzyme activity of enoyl-

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12

Mills, Jane, G. N. Melville, C. Bennett, M. West, and Albert Castro. "Effect of hypoglycin a on insulin release." Biochemical Pharmacology 36, no. 4 (1987): 495–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0006-2952(87)90357-1.

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13

Sander, Johannes, Michael Terhardt, Stefanie Sander, and Nils Janzen. "Quantification of hypoglycin A as butyl ester." Journal of Chromatography B 1029-1030 (September 2016): 169–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2016.07.005.

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14

Tanaka, Kay. "Inhibition of gluconeogenesis by hypoglycin: Alternate interpretations." Hepatology 7, no. 6 (1987): 1377–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hep.1840070633.

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15

Bochnia, Mandy, Jörg Ziegler, Maren Glatter, and Annette Zeyner. "Hypoglycin A in Cow’s Milk—A Pilot Study." Toxins 13, no. 6 (2021): 381. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13060381.

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Hypoglycin A (HGA) originating from soapberry fruits (litchi, and ackee) seeds or seedlings from the sycamore maple (SM) tree (related to Sapindaceae) may cause Jamaican vomiting sickness in humans and atypical myopathy in horses and ruminants. A possible transfer into dairy cow’s milk cannot be ruled out since the literature has revealed HGA in the milk of mares and in the offal of captured deer following HGA intoxication. From a study, carried out for another purpose, bulk raw milk samples from four randomly selected dairy farms were available. The cows were pastured in the daytime. A sycamo

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16

Chase, G. W., W. O. Landen, and A. M. Soliman. "Liquid chromatographic resolution of hypoglycin A from leucine." Journal of Chromatography A 456 (May 1988): 431–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0021-9673(86)80044-9.

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17

Votion, Dominique M., Jean Adelite Habyarimana, Marie-Louise Scippo, et al. "Potential new sources of hypoglycin A poisoning for equids kept at pasture in spring: a field pilot study." Veterinary Record 184, no. 24 (2019): 740. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/vr.104424.

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Equine atypical myopathy in Europe results from hypoglycin A (HGA) exposure through the ingestion of samaras or seedlings of the sycamore maple tree. This pilot study aimed at better defining sources of HGA intoxication in spring. Samaras fallen on the ground and then seedlings were collected at two-week intervals from sycamore, Norway, and field maple trees over the spring 2016. In early April, rainwater from wet seedlings collected after a rainy night was harvested to be analysed. Mid-May, samaras of the box elder, common ash, and inflorescences of sycamore maples were collected on the tree.

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18

Ware, George M. "Method Validation Study of Hypoglycin A Determination in Ackee Fruit." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 85, no. 4 (2002): 933–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/85.4.933.

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Abstract A study was conducted to validate the performance characteristics of a published method entitled “Reversed-Phase Liquid Chromatographic Detection of Hypoglycin A in Canned Ackee Fruit Sample.” Hypoglycin A (HG-A) was extracted from ackee fruit with 80% ethanol–water, centrifuged, and filtered; the sample extract then was reacted with phenylisothiocyanate. HG-A was separated by reversed-phase chromatography as the phenylthiocarbamyl derivative and detected at the low nanogram level using a UV detector at 254 nm. A study was conducted to determine recovery of HG-A added to a control ack

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19

Cavalleri, Jessika-M., Sabine Aboling, and Karsten Feige. "Atypische Myopathie beim Pferd – Hypoglycin A als Ursache festgestellt." pferde spiegel 16, no. 04 (2013): 128–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0033-1350922.

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20

Baldwin, Jack E., Robert M. Adlington, David Bebbington, and Andrew T. Russell. "Asymmetric total synthesis of the individual diastereoisomers of hypoglycin A." Tetrahedron 50, no. 41 (1994): 12015–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0040-4020(01)89313-3.

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21

Dundee, Safiyyah J. S., and Donna A. Minott. "Impact of seed size on residual hypoglycin levels in ackee." Food Research International 47, no. 2 (2012): 306–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.07.045.

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22

Baldwin, Jack E., Robert M. Adlington, David Bebbington, and Andrew T. Russell. "Asymmetric total synthesis of the individual diastereoisomers of hypoglycin A." Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications, no. 17 (1992): 1249. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c39920001249.

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23

Sherratt, H. S. A. "Hypoglycin, the famous toxin of the unripe Jamaican ackee fruit." Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 7 (January 1986): 186–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-6147(86)90310-x.

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24

Boemer, François, Michelle Deberg, Roland Schoos, et al. "Quantification of hypoglycin A in serum using aTRAQ® assay." Journal of Chromatography B 997 (August 2015): 75–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2015.06.004.

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25

Chase, G. William, William O. Landen, Leslie T. Gelbaum, and Abdel-Gawad M. Soliman. "Ion-Exchange Chromatographic Determination of Hypoglycin A in Canned Ackee Fruit." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 72, no. 2 (1989): 374–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/72.2.374.

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Abstract An ion-exchange chromatographic method was developed to determine hypoglycin A (HG-A) levels in canned ackee fruit by using an amino acid analyzer. HG-A was extracted by homogenizing the sample in 80% alcohol. An isocratic buffer system, consisting of 30% sodium citrate buffer (pH 3.15) and 70% sodium chloride-sodium acetate buffer (pH 7.40) was used to obtain baseline separation between HG-A and the other amino acids. The system can detect HGA levels as low as 4.8 μg/mh. HG-A levels in the edible portion of fruit in 6 cans ranged from 11.0 to 66.5 mg HG-A/can. Recoveries by standard

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26

Isenberg, Samantha L., Melissa D. Carter, Shelby R. Hayes, et al. "Quantification of Toxins in Soapberry (Sapindaceae) Arils: Hypoglycin A and Methylenecyclopropylglycine." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 64, no. 27 (2016): 5607–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.6b02478.

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27

Sander, Johannes, Jessika-M. V. Cavalleri, Michael Terhardt, et al. "Rapid diagnosis of hypoglycin A intoxication in atypical myopathy of horses." Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 28, no. 2 (2016): 98–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1040638715624736.

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28

Chase, G. William, William O. Landen, and Abdel-Gawad M. Soliman. "Hypoglycin A Content in the Aril, Seeds, and Husks of Ackee Fruit at Various Stages of Ripeness." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 73, no. 2 (1990): 318–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/73.2.318.

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Abstract Recently, hypoglycin A (HG-A), a natural toxin, was detected in canned ackee fruit. To determine the source of contamination, the HG-A content in the ackee fruit components (aril, seeds, and husks) at various stages of ripeness was determined by a method using an amino acid analyzer. HG-A concentrations in the unripe ackee fruit components were 939, 711, and 41.6 mg/100 g of seed, aril, and husk components, respectively. Analysis of the ripe fruit components showed that HG-A in the seed decreased to 269 mg/100 g and remained unchanged in the husk while the concentrations in the edible

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29

Blake, Orane A., Maurice R. Bennink, and Jose C. Jackson. "Ackee (Blighia sapida) hypoglycin A toxicity: Dose response assessment in laboratory rats." Food and Chemical Toxicology 44, no. 2 (2006): 207–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2005.07.002.

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30

BALDWIN, J. E., R. M. ADLINGTON, D. BEBBINGTON, and A. T. RUSSELL. "ChemInform Abstract: Asymmetric Total Synthesis of the Individual Diastereoisomers of Hypoglycin A." ChemInform 26, no. 12 (2010): no. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/chin.199512276.

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31

Bates, Nicola. "Spring poisoning hazards." UK-Vet Equine 5, no. 2 (2021): 76–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.12968/ukve.2021.5.2.76.

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Poisoning can be seasonal. Potential toxic hazards in the spring include adders, which emerge from hibernation as the weather warms. Adders may not be seen to bite a horse, but envenomation should be considered in a horse with localised limb swelling that spreads up the leg. There are several spring-flowering plants which contain toxic compounds such as cardiogenic glycosides (foxglove, lily of the valley, oleander), protoanemonin (Hellebore) and grayanotoxins (Pieris and Rhododendron). Saplings of sycamore are a spring source of hypoglycin A which causes atypical myopathy in horses. Treating

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32

Bates, Nicola. "Atypical myopathy." UK-Vet Equine 6, no. 3 (2022): 96–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.12968/ukve.2022.6.3.96.

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Atypical myopathy is a seasonal condition of non-exertional rhabdomyolysis seen in pastured horses. It occurs in the autumn and spring from ingestion of seeds and seedlings of sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) in Europe and box elder (Acer negundo) in North America. The toxins hypoglycin A and its homologue methylenecyclopropylglycine are metabolised to compounds that impair lipid metabolism, which primarily affect cardiac, respiratory and postural muscles. Initial signs are reluctance to move with muscle weakness and stiffness. Common signs are pigmenturia, hypothermia and pain of varying severi

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33

González‐Medina, Sonia, William Bevin, Rafael Alzola‐Domingo, Yu‐Mei Chang, and Richard J. Piercy. "Hypoglycin A absorption in sheep without concurrent clinical or biochemical evidence of disease." Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 35, no. 2 (2021): 1170–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jvim.16077.

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34

BROWN, MARCIA, R. P. BATES, C. McGOWAN, and J. A. CORNELL. "INFLUENCE OF FRUIT MATURITY ON THE HYPOGLYCIN A LEVEL IN ACKEE (BLIGHIA SAPIDA)." Journal of Food Safety 12, no. 2 (1991): 167–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4565.1991.tb00075.x.

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35

Sanford, Aimee A., Samantha L. Isenberg, Melissa D. Carter, et al. "Quantification of hypoglycin A and methylenecyclopropylglycine in human plasma by HPLC-MS/MS." Journal of Chromatography B 1095 (September 2018): 112–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2018.07.017.

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36

Sarwar, Ghulam, and Herbert G. Botting. "Reversed-Phase Liquid Chromatographic Determination of Hypoglycin A (HG-A) in Canned Ackee Fruit Samples." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 77, no. 5 (1994): 1175–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/77.5.1175.

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Abstract A reversed-phase liquid chromatographic (LC) method involving precolumn derivatization with phenylisothiocyanate (PITC) was developed for determining levels of hypoglycin A (HG-A) in canned ackee fruit samples. HG-A was extracted by homogenizing the drained fruit in 80% ethanol. By using a Waters Pico-Tag amino acid analysis 15-cm-long column (which is also used for analyzing protein hydrolysates and biological samples) and an LC system, the baseline separation of HG-A from other amino acids was completed in about 6 min. The total time for analysis and equilibration was 16 min. HG-A l

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37

McDowell, Sean A. C., and Jessica A. Walcott. "A computational study of hypoglycin A, the toxin of the unripe Jamaican ackee fruit." Molecular Physics 109, no. 3 (2011): 397–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00268976.2010.524895.

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38

Isenberg, Samantha L., Melissa D. Carter, Leigh Ann Graham, et al. "Quantification of Metabolites for Assessing Human Exposure to Soapberry Toxins Hypoglycin A and Methylenecyclopropylglycine." Chemical Research in Toxicology 28, no. 9 (2015): 1753–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrestox.5b00205.

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39

Bunert, Carolin, Sandra Langer, Dominque M. Votion, et al. "Atypical myopathy in Père David’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus) associated with ingestion of hypoglycin A." Journal of Animal Science 96, no. 8 (2018): 3537–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jas/sky200.

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40

Yang, Jiali, Xiangrong Zhu, Pei Zhang, et al. "Detection of toxic methylenecyclopropylglycine and hypoglycin A in litchi aril of three Chinese cultivars." Food Chemistry 327 (October 2020): 127013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127013.

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41

Sanford, Aimee A., Samantha L. Isenberg, Melissa D. Carter, et al. "Quantitative HPLC–MS/MS analysis of toxins in soapberry seeds: Methylenecyclopropylglycine and hypoglycin A." Food Chemistry 264 (October 2018): 449–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.04.093.

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42

Carlier, Jérémy, Jérôme Guitton, Cécile Moreau, et al. "A validated method for quantifying hypoglycin A in whole blood by UHPLC–HRMS/MS." Journal of Chromatography B 978-979 (January 2015): 70–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2014.11.029.

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43

Carlier, J., J. Guitton, F. Bevalot, L. Fanton, and Y. Gaillard. "O32: A validated method for quantifying hypoglycin A in body fluids by UHPLC-HRMS/MS." Toxicologie Analytique et Clinique 26, no. 2 (2014): S19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s2352-0078(14)70040-x.

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44

Lieu, Y. K., B. Y. Hsu, W. A. Price, B. E. Corkey, and C. A. Stanley. "Carnitine effects on coenzyme A profiles in rat liver with hypoglycin inhibition of multiple dehydrogenases." American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism 272, no. 3 (1997): E359—E366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1997.272.3.e359.

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To examine the changes in coenzyme A profile and the possible corrective effects of carnitine supplementation in the genetic disorders of mitochondrial beta-oxidation, we carried out experiments using an inhibitor of multiple acyl-CoA dehydrogenase enzymes, methylenecyclopropaneacetic acid (MCPA), in rat hepatocytes. MCPA irreversibly inhibited ketone synthesis from straight-chain fatty acids (butyrate, octanoate, palmitate) and branched-chain fatty acids (alpha-ketoisocaproate) with a parallel 70-90% reduction of hepatocyte acetyl-CoA levels. Alone, MCPA or substrates halved free CoA levels t

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45

Hirz, Manuela, Henrike A. Gregersen, Johannes Sander, et al. "Atypical myopathy in 2 Bactrian camels." Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 33, no. 5 (2021): 961–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/10406387211020721.

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Atypical myopathy (AM) is an acute seasonal rhabdomyolysis seen primarily in equids, caused by the ingestion of sycamore maple samaras containing hypoglycin A (HGA) and methylenecyclopropyl-glycine (MCPG). Toxic metabolites inhibit acyl-CoA dehydrogenases and enoyl-CoA hydratases, causing selective hyaline degeneration of type I muscle fibers. Two zoo-kept Bactrian camels ( Camelus bactrianus) with a fatal course of AM had sudden onset of muscle pain and weakness, recumbency, and dysphagia, accompanied by increased serum creatine kinase activity and detection in serum of HGA, MCPG, and metabol

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46

Bates, Nicola. "Poisoning in donkeys." UK-Vet Equine 7, no. 1 (2023): 10–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.12968/ukve.2023.7.1.10.

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Poisoning in donkeys is occasionally reported, but most of the information on clinical signs and management is based on horses. Donkeys are most likely to be affected by toxic substances in their environment such as poisonous plants and pesticides. Cases of plant poisoning in donkeys have been reported, caused by yew, oleander, oak, Brunfelsia and plants containing hypoglycin A (such as sycamore), cyanogenic glycosides (such as cherry laurel) or pyrrolizidine alkaloids (such as ragwort or rattlepods). In many cases of acute plant poisoning, sudden death is the presenting sign. Pesticide poison

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47

Żuraw, A., K. Dietert, S. Kühnel, J. Sander, and R. Klopfleisch. "Equine atypical myopathy caused by hypoglycin A intoxication associated with ingestion of sycamore maple tree seeds." Equine Veterinary Journal 48, no. 4 (2015): 418–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/evj.12460.

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48

Lai, Ming Tain, Li Da Liu, and Hung Wen Liu. "Mechanistic study on the inactivation of general acyl-CoA dehydrogenase by a metabolite of hypoglycin A." Journal of the American Chemical Society 113, no. 19 (1991): 7388–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja00019a040.

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49

Blake, Orane A., José C. Jackson, Maria A. Jackson, and C. L. André Gordon. "Assessment of dietary exposure to the natural toxin hypoglycin in ackee (Blighia sapida) by Jamaican consumers." Food Research International 37, no. 8 (2004): 833–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2004.05.003.

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50

Renaud, Benoît, Anne-Christine François, François Boemer, et al. "Grazing Mares on Pasture with Sycamore Maples: A Potential Threat to Suckling Foals and Food Safety through Milk Contamination." Animals 11, no. 1 (2021): 87. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani11010087.

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Abstract:

Equine atypical myopathy (AM) is seasonal intoxication resulting from the ingestion of seeds and seedlings of the sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus) that contain toxins, among them, hypoglycin A (HGA). Literature mentions several cases of AM among gravid mares and in unweaned foals. The objective of this study was to determine whether HGA and/or its metabolite are present in milk from grazing mares exposed to sycamore maple trees as confirmed by detection of HGA and its metabolite in their blood. Four mare/foal couples were included in the study. Both HGA and its metabolite were detectable i

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