Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'IjtihÉd'

Religion<br>M.A.<br>The question of whether the door of ijtihad is open, closed, or ever did close, has been around for centuries. The answer to this question is crucial for our times. The research will present a chronological overview of the historical development of the concept of ijtihad, how it developed, became limited in certain circles, and if it ever ceased to be practiced. It can be concluded from the research that the doors of ijtihad were never closed, but were limited to a particular type of educational training. Those who completed this training proceeded on to become jurists. Those who could not, were requested to follow their leaders or engage in "taqlid." This study will show that this question arose from a power struggle between modernists and traditionalists regarding who had the power to interpret and make rulings for the Muslim community. It will further show how traditionalists are trying to maintain their power in order to preserve traditional Islam and how the modernists are trying to solve contemporary problems by opening the doors to interpretation for those who are not classically trained.<br>Temple University--Theses

This thesis studies the proposal for an Indonesian fiqh, articulated by Muhammad Hasbi Ash Shiddieqy (1904-1975) as an effort to bridge the tension in Islamic law between revelation and reality (c-ada) in Indonesian society. While such an indigenous fiqh can only be created through ijtihad, most Indonesian Muslims believed the gate of ijtihad to have been irrevocably closed and thus they vehemently opposed any suggestion toward creating an Indonesian fiqh. To make itjihad possible once again, Hasbi worked hand in hand with the reformists with the call of "Back to the Qur'ân and the Sunna." The reformists' program consisted of attempts to eliminate "non-Islamic" elements from Muslim life, to open the gate of ijtihad, to bring an end to blind imitation (taqlïd) and to allow for talfiq, a comparative study of fiqh. [...]<br>Cette thèse étudie le project d'un fiqh indonésien tel qu'articulé par Muhammad Hasbi Ash Shiddieqy (1904-1975) pour combler l'écart qu'il percevait dans le droit islamique entre la révélation et la réalité (c-ada) de la société indonésienne. Alors qu'un fiqh indigène ne peut être conçu que par l'ijtihad la majorité des musulmans indonésiens croient que les portes de l'ijtihad sont irrévocablement fermées et s'opposent donc avec véhémence à toute suggestion visant à créer un fiqh indonésien. Pour rendre l'ijtihad à nouveau possible, Hasbi collabora avec les réformistes à un appel pour le "retour au Coran et à la Sunna." Le programme des réformistes consistait à éradiquer tous les éléments "non-islamiques" de la vie musulmane, à ouvrir les portes de l'ijtihad à mettre fin à l'imitation aveugle (taqlid), et à permettre l'étude comparée du fiqh (talfiq). [...]

Dans Notre Economie, Sadr propose une méthode heuristique prétendant guider la réflexion sur le concept de doctrine économique conformément à l’Islam. Or, toute tentative de donner aux enseignements islamiques une portée doctrinale, capable de se hisser au niveau de la complexité de la réalité sociale contemporaine, se heurte aux spécificités intellectuelles dictées par les arguments d’autorité textuels. Soucieux de rester conforme au dogme islamique et fidèle à l’héritage juridique légué par les juristes musulmans, Sadr propose une heuristique doctrinale s’inspirant largement de la méthode des Principes jurisprudentiels usul al-Fiqh), tout en ménageant une marge de manœuvre intellectuelle accrue, à travers l’utilisation pleine et entière dans son élaboration doctrinale, de l’argument conjecturé. Libéré des contraintes sévères posées par le raisonnement juridique, cette heuristique doctrinale suscite des interrogations, quant à sa validité épistémologique et juridique. Cette étude se propose de comprendre en profondeur les ressorts intellectuels de cet effort intellectuel original de la part d’un des clercs chiites duodécimains les plus influents du 20ème siècle<br>In Our Economy, Sadr proposes a discovery method aiming at guiding the reflection on the concept of economic doctrine, in accordance with Islam. However, any attempt to give to Islamic teachings a doctrinal range, able to rise on the level of the complexity of contemporary social reality, runs up against the intellectual specificities dictated by the textual arguments of authority. Anxious to remain in conformity with the Islamic dogma and faithful to the legal heritage bequeathed by Moslem lawyers, Sadr proposes doctrinal heuristics, being inspired largely by the method of the jurisprudential principles (usul al-Fiqh), while sparing an increased intellectual room for maneuver, through the full and whole use, in its doctrinal development, of the conjectured argument. Released of the severe constraints posed by the legal reasoning, this doctrinal heuristics causes interrogations, as for its epistemological and legal validity. This study proposes to understand in-depth the intellectual springs of this original intellectual effort, on behalf of one of the most influential twelve Shiite clerks of the 20th century

La religion musulmane est une religion universelle, elle ne se limite pas à un espace défini, ni à une époque. Elle peut s’étendre à tous les lieux. Le passé a témoigné et démontré sa capacité à être une religion conciliable et adaptable à toutes cultures et civilisations. Dès lors, il est tout à fait possible d’affirmer qu'elle est une religion flexible selon l'environnement. Le flux migratoire en Europe des personnes en provenance de pays musulmans a engendré l’enracinement progressif de l’Islam, dans un environnement non musulman et sécularisé. C’est dans ce contexte sans précédent, qu’une réflexion innovatrice a émergé, tenant compte des différents aspects sociétaux. Elle consiste à réfléchir aux nouvelles perspectives visant à structurer un modèle cohérent pour les musulmans d’Europe, en phase avec la société occidentale. Ce renouveau dépend essentiellement de la double capacité à conjuguer raison et respect du patrimoine des fondements de la jurisprudence musulmane. Mais, il doit également intégrer une lecture critique de ce patrimoine par le biais de nouveaux outils de compréhension, répondant aux finalités de la loi musulmane.L’objet de cette recherche porte sur le concept de fatwa, qui permet justement l’adaptation, en apportant des solutions adéquates aux Musulmans vivant en Europe. Cette recherche englobe aussi bien la structuration du CEFR et sa méthodologie d’expertise que les catégories de lois sujettes à la flexibilité. Les fatwa(s) émises par le conseil déterminent ainsi les mécanismes employés pour la résolution des cas spécifiques au contexte européen où les communautés musulmanes sont minoritaires. Ceci permet d’évaluer, par conséquent, la pertinence et la recevabilité de ce nouvel habillage du fiqh, qui vise à offrir de nouveaux horizons, sans pour autant se détacher complètement du patrimoine juridique existant<br>Islam is a universal religion. It may not be hemmed in any limited boundaries, neither in a specific era. It has ability to extend to all the places. In the past this religion has proven its adaptability and compatibility to all the cultures and civilizations. Consequently, we can assure with certainty that Islam is completely flexible and adaptable to a given environment. The migratory flow to Europe from Muslim countries has established its roots gradually in a non-Muslim and secular environment. In this unprecedented context an innovative reflection has emerged englobing all the societal aspects. It consists in thinking out new viewpoints on creating models that are coherent for Muslims in Europe and are in accordance with the western society. This renewal depends essentially on the double capacity of combining reason and respect of the patrimony of the basis of Islamic jurisprudence. Yet, it also has to incorporate the analytical interpretations of this patrimony through the new tools of comprehension, meeting with the aims of Islamic laws.The aim of this research is about the concept of a Fatwa that allows adaptation bringing suitable solutions for the Muslims living in Europe. This research includes structuring of CEFR, its methodology of assessment as well as the categories of laws that are subjected to flexibility. The Fatwas issued by the Council consequently determine the mechanisms used to solve cases specific to European context where the Muslim communities are a minority. This allows us to evaluate the pertinence and the admissibility of embellishing of Fiqh which is meant to open new horizons, all the same without being totally detached from the existing legal patrimony

