Academic literature on the topic 'Immune response/trypanosomes'

ABSTRACT Host resistance to African trypanosomiasis is partially dependent on an early and strong T-independent B-cell response against the variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) coat expressed by trypanosomes. The repetitive array of surface epitopes displayed by a monotypic surface coat, in which identical VSG molecules are closely packed together in a uniform architectural display, cross-links cognate B-cell receptors and initiates T-independent B-cell activation events. However, this repetitive array of identical VSG epitopes is altered during the process of antigenic variation, when former and nascent VSG proteins are transiently expressed together in a mosaic surface coat. Thus, T-independent B-cell recognition of the trypanosome surface coat may be disrupted by the introduction of heterologous VSG molecules into the coat structure. To address this hypothesis, we transformed Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense LouTat 1 with the 117 VSG gene from Trypanosoma brucei brucei MiTat 1.4 in order to produce VSG double expressers; coexpression of the exogenous 117 gene along with the endogenous LouTat 1 VSG gene resulted in the display of a mosaic VