Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Ijma¯? ; Islamic law ; Islamic jurisprudence'

The thesis examines the development of the concept of Ijmāʻ, consensus, in Imāmī-Shīʻī principles of jurisprudence (uṣūl al-fiqh). In the introduction to the thesis there is an analysis of the concept of Ijmāʻ as generally understood in Islamic jurisprudence and a discussion of the approach adopted in the thesis as well as a general outline of the literature involved. The introduction also outlines the background to Imāmī Shīʻī jurisprudence during the time of the presence of the Imāms and the period immediately after the greater occultation of the Twelfth Imām. The main body of the thesis analyses the available major texts written by Imāmī-Shīʻī Uṣūli scholars from the time of al-Shaykh al-Mufid (413/1022) to the end of the nineteenth century with a brief discussion of the views of some recent Imāmī Shīʻī scholars. From the outset a difference of emphasis can be observed between scholars who argue in favour of a major role for reason, such as al-Sharīf al-Murtaḍā (436/1044) and those in favour of a greater reliance on Traditions from the Prophet and the Imāms, which is moderately represented by al-Shaykh al-Ṭūsī (459/1067). The subsequent generations of scholars refined and further defined these concepts. In particular, in opposition to the movement in favour of general adherence to the Traditions, there arose from the proponents of the use of uṣūl al-fiqh a definition which gave much greater scope to the use of reason and the continuing guidance of the Twelfth Imām. The latter proposition reached its final form in Imām-Shīʻī uṣūl al-fiqh at the end of the nineteenth century in Kifayat al-uṣūl by Muḥammad Kāẓim al-Khurāsānī. Finally, there is a brief examination of the work of some recent scholars and a conclusion to the thesis.

Islamic banking is an investment and financing system which expands globally. The Islamic banks have only been established for some 30 years but the banking system is based on long-going traditions within Islamic finance. The system is founded on ethical values and emphasises the well-being of society as a whole.

Islamic banking is different from conventional banking in most aspects, since its close tie to religion is very important. The system is not based on interest, as it is prohibited in Islam. Instead Islamic banks offer various kinds of accounts and a range of financing alternatives all complying with the Islamic Law – Shari’a. To work according to Shari’a is crucial for the banks and their activities are controlled by a special Religious Supervisory Board working within the bank.

The implementation of the Islamic banking system varies to some extent between Islamic countries. It has been influenced by its connections to politics of and the history in the countries where the system operates. As a result to the variations between the states’ implementation, the need for harmonisation increases as the expansion of Islamic banks continues. Several organisations work to achieve international standardisation and harmony to make the banking activities more transparent and attractive. The achievement of harmonisation as well as the performance of the banks is crucial for the future of Islamic banking.

The dissertation is based on extensive literature review and a personal interview with a professional within an Islamic bank in Lebanon.

This thesis has investigated various opinions of Muslim Imams and Scholars which are reviewed and meticulously discussed while making an effort to identify certain transactions and arrive at the best and most accepted judgments pertaining to buying and selling issues in the market place. The study defines lawful and unlawful Trade Practices within the Islamic Sharīʻah and discusses rules and conditions pertaining to each. It also discusses certain types and scenarios which might be considered lawful or unlawful after investigating scholars‟ opinions and arguments. This study examines Trade Practices in the world of business and commercial transactions from an Islamic perspective and focusses on the basics of Islamic Trade Practices law. In particular, emphasis is placed on investigating lawful and unlawful Trade Practices of early Islamic commercial transactions while identifying parallels to determine modern-day transactions as sanctioned or not by the Islamic Sharīʻah. The researcher has explained that the basics of Islamic Sharīʻah guarantee the rights of both the seller and buyer with emphasis on maintaining an economy free of monopoly and cheating of any kind. While the seller is encouraged to honesty transactions and makes profit, guarantees are given to the customers that cheating or misguidance is forbidden within the spirit of true Islamic commercial transactions‟ teachings. The study has also focused on ethics as playing a decisive role in commercial transactions in a way that may affect the validity of sale contracts. Finally, the study calls for revitalising Islamic basics and rules to be more in tune with modern-day Trade Practices and business transactions in the organisation of trading in the market place and the world of business at large.

This thesis examines the problems of implementation of the Islamic “zakat” as a system of taxation. In doing so, it seeks to establish coherent and consistent principles for zakat assessment, collection and disbursement, and to measure the Saudi zakat system against these principles. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is regarded as the cradle of Islam and it would therefore have been expected that Saudi Arabia would implement zakat correctly. However, this thesis argues that the current implementation of zakat in the Saudi legal system is fundamentally flawed, because it does not comply with a significant proportion of the fundamental principles of zakat. This thesis highlights the problems inherent in Saudi Arabia’s arguably excessive reliance on fatwas for the implementation of zakat. It is argued that these fatwas have rendered contemporary practice of zakat distant from the fundamental principles of zakat. This issue is examined with reference to original sources on zakat (Quranic verses and related statements by the Prophet Muhammad), and Islamic jurisprudence generally. The contention herein will be that the Zakat Regulation in Saudi Arabia requires reform in accordance with the principles identified in this thesis. This thesis begins by examining the concept and principles of zakat, and then establishes the principles of zakat collection, zakat application and zakat disbursement, the zakat practice in Saudi Arabia and its problems, and finally offers recommendations that would render Saudi law conformant with zakat principles.

The punishments of Islamic criminal law and in particular, the notoriously severe ḥadd punishments, were never systematically justified in classical Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh). However, the fiqh tradition is ripe with debates about ḥadd punishments, and theories of justification, while not fully spelt out, are often implied in the writings of Muslim jurists. In Part I of this thesis, three fiqh strategies for the justification of ḥadd punishments are described and critically evaluated: one that seeks to characterize the ḥadd punishments as divinely ordained, immutable “rights of God” (ch. 1), one that describes the purpose of ḥadd punishments as serving general as well as individual prevention (ch. 2), and one that stresses that to suffer ḥadd is an expiatory act that amends for sins and thus ensures salvation in the Hereafter (ch. 3). The Sunnī legal schools (madhāhib), salient representatives of which are studied in this dissertation, controversially discussed the meaning and purpose of ḥadd punishments in the context of each of these three fiqh discourses. Part II of this thesis proceeds to describe and discuss contemporary Muslim debates about the applicability and justifiability of ḥadd punishments today. While only few Islamic regimes currently implement ḥadd, the topic has a large symbolical importance because it exemplifies the struggle of Muslim thinkers to reconcile Islam with modernity. In a first step, this thesis aims to clarify to what extent contemporary positions echo, attack or simply sidestep classical fiqh positions: how, in other words, the present is connected to the traditional fiqh framework of the past (ch. 4). In a concluding chapter, a number of salient topics of debate in the contemporary ḥadd controversy are analysed within the cultural and political contexts in which they are located (ch. 5). While classical legal doctrines about ḥadd punishments, despite the controversies between the madhāhib, tend to be rigid, emphasizing the immutable character of the criminal law norms found in the Sharīʻah, the periodic calls among contemporary thinkers for the implementation of ḥadd are, it is suggested, largely driven by political agendas.