The purpose of the thesis is to investigate whether Islamic laws, without relaxing the nature of the Shari 'a, could be expanded and adapted to meet the changing needs of modem Muslim societies. The focus is on the Shi'ites' approach to the law with special reference to the debates in Iran following Imam Khomeini's emphasis on the "role of the time and place in Utihad". The thesis suggests that scientific knowledge in different areas should play a role in jtihad beside the judgements of those possessing the accomplishments necessary to be a qualified mujtahid. The first three of the seven chapters are designed to provide a general overview of Shi 'i law, the concept of tihad and its development and also the sources and the methodology of tihad (usul al-fiqh) among the Shi'ite 'ulama. The fourth chapter discusses the relation between Utihad and the comprehensiveness of the Shari'a, and examines the different theories introduced by both traditional 'ulama and Muslim modernists in adapting Islamic law to the requirements of the modern age. The fifth chapter focuses on the "role of the time and place" in tihad, and the ways and principles through which changes in the law may be justified. In investigating the stages through which a mujtahid may find out the rulings of the Shari 'a on a particular subject, some new and controversial issues including insurance policies, Islamic banking, human dissection, organ donation, and woman's right to judge and to be followed are discussed briefly in the sixth chapter. By studying and examining in detail the rulings of the Shari'a, as extracted by some leading fuqaha, on the new reproductive technologies, artificial insemination, in vitro fertilisation and human cloning, it is shown how scientific knowledge can affect the procedure of jjtihad. Overall it is concluded that participation of the fuqaha in regulating the law and giving practical instruction regarding different problems requires the authorisation of division in ijtihad and cooperation between mujtahidun and scientific authorities on various subjects. It is by recognising these necessities and considering the conditions of the time that they may be able to bring Islamic law successfully into harmony with the requirements of modern life.

The concept of autonomy underlies many other issues in moral and political philosophy. This dissertation states that contemporary debates within Shi’i thought view autonomy as individualistic, and that this individualism brings it into conflict with tradition. It then argues that autonomy is not equivalent to individualism, and argues for an understanding of autonomy that is socially and historically embed- ded and discursive. This makes it possible to rethink the relationship between autonomy and tradition. This rethinking is done through a method of reflective equilibrium, where various ideas from various fields are brought into a coherent whole. There are two phases to this rethinking. The first is in clarifying the concept of autonomy and the second is bringing this concept of autonomy and Shi’i tradition into equilibrium. The dissertation begins by stating that Shi’i thought has already made room for autonomy, but that the concept of autonomy that is dominant is individualistic. An understanding of autonomy as socially and historically embedded is defended. The second phase is to reconcile this embedded notion of autonomy with Shi’i tradition. It is argued that autonomy is important for both the internalisation of tradition and the formation of tradition. Empirical evidence is provided through positive psychology that shows that the most effective means of internalising a belief is through contexts that support autonomy. This understanding of internal- isation is brought into equilibrium with the Shi’i concept of forbidding wrong. It is argued that one of the conditions of forbidding wrong is the condition of efficacy. Approaches to forbidding wrong that support autonomy meet this condition, while those that deny autonomy generally do not. Finally, it is argued that autonomy should be considered within the process of ijtihād because it has an epistemic gain. Autonomous individuals gain a certain level of expertise through their life experiences that are necessary to be incorporated in the ijtiḥād.

Assez peu reconnu à son époque et encore largement méconnu aujourd'hui, l'intellectuel algérien Malek Bennabi (1905-1973) a pourtant fait une entrée remarquée dans la vie intellectuelle en Algérie avec sa notion de "colonisabilité " en 1949. Il se fera connaitre ensuite dans le monde musulman notamment avec ses définitions fonctionnelles de la culture et de la civilisation. Néanmoins, sa conception réformiste de la religion, nommée " idée religieuse " et ayant une fonction sociale, a été très peu analysée. Or, elle est la clé de voûte de la compréhension de la pensée de Bennabi. Pour lui, " l'idée religieuse " doit être une idée vécue comme une " vérité travaillante ", authentique avec l'islam et efficace dans le monde moderne. Il mélange des savoirs issus à la fois de la Tradition musulmane et des sciences humaines et propose de connecter l'islam authentique avec l'esprit technique cartésien. Ainsi, dans un contexte de décolonisation, Bennabi veut réaliser, par le déploiement moral et social de " l'idée religieuse " un projet de société pérenne, prospère et ouvert sur la civilisation humaine. Par le biais de cette notion " d'idée religieuse ", nous proposons, tout d'abord, de situer Bennabi dans l'histoire de l'Algérie mais aussi de l'islam contemporain. Nous voulons ensuite comprendre les fondements et les finalités de sa pensée qui est singulière au sein du réformisme musulman. Ce qui permettra enfin de mesurer l'impact de " l'idée religieuse " dans son projet de société sur trois niveaux de réflexion ; l'homme, la société, l'humanité<br>Although he is not really recognized by his contemporaries and still largely unknown today, the Algerian intellectual Malek Bennabi (1905-1973) nevertheless made a remarkable entry into the intellectual life in Algeria with his notion of "colonisabilité ". Then, he will be known in the Muslim world with its functional definitions of culture and civilization. Thus, his reformist conception of religion, having a social function, which he called "religious idea", was ignored. It is, however, the keystone of the understanding of Bennabi's thinking. For him, "The religious idea" must be an idea lived as a "working truth", being authentic with Islam and effective in the modern world. He mixes the knowledge of the Muslim Tradition with the human sciences and proposes to connect his vision of an authentic Islam with the Cartesian technical spirit. Moreover, in a context of decolonization, Bennabi wants to realize, by the moral and social deployment of the "religious idea", a project of sustainable society, which he sees as being prosperous and open to human civilization. Through this concept of "religious idea" we propose, first of all, to question the place of Bennabi in the history of Algeria but also of contemporary Islam. Then, we want to question the foundations and the purposes of his thought which is singular in Muslim reformism. Finally, this will allow us to measure the impact of the "religious idea" in its project of society on three levels of reflection: man, society, humanity

Syftet med denna uppsats är att ur ett socialkonstruktivistiskt perspektiv göra en jämförande textanalys av Fazlur Rahmans och Taha Jabir al-Alwanis tolkningar av islam utifrån teman som bl.a. rör deras syn på tidigare tolkningsmetoder och hur de uppfattar muslimers situation idag. Rahman och al-Alwani har olika utbildningsbakgrund men har båda arbetat i U.S.A. De förespråkar förnuftstolkning för att nå vad de anser vara Koranens egentliga budskap och be-tonar en medvetenhet om att historisk och social kontext måste beaktas i tolkningsprocessen. Analysen visar att båda betonar individens ansvar, plikt och engagemang men att deras upp-fattning om enskilda muslimers åtagande skiljer sig något åt. Analysen visar också på att det har något olika uppfattning om de islamiska källorna liksom hur nytolkning får praktiseras. Orsaker till dessa skillnader analyseras i uppsatsen.

Le droit de la famille au Maghreb est le bastion des normes religieuses et morales. Son observation débouche sur sa nature spécifique. Fortement marqué par l'Islam et le droit musulman, le droit de la famille est controversé. Il est le terrain privilégié pour tester l'aptitude de la loi religieuse à s'adapter aux exigences de la modernité. Il est également un champ de bataille entre les différents courants idéologiques porteurs de différents projets de société. A cause des liens étroitements tissés avec la condition juridique de la femme, le droit familial dans la région maghrébine se trouve souvent en butte aux plus vives critiques. Les défis sont multiples. La modernité devient un impératif. Elle est revendiquée à l'échelle nationale et elle est parfois imposée à l'échelle internationale. Elle se veut néanmoins le produit de la dynamique interne et des mutations socioculturelles. La modernité doit à la fois être authentique et légitime. Bien que les trois pays du Maghreb aient emprunté des chemins à la fois convergents et différents, l'Islam en tant que religion et système de valeurs demeure très présent dans les législations de la famille. La référence à la norme religieuse est importante. Celle-ci constitue une marque de spécificité du droit familial au Maghreb. Les réformes récentes de ce droit consolident ce constat. Sa modernisation était à l'ordre du jour depuis déjà quelques années. Ce résultat ne peut toutefois être atteint au prix d'une violation du sacré. Le compromis entre l'Islam et la modernité et la quête du juste milieu devient dès lors la solution ultime<br>Family Law in Maghreb is the stronghold of religion and moral norms. Observation would prove its specific nature. Deeply marqued by Islamic Law, the family Law is controversial. It is a privileged setting for testing the religious law capacity to fit onto modernity. Hence, it is an area of competition for different ideological doctrines with social mating projects. Family Law in Maghreb is often criticised since linked to the woman legal condition. Many challenges are facing it so that modernity is becoming a domestic and international requirement. But modernity is a result of internal changes and sociocultural movements, it should be authentic and legitimate. While choosing different and convergent ways, family law in Maghreb countries is still marked by Islam as religion and value system and there is, indeed, a very important reference to religious norm which is a specific nature of Maghreb's family law. Recent reforms are confirming this fact. Modernization has been a current matter since several years but this result could not be reached to the detriment of the sacral. Compromise seems to be the final solution

Parmi les facteurs d’incompréhension dont souffre l’Islam, la condition de la femme occupe une place importante. Cette question est une source inépuisable de polémiques. Ce sont surtout des dérives conservatrices ou extrémistes qui ont abouti à ce que la femme musulmane soit placée au centre d’un débat où l’Islam se retrouve sur le banc des accusés. C’est assez paradoxal dans la mesure où cette religion a marqué un authentique progrès dans la situation de la femme. Il est donc essentiel de rappeler que les textes fondamentaux, à commencer par le Coran, sont clairs à ce sujet. Leur analyse permet de découvrir que l’Islam n’est en rien hostile à la condition féminine. Mais, il est tout aussi indéniable qu’un fossé sépare l’enseignement de l’Islam et la pratique, les coutumes qui se sont constituées souvent à l’encontre des textes sacrés. L’enjeu actuel du monde islamique est l’opposition entre un conservatisme figé (tâqlid) et un réformisme dynamique, c’est-à-dire l’effort d’adaptation (ijtihâd). Cette opposition est particulièrement tranchée pour ce qui concerne la condition de la femme. Cela d’autant plus que des idéologies extrémistes sont venues s’ajouter au conservatisme routinier alors que les réformistes font de la question de la femme une priorité. L’objet de cette thèse est de confronter les dérives conservatrices ou extrémistes aux textes fondamentaux de l’Islam pour démontrer que la problématique n’est pas une fausse opposition entre cette religion et une certaine conception occidentale, mais le retour réformiste à la lecture exacte des textes pour continuer l’effort d’adaptation, l’ijtihâd qui est le principe de mouvement dans la structure de l’Islam<br>Among all the incomprehension factors plaguing Islam, the status of women occupies a significant part. This issue is an inexhaustible source of controversy. It is mostly the conservative or extremist drifts that led to Muslim women being placed at the centre of a debate in which Islam is placed in the dock. It is quite ironic in that this religion actually marked a genuine progress in the status of women. It is therefore essential to recall that the basic texts, beginning with the Quran, are clear about this. Through their analysis, we discover that Islam is in no way hostile to women. But it is equally undeniable that a gap exists between the teachings of Islam and their practice, the customs that were formed often against the sacred texts. The current issue met by the Islamic world is the opposition between rigid conservatism (tâqlid) and dynamic reformism, that is to say, the effort to adjust (ijtihâd). This opposition is particularly pronounced when dealing with the status of women. All the more so when extremist ideologies are being added to routine conservatism while reformists are making the issue of women a priority. The purpose of this thesis is to confront the conservative or extremist drifts to the essential texts of Islam in order to demonstrate that the issue is not the existence of a false opposition between this religion and some Western concepts, but the reformist return to the exact reading of the texts to continue the effort to adapt, al ijtihâd, which is the principle of movement in the structure of Islam