This thesis studies the theory of istihsan, an aspect of Islamic legal reasoning, as a method for ascertaining the legal norm in cases where qiyas dictates an overly strict ruling. The study primarily focuses on the concept presented by Ibn Taymiyya (d. 728/1328), a prominent Muslim theologian, philosopher, sufi and outstanding jurist. Placed in the context of later development, Ibn Taymiyya's theory proposes both a criticism and reformulation of the Hanafi school's perception of istihsan. Having observed previous formulations, Ibn Taymiyya sees this theory as being understood as an arbitrary contradiction to qiyas. Although attempts to redefine the theory, through rigorous definition and well-calculated application were conducted by later Hanafi jurists, criticism from other schoools continued unabated. To this effect, Ibn Taymiyya's contribution emerges as an alternative solution. In order to fully understand istihsan, Ibn Taymiyya contends that one must determine particularization of the cause (takhsid s al-'illa). By doing this, istihsan and qiyas can be easily distinguished. He, thus, perceives istihsan as takhsid s al-'illa. Unlike the Hanafis, Ibn Taymiyya does not juxtapose istihsan against qiyas sahid h. He argues that if there is a contradiction, it must be proved by a decisive descrepancy (farq mu'aththir) provided by the law giver. Furthermore, when qiyas produces an unsatisfactory legal norm, takhsid s al-'illa represents a viable alternative. Above all, Ibn Taymiyya contends that istihsan must be supported by the revealed texts, consensus or necessity.

The emergence of the theory of maqāṣid al-sharīʿa as a legal theory, which is a purposive approach to the law in which the main purposes of the law are considered as deriving elements of the legal rulings, has occurred in a particular socio-political and cultural context for the Shīʿa and within a particular epistemological construction. Given the lack of a historical reading of Shīʿī jurisprudence and the limitations of the methodological approaches which have to date been employed, this research applies a holistic approach. “The Bahbahānian paradigm” is identified as the overarching epistemological paradigm in modern and contemporary Shīʿī jurisprudence. The Bahbahanian paradigm was formed during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and is arguably characterised as being a combination of Aristotelian epistemologically, formalist methodologically and soft utilitarianism. Within this paradigm in the context of the twentieth century, maqāṣid al-sharīʿa emerged in Shīʿī thought, especially in its systematic and comprehensive theorisation by Muḥammad Taqī al-Mudarrisī - a contemporary Shīʿī scholar. The introduction of the maqāṣid al-sharīʿa approach represents a paradigm shift that departs epistemologically, methodologically and functionally from the Bahbahānian paradigm. Mudarrisī’s maqāṣid al-sharīʿa paradigm is characterized as pragmatic epistemologically, more accessible and dynamic methodologically and employing a virtue ethic. Mudarrisī’s maqāṣid al-sharīʿa reflects the eclipse of the quietist character of the previous paradigm and the ambition of the contemporary Shīʿī religious institution. This ambition comprises a more significant role in the public sphere, which is embodied in the application or renewal of the sharīʿa in reality on one hand, and confronting the systematical secularization of the modern nation-state of the public sphere on the other. Mudarrisī’s version of maqāṣid al-sharīʿa is obligated to challenge three intellectual enterprises; that is, the classical Shīʿī jurisprudential reasoning by embracing hermeneutical tools which are more accessible to religious knowledge; the Sunnī soft utilitarian maqāṣidī approaches by providing virtue ethical jurisprudence; and the secular nation-state by providing a flexible legal system.

This thesis examines the role that scholarly digests and commentaries played in the formation of legal rules in the Muslim legal institution known as the madhhab. I posit that a shared approach to legal rule-determination, and the respect of juristic precedent that it entails, underlies the jurisprudential processes of all of the four post-classical Sunni madhhabs (the Ḥanafī, Mālikī, Shāfi'ī, and Ḥanbalī), and unites them in a wider ‘madhhab-law tradition’. Taking the Ḥanafī madhhab as a case study, the thesis analyses a commentary written by the late Mamluk jurist Ibn Quṭlūbughā (d. 879/1474) upon the digest of the celebrated Abbasid-era Abū al-Ḥusayn al-Qudūrī (d. 428/1037). In discussing the madhhab's heritage of precedent, Ibn Quṭlūbughā's commentary weaves an intricate tapestry of quotations and references from previous jurists and works, providing us with insight into how author-scholars reacted to, and interacted with, other jurists over space and time. Chapter 1 provides a short introduction to the lives of Qudūrī and Ibn Quṭlūbughā, and the contexts within which they produced their works. Chapter 2 employs both quantitative and qualitative analysis of the commentary, in order to deduce historical and geographical patterns out of which a periodisation of rule-determination in the Ḥanafī madhhab is proposed. In Chapter 3, Ibn Quṭlūbughā's jurisprudential theory of rule-determination is studied, examining both the justifications and the processes employed by jurists in arriving at a legal rule in the Ḥanafī madhhab. Chapter 4 then turns to the craft of commentary itself, analysing over eighty case examples for the logical relationships, rhetorical devices, and legal arguments that inform the actual practice of rule-determination through commentary. A final chapter then summarises the conclusions, and situates them within a broader discussion as to the nature of the madhhab-law tradition.

Les trois monothéismes conçoivent un Dieu créateur et ordonnateur du monde, révélé dans l’histoire, garant de toute justice et de tout équilibre, et déterminant l’autorité et les systèmes d’autorités. La théologie a informé le droit et les lois, l’économie et l’éthique des personnes et des États. L’islam, loin d’être homogénéisé dans ses approches économiques, financières et réglementaires, révèle par le biais d’un exemple concret, par l’industrie des services financiers islamiques, les différentes facettes de ce qu’est l’autorité dans un contexte musulman, international et en pleine évolution. Prenant en compte la dynamique des questions sectaires, géographiques et interprétatives, la thèse analyse cette force déterminante que sont les « autorités » en finance islamique. Ces dernières semblent déterminer la finance islamique dans ses formes les plus tangibles, en structurant des produits financiers islamiques. L’analyse comporte d’abord une approche théorique, ensuite une étude comparée des facteurs qui déterminent les décisions prises lors de la structuration de produits financiers islamiques. Ces structures sont en effet fondées sur des contrats financiers conformes aux principes de la sharia. Leur approbation par des membres de conseils de la sharia est-elle déterminée par une autorité régionale, par des autorités internationales ou par des autorités de régulation ? Ces autorités sont-elles conventionnelles ou religieuses ? Afin de bien évaluer la problématique non seulement de l’autorité en tant que telle mais aussi de l’équilibre complexe entre les différentes autorités, nous développons une analyse comparée du système de structuration des produits financiers islamiques par les autorités concernées, en fonction des zones géographiques, au moyen d’un échantillon de 121 membres de conseils de la sharia couvrant l’approbation de produits financiers islamiques au sein de 243 institutions financières islamiques sur 35 pays
The three monotheistic religions refer to a God who is the all-powerful creator of all that exists, revealed throughout history, guarantor of justice and fairness, who is the ultimate moral authority. Theology advises some of the laws, economics and ethics of individuals and of states. Islam is not homogeneous in its economic, financial and regulatory approaches. However, through the financial services industry, it reveals in a tangible manner various facets of authority across Muslim contexts. These include contexts that are international and highly dynamic. Taking into account the delicate balance between sectarian, geographic and interpretive facets, the thesis analyses the determining forces that we refer to as authorities in Islamic finance. These contribute to the Islamic finance industry in its most tangible form in the structuring of Islamic financial products. Analysis is carried out initially theoretically. It is followed by a comparative study of factors affecting decisions pertaining to the structuring of Islamic financial products. These structures are based on financial contracts that conform to the principles of the Sharia. Is approval by Sharia board members fashioned by a regional authority, by international authorities, or by regulatory authorities? Are these authorities conventional or religious? We address the question as it pertains to the dynamics between various types of authority. We develop a comparative analysis of the approach taken in structuring Islamic financial products, according to geographical areas related to a sample of 121 Sharia board members covering Islamic financial products for 243 Islamic financial institutions in 35 countries