A partir du moment où l'on reconnaît que le délai entre la mort du prophète Muhammad et la mise en plusieurs et différents corpus de la Sunna est un délai de plusieurs décennies, il devient inévitable de reconnaître en même temps que le hiatus entre les deux entités (les dires et faires du prophète et leurs reflets dans le scripturaire) ne sont pas seulement d'ordre formel. Toutefois, l'institution théologique classique a réussi, non seulement à minimiser les conséquences de ce clivage et à faire de ces corpus établis le reflet sacralisé de la deuxième source du droit en Islam, mais elle a réussi aussi à établir un mur infranchissable, entre le lecteur et tout ce qui lui permet d'accéder directement aux interrogations légitimes et rationnelles, concernant la nature de la Sunna et son sens même lors de son surgissement et de sa mise en corpus. Notre travail tente une relecture historique de l'apport des maîtres réformistes en matière de Sunna par rapport aux autres sources de l'orthodoxie islamique à savoir le Coran l'ijmâ' et l'iitihâd. Une relecture, d'abord dans ce hiatus que nous avons signalé, pour essayer d'en évaluer l'importance et les implications; ainsi nous avons pu démontrer que les maîtres réformistes ont pu dépasser pour la première fois dans l'histoire, les tensions, les contradictions, les immobilismes, les affrontements et les protagonismes avec une reprise critique de tous les fondements (usûl) de la pensée islamique y compris, le Coran et la Sunna. Une critique ouverte à la pensée scientifique vers de nouveaux modes d'intelligibilité et d'appropriation du réel, afin de transgresser tous les tabous faussement sacrés. Ce travail nous a permis enfin de constater l'arrêt brusque et brutal de l'action des maîtres réformistes qui fut la force tranquille d'une réelle « critique de la raison islamique », pour laisser le champ libre à deux formes « d'extrémisme » destructeur, celui de l'Etat et celui de l'Individu marginalisé. Dès lors peut-on encore parler de la renaissance d'un autre combat entre raison théologique dogmatique et raison « scientiste » sans foi ni loi ?<br>From the moment we accept that many decades passed between the death of the Prophet Muhammad and the collecting of the many different texts interpreting the Sunna, we must also accept that the gap between the two entities (the words and the acts of the Prophet and their reflection in the Scriptures) is not merely of a formai nature. However, the classical theological institutions have managed not only to minimize the consequences of this division and make this established corpus into the second source of jurisdiction in Islam, but also to build an impenetrable wall between the reader and everything that aliows him to raise legitimate and rational questions concerning the nature of the Sunna and its meaning, including its appearance and its collection. Our work suggests a historical reconsideration of the works of reformist scholars in terms of the Sunna compared with the other sources of Islamic orthodoxy, that is the Koran, the Ijma' and the Ijtihad. Firstly, a reconsideration of the gap that we mentioned, in order to try to evaluate its importance and implications. In this way we have shown that the reformist scholars had, for the first lime in history, overcome the tensions, contradictions, stagnation, clashes and protagonisms with a new critical approach to ail the foundations (usul) of Islamic thought, including the Koran and the Sunna. Acritique open to scientific thought towards new ways of intelligibility and appropriation of the real, in order to surmount all the taboos sanctified without legal ground. Secondly, this work enabled us to perceive the swift and brutal interruption in the work of the reformist scholars, who were a peaceful force of the one real « criticism of the Islamic mind » to leave some space to two forms of destructive « terrorism » -that of the state and that of the marginalized individual. Since then, can we still talk about the renaissance of another combat between the dogmatic theological mind and the supposed faithless and lawless « scientific » mind?

La finance islamique, apparue dans les années 1970, correspond à l'exercice d'une activité financière en conformité avec les normes de la Charia, notamment l'interdiction de l'intérêt. Les juristes spécialistes du fiqh (droit islamique), les fuqahāʾ, sont chargés au sein des banques islamiques d'une mission de supervision de la Charia. La finance islamique se présente ainsi comme une expérience de renouveau du droit islamique sous la forme d'un droit de juristes. La cristallisation du shéma de la vente à profit (murābaḥaẗ), alternative controversée au prêt à intérêt, permet d'observer les contraintes liées au cadre institutionnel et aux techniques d'élaboration d'un droit financier islamique contemporain nécessairement innovant<br>Islamic finance emerged during the 1970s as the conduct of financing activities in conformity with the norms of the Sharia and, above all, the prohibition of interest. The jurists specialists of fiqh (Islamic law), the fuqahāʾ, are vested with the authority to supervise the application of the Sharia within Islamic banks. Thus, Islamic finance represents an experimentation for the renewal of Islamic laws as a jurists' law. The crystallization of the scheme of the mark-up sale (murābaḥaẗ) a controversial alternative to interest loans, allows the examination of the factors, linked to the institutional setting and the juridicial reasoning, constraining the formation of an innovating contemporary Islmamic financial law

Acknowledgements aren't included in digital version. Page numbering differs from original due to different width of pages.<br>The fatwa (pl. fatawa) or non-binding legal opinion is an important institution in Islamic thought. In relation to the shari‘ah (the body of Islamic law), fatwa has been the agent for relating the teaching of shari‘ah to 'the concrete world of human affairs' (Masud, Brinkley, and Messick, 1996:3). It is a medium to understand social change (Hooker, 2003) and a source of Islamic legal and social history (Powers, 1990) of Muslim community. For this reason, fatwa, along with qada’ (Islamic court’s decision) institution, is an important agent of Shari'ah application. In Islamic legal scholarship (fiqh), as some have argues (Schacht, 1964: 74-5 and Hallaq, 1994:), fatwa has been instrumental in the development of furu‘ al-fiqh (theoretical aspect of substantive law) as well as usul al-fiqh (legal methodology of Islamic law) in Islam. The mufti can be seen as the agent of legal change as well (Hallaq, 2001:174). Many fatawa of prominent muftis (jurist-consult) are incorporated into the substantive law of certain madhhab (school of law) and many muftis are prominent jurist-authors affiliated to schools of law (Hallaq, 1994:30-1, and 2001:). Therefore, the interplay between fatwa, fiqh and madhhab is inherent to the theoretical aspect of shari’ah and its practical application...

This study examined the context of the Medieval Islamic qadi Ibn Taymiyyah in 14th century Bahri Mamluk Syria and Egypt and his incarcerations and death in prison by order of Sultan Nasser al-Muhammad Qalawun for ijtihad. This study demonstrated Ibn Taymiyyah practiced ijtihad, held the rank of mujtahid, and incurred the wrath of the Sultan. The evidence indicates that Taymiyyah’s independent reasoning held specific social, legal, and political threats to Qalawun, the Bahri Mamluk Sultan, during his third reign. The significant role Taymiyyah’s ijtihad played in the Sultan’s imprisonment calls for a review of previous scholarship emphasizing the role of jealousy by the religious elite and affection for Taymiyyah by the Sultan as significant factors in his conflicts.<br>Department of History

Islamic Jurisprudence comprises of the laws that govern a Muslims daily life. The Prophet Muhammad explained and practically demonstrated these laws. The jurists studied the Quran and the Prophet's life and they adopted a refined methodology which they used to extract legal rulings and verdicts. This methodology is known as the Principles of Jurisprudence. The jurists expanded on this methodology with some differences among them on the usage and the application of some aspects as acceptable forms of evidence. Eventually, the Muslim world was left with four schools of jurisprudence that are present to this day. There are differences between these schools on some issues but these differences never caused conflict, instead it provided us with a wealth of knowledge. We need to study these schools and its principles together with the objectives and intent of the Shariah and utilize this to find solutions to all new issues that arise.<br>Religious Studies and Arabic<br>M. A. (Islamic Studies)

Suite à la crise financière globale de 2008, ainsi qu’aux différents facteurs qui y ont mené, il est étonnant qu’une alternative éthique et juste pour une finance lucrative et stable n’existe toujours pas (ou du moins, demeure oubliée). Ayant décidé de contribuer au domaine pluri-centenaire du Droit Commercial de la Chari’a, nous avons été surpris par la découverte d’une problématique à l’origine de cette thèse. En France, nous avons suivi des débats doctrinaux intéressants dont les conclusions se rapprochent de la perception générale Occidentale quand à la nature de la finance Islamique, que ce soit au niveau de la finance basée sur le Droit de la Chari’a ou encore les exigences de sa pleine introduction dans le système juridique français de l’époque. Cet intérêt initial dans la finance islamique a ensuite mené à un intérêt dans la question des avantages d’éthique et de justice du Droit Commercial de la Chari’a dans son ensemble, qui est au coeur de cette thèse. Dans le monde moderne du commerce et de la finance d’aujourd’hui, les transactions sont marquées par une prise de risque excessive et un esprit de spéculation qui s’apparente aux jeux de hasard, et menant à des pertes colossales. Pire encore, ces pertes sont ensuite transférées à la collectivité. Par conséquent, y at-il des préceptes, des principes ou des règles éthiques et juridiques qui peuvent fournir une certaine forme de sécurité et de protection dans les marchés financiers d'aujourd'hui? Est-ce réalisable? Cette thèse soutient que la richesse de la jurisprudence islamique ainsi que ses règles dont les avantages n’ont pas encore été pleinement saisis et régénérés en réponse aux nouveaux défis d’aujourd'hui, peuvent encore fournir continuellement des solutions, et réformer des produits financiers de façon à refléter des principes de justice et d'équité. Dans ce processus, un éclairage nouveau sera apporté à certains sujets déjà connus dans le cadre de la contribution prévue de cette thèse, mais ne sera pas le principal objectif de la thèse.<br>Following the 2008 global financial meltdown and the various reasons that lead to it, it seemed inconceivable that no ethical and justice-driven alternative for highly lucrative and stable financing existed, or at the very least forgotten about. Deciding to contribute to the already centuries old and continuously developing domain of Shari’a Commercial law, we were first caught by surprise when we discovered one particular problem that sparked the start of this thesis. In France, we encountered interesting debates and doctrinal findings resembling a general and common western perception of the legal nature of Islamic Finance, being Shari’a Commercial law based financing, and the requirements for its full introduction into the French legal system at the time. This initial interest in Islamic Finance then evoked an interest in the ethical and justice driven gems of Shari’a Commercial law as a whole, and as the subject of this thesis. In today’s modern and global commercial and financial world, transactions are shrouded by excessive risk-taking and speculation akin to gambling, rendering at times colossal damages. To make matters worse, those damages are dislodged onto the public. Therefore, are there any ethical and legal precepts, principles and rules that may provide some form of a safety and social net in today’s financial markets? Is this achievable? This thesis argues that the richness of Islamic jurisprudence and its rules that have not had their benefits fully reaped and regenerated in response to new challenges till today, may still continuously provide solutions, as well as provide reforms to financial products, which exemplify justice and fairness. Within the process, new light will be shed on certain already known topics as part of the intended contribution of this thesis, but will not be the main objective of the thesis.

Text in English and Arabic<br>In pre-colonial Africa, the Southwestern Sahara which includes Mauritania, Mali and Senegal belonged to what was then referred to as the Sudan and extended from the Atlantic seaboard to the Red Sea. The advent of Islam and the Arabic language to West Africa in the 11th century heralded an intellectual marathon whose literary output still fascinates us today. At a time when Europe was emerging from the dark ages and Africa was for most Europeans a terra incognita, indigenous African scholars were composing treatises as diverse as mathematics, agriculture and the Islamic sciences. A twentieth century Mauritanian, Arabic monograph, Irshād al- Muqallidīn ʿinda ikhtilāf al-Mujtahidīn1, written circa 1910/1332, by a yet unknown Mauritanian jurist of the Mālikī School, Bāba bin al-Shaykh Sīdī al- Shinqīṭī al-Ntishā-ī (d.1920/1342), a member of the muchacclaimed Shinqīṭī fraternity of scholars, is a fine example of African literary accomplishment. This manuscript hereinafter referred to as the Irshād, is written within the legal framework of Islamic jurisprudence (usūl al-fiqh). A science that relies for the most part on the intellectual and interpretive competence of the independent jurist, or mujtahid, in the application of the methodologies employed in the extraction of legal norms from the primary sources of the sharīʿah. The subject matter of the Irshād deals with the question of juristic differences. Juristic differences invariably arise when a mujtahid exercises his academic freedom to clarify or resolve conundrums in the law and to postulate legal norms. Other independent jurists (mujtahidūn) may posit different legal norms because of the exercise of their individual interpretive skills. These differences, when they are deemed juristically irreconcilable, are called ikhtilāfāt (pl. of ikhtilāf). The author of the Irshād explores a corollary of the ikhtilāf narrative and posits the hypothesis that there ought not to be ikhtilāf in the sharīʿah. The proposed research will comprise an annotated translation of the monograph followed by a synopsis and commentary on its dominant themes.<br>Religious Studies and Arabic<br>D. Litt. et Phil. (Islamic Studies)