Esta Tesis Doctoral presenta la edición y el estudio global de seis certificados de peregrinación a los lugares santos de La Meca y Medina, datados entre los ss. XV y XVI. La particularidad de esta tipología documental radica en que la modalidad de peregrinación acreditada es la delegación, cuyo origen legal analizaremos en esta Tesis Doctoral. En este sentido, este trabajo se aleja de la perspectiva devocional con la que los certificados han sido descritos, y propone que el papel desempeñado por estos documentos estaría relacionado con la jurisprudencia islámica sobre la herencia. Los manuscritos aquí estudiados serán analizados comparativamente, lo que nos permite ofrecer una panorámica general de la evolución de esta tipología desde tres perspectivas diferentes: materialidad, textualidad e iconografía. El objetivo de este trabajo es avanzar en el conocimiento de los motivos que suscitaron la aparición de los certificados y complementar el trabajo de edición y estudio de manuscritos inéditos conforme a los criterios de la Papirología.
This PhD Dissertation presents the edition and global study of six pilgrimage certificates to the holy places of Mecca and Medina, dated between the 15th and 16th centuries. The particularity of this documentary typology lies in the fact that they attest delegated pilgrimages, whose legal origin is analyzed in this work. In this sense, this Dissertation differs in perspective from the devotional approach commonly used to study previously described certificates, and propose that the role played by these documents would be related to the Islamic jurisprudence on inheritance law. The comparative analysis, on the other hand, allows us to offer a general overview of the evolution of this typology from three different perspectives: materiality, textuality, and iconography. The main aim of this work is shed light on our knowledge of this kind of documents, explore the reasons for their emergence and implement the methodology of editing and studying unpublished manuscripts according to the criteria proposed by Papyrology.

This thesis examines how Jews of the Ottoman Empire responded to newfound opportunities that emerged across the domains of the late Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth century due to the Ottoman bureaucratic reforms (Tanzimat). It challenges the discourses that argue that Jews engaged probing issues such as nationalism in a monolithic fashion. Rather, Sephardi and Arab Jews, based on socioeconomic status and geographic location in the Empire approached questions of affiliation with the Empire or attachment to new forms of nationalism based on divergent structures that informed their lives and personal political choices. This project explores the main avenues that Jews in the Ottoman world used to approach questions that animated the public discourse not just of Jews, but of peoples across the globe who struggled to find new avenues for belonging in shifting geopolitical terrains. For Jewish communities in the Ottoman world, four dominant avenues and attitudes emerged: traditionalists who desired to maintain the status quo; those who sought an Ottoman or Turkish Republican future; Sephardi Zionists who believed they were integral to Ottoman communal history; provincial nationalists who agitated for distinct regional identities. The thesis also briefly examines the Armenian millet’s socio-political situation during the nineteenth and twentieth century in order to show the ways in which the Jewish millet was both in tandem with broader nationalist discourses but were also less cohesively politically organized than other millets in the Empire.

Il est difficile d’infirmer l’idée qu’une vision caricaturale de l’Occident chrétien prévaut dans le Maghreb médiéval, vision qui résume l’Autre à des traits à la fois généraux et stéréotypés. A l’époque médiévale, les auteurs maghrébins semblent peiner à différencier les puissances chrétiennes les unes des autres, préférant souvent désigner (ce que cette thèse veut appeler) l’Autre méditerranéen de façon vague et éloignée : « Romains », « Francs », « Chrétiens », ou plus rarement « mécréants ». Ces appellations paraissent souvent être jetées à tout hasard, et être parfaitement équivalentes. Mais, quoique cette impression soit en grande partie correcte, certaines nuances peuvent peut-être apporter une plus grande clarté sur l’état et le degré de connaissance de l’Autre dans la conscience cultivée (au sens hégélien de l’expression) des élites intellectuelles maghrébines médiévales. Cet Autre multiséculaire, antéislamique. Déjà, en 171, 540 ans avant 711, les Maures traversaient le détroit de Gibraltar pour attaquer la Bétique, poussés par une récolte plus qu’insuffisante. Constituant un danger tout à fait considéré à l’époque. Déjà sous Néron, le poète Calpurnius écrivait : « trucibusque obnoxia Mauris pascua Geryonis ». Quoique l’Islam vienne parachever et ancrer cette gigantesque mise en situation psychologique. L’identité intellectuelle maghrébine médiévale a pour base une période antéislamique fantasmée de l’Arabie de Mahomet. Il ne faut pas oublier que Juifs et chrétiens furent chassés tout simplement d’Arabie après la mort de Mahomet, car ils souilleraient la patrie du Prophète par leur seule présence. Il s’agit ici d’un élément fondateur de la représentation traditionnelle des Chrétiens et des Juifs en Terre d’Islam. Cela influencera les visions juridiques des relations pouvant être entreprises entre les Maghrébins et l’Occident chrétien. Ainsi nombre de juristes maghrébins médiévaux présenteront comme illicites les échanges commerciaux entre Maghrébins et Chrétiens (d’Occident) se réalisant avec des monnaies chrétiennes gravées de croix, voire gravées d’inscriptions latines tout simplement. Même la relation avec l’Autre est donc définie par le refus de l’Autre. Car, l’Occident chrétien c’est Dār al-ḥarb (une terre de guerre)
It is difficult to refute the idea that a caricatural vision of the Christian West prevails in the medieval Maghreb, a vision that summarizes the Other with both general and stereotyped traits. In medieval times, Maghreb writers seem to struggle to differentiate the Christian powers from one another, often preferring to designate (what this thesis wants to call) the Mediterranean Other vaguely and remotely: "Romans", "Francs", "Christians", or more rarely "unbelievers". These appellations often appear to be thrown at random, and to be perfectly equivalent. But, although this impression is largely correct, some nuances may perhaps bring greater clarity to the state and degree of knowledge of the Other in the cultivated consciousness (in the Hegelian sense of expression) of the elite medieval Maghreb intellectuals. This other multisecular, pre-Islamic. Already, in 171, 540 years before 711, the Moors crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to attack Betic, pushed by a crop more than insufficient. Constituting a danger quite considered at the time. Already under Nero, the poet Calpurnius wrote: "trucibusque obnoxia Mauris pascua Geryonis". Although Islam comes to complete and anchor this gigantic psychological situation. The medieval Maghreb intellectual identity is based on a fantasized pre-Islamic period of Arabia of Muhammad. It must not be forgotten that Jews and Christians were simply expelled from Arabia after the death of Muhammad, for they would defile the homeland of the Prophet by their mere presence. This is a founding element of the traditional representation of Christians and Jews in the Land of Islam. This will influence the legal visions of the relations that can be undertaken between the Maghrebians and the Christian West. Thus many medieval Maghreb jurists will present as illicit trade between Maghrebians and Christians (of the West) being realized with Christian coins engraved with crosses, even engraved with Latin inscriptions quite simply. Even the relationship with the Other is therefore defined by the refusal of the Other. Because, the Christian West is Dār al-ḥarb (a land of war)

La diya es una composición preislámica adoptada por el Corán. Se aplica en caso de homicidio involuntario y eventualmente voluntario, y actúa como mecanismo que anula la posibilidad de venganza. En la diya, como en otras expresiones de composición, 1) la reconciliación entre las partes es tan importante como la compensación material a la parte ofendida, 2) el montante de la compensación depende de qué persona se ha ofendido, 3) todo individuo pertenece a un grupo, y si es un hombre considerado responsable, esto es, capaz de trabajar, queda obligado a participar en una eventual recaudación de diya. La diya está presente en la Mauritania contemporánea tanto en la justicia oficial como en el derecho consuetudinario. Mauritania es uno de los Estados islámicos cuyos aparatos penal y privado contractual se han consolidado y, paralelamente, se ha mantenido y legitimado el derecho vindicatorio. En el país en el que se contextualiza esta tesis la justicia oficial reconoce la privada, hasta el punto que las dos están imbricadas. En la resolución jurídica de homicidios involuntarios por la vía consuetudinaria el grupo al que se adscribe el individuo toma mucha importancia. Entre los bīḍān ese grupo es la qabīla, la tribu. Hoy en Mauritania la práctica totalidad de expresiones de diya se reduce a la resolución jurídica de accidentes de circulación. En el panorama circulatorio presentado, el de Nouakchott, la capital mauritana, abundan las conductas que transgreden el código de circulación y tienen lugar colisiones, algunas de las cuales comportan daños humanos. En tal caso, y puesto que dichos homicidios son considerados involuntarios, la diya entra en juego. En la tesis describo el itinerario jurídico convencional que sigue a un accidente con muertos en el que las partes son bīḍān, es decir, arabófonas. Dicho recorrido da fe de la imbricación de la vía consuetudinaria y la oficial. Tras el accidente, el culpable es detenido. Posteriormente suele ser puesto en libertad bajo la responsabilidad de un miembro de su tribu. Una vez materializada la composición, esto es, presentado y aceptado el perdón de la parte culpable a la parte ofendida y entregado el dinero pactado, un notario debe dejar constancia de la ejecución del pacto para extinguir el recurso a la justicia oficial. Actualmente en Mauritania si las partes pactan entre ellas, pues, el itinerario empieza y termina en el ámbito oficial. Hay casos en los que la parte ofendida no acepta la entrega del dinero, si bien expone esta decisión tras haber recibido a una representación de la tribu del culpable y haber aceptado sus excusas. En estas ocasiones los derechohabientes entienden que no ha lugar lucrarse gracias a la muerte de su pariente, puesto que esta es involuntaria, ha ocurrido por deseo divino. Los justiciables en Mauritania pueden recurrir a la justicia o ficial o bien optar por la consuetudinaria. El grado de desconfianza hacia la primera es elevado. A ello se suma la preferencia por obrar discretamente, el hecho que a los informantes bīḍān prefieren conocer en cada momento qué ocurrirá en lugar de restar a expensas de un juez, y la ausencia de la demanda del perdón de la parte culpable a la ofendida en la vía oficial.
Diya is a pre-islamic composition adopted by the Quran. It is applied in case of involuntary manslaughter and eventually in case of intentional homicide. Diya acts as a mechanism that eliminates the possibility of revenge. Mauritania is one of the Islamic states whose criminal and contractual private devices have been consolidated and, in parallel, has maintained and legitimized vindictive law. In the country in which this thesis is contextualized official justice recognizes private justice, to the point that the two are intertwined. Diya is present in contemporary Mauritania in both formal justice and customary law. Nowadays in Mauritania almost all expressions of diya are reduced to the legal settlement of traffic accidents. In my/this thesis I describe the conventional legal route that follows an accident with physical injuries in which the parties are Arabs. This itinerary attests how the customary and the official path are strongly interwoven. After the accident, the culprit/offender is arrested. He is usually released shortly afterwards under the responsibility of a member of his tribe. Once the composition has been materialized, that is, it has been presented, the injured party has accepted the forgiveness of the guilty party, and the money has been delivered, a notary must record the implementation of the agreement to cancel the use of official justice. Currently in Mauritania if the parties reach an agreement, then, the itinerary starts and ends at the official level. Litigants in Mauritania may resort to the official justice system or opt for the customary - interwoven with the official-. The degree of mistrust toward the first is high. We should also point out a preference for conducting the affair with discretion, the fact that Arabic informants prefer to know at all times what will happen rather than subtract at the expense of a judge, and the lack of demand for forgiveness of the guilty party in the offended official channels.

Islamic Jurisprudence comprises of the laws that govern a Muslims daily life. The Prophet Muhammad explained and practically demonstrated these laws. The jurists studied the Quran and the Prophet's life and they adopted a refined methodology which they used to extract legal rulings and verdicts. This methodology is known as the Principles of Jurisprudence. The jurists expanded on this methodology with some differences among them on the usage and the application of some aspects as acceptable forms of evidence. Eventually, the Muslim world was left with four schools of jurisprudence that are present to this day. There are differences between these schools on some issues but these differences never caused conflict, instead it provided us with a wealth of knowledge. We need to study these schools and its principles together with the objectives and intent of the Shariah and utilize this to find solutions to all new issues that arise.
Religious Studies and Arabic
M. A. (Islamic Studies)

1 Abstract This diploma thesis deals with the contemporary Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) providing normative frameworks for Muslim minorities living in Europe. The Muslim minorities in Europe vary significantly in their ethnic, social, and religious background; yet in many cases they bring to Europe coherent system of ethical and legal rules. Nevertheless, these normative systems differ according to the country of origin and religious background of the respective minorities. Therefore, in Europe that is a constant struggle between the various interpretations of Islam and different Muslim authorities. The situation of Muslims living in the non-Muslim legal system is not regulated by the classical Islamic law and therefore jurisprudence is becoming the primary mechanism for dealing with normative issues. The key institute for contemporary Islamic jurisprudence is iftā, i.e. delivering fatwas in response to real or hypothetical individual inquiries. This diploma thesis argues that the traditional and established Muslim authorities, such as imams in mosques and muftis trained in the countries of origin, are increasingly being challenged by global Muslim authorities and individual interpretation of Islam. The ideological background of these newly established authorities range from the liberal Islam to...

The boundaries of normative Islam are critically explored in this thesis, which presents a translation of the most important aspects of a modern study on bid‘ah (heretical innovation), by the late Egyptian Reformist Scholar, Shaykh Muhammad al-Ghazālī (1917 – 1996). The translator’s introduction contextualizes the life and work of the author and also briefly locates this particular study within the broader framework of classical and contemporary writings on the subject of bid‘ah. Only the book’s introduction, first three chapters (constituting the theoretical spine of the original work), and conclusion are translated. The first chapter is an introductory excursus into Islamic law, necessary to enable the reader to grasp the legal debate on bid‘ah. The second chapter casts a wider net, examining the influence of foreign elements upon Islamic thought, while the third chapter deals specifically with the topic of bid‘ah. The short conclusion reaffirms the importance of normative Islamic practice.
Religious Studies and Arabic
M.A. (Arabic)

Text in English and Arabic
In pre-colonial Africa, the Southwestern Sahara which includes Mauritania, Mali and Senegal belonged to what was then referred to as the Sudan and extended from the Atlantic seaboard to the Red Sea. The advent of Islam and the Arabic language to West Africa in the 11th century heralded an intellectual marathon whose literary output still fascinates us today. At a time when Europe was emerging from the dark ages and Africa was for most Europeans a terra incognita, indigenous African scholars were composing treatises as diverse as mathematics, agriculture and the Islamic sciences. A twentieth century Mauritanian, Arabic monograph, Irshād al- Muqallidīn ʿinda ikhtilāf al-Mujtahidīn1, written circa 1910/1332, by a yet unknown Mauritanian jurist of the Mālikī School, Bāba bin al-Shaykh Sīdī al- Shinqīṭī al-Ntishā-ī (d.1920/1342), a member of the muchacclaimed Shinqīṭī fraternity of scholars, is a fine example of African literary accomplishment. This manuscript hereinafter referred to as the Irshād, is written within the legal framework of Islamic jurisprudence (usūl al-fiqh). A science that relies for the most part on the intellectual and interpretive competence of the independent jurist, or mujtahid, in the application of the methodologies employed in the extraction of legal norms from the primary sources of the sharīʿah. The subject matter of the Irshād deals with the question of juristic differences. Juristic differences invariably arise when a mujtahid exercises his academic freedom to clarify or resolve conundrums in the law and to postulate legal norms. Other independent jurists (mujtahidūn) may posit different legal norms because of the exercise of their individual interpretive skills. These differences, when they are deemed juristically irreconcilable, are called ikhtilāfāt (pl. of ikhtilāf). The author of the Irshād explores a corollary of the ikhtilāf narrative and posits the hypothesis that there ought not to be ikhtilāf in the sharīʿah. The proposed research will comprise an annotated translation of the monograph followed by a synopsis and commentary on its dominant themes.
Religious Studies and Arabic
D. Litt. et Phil. (Islamic Studies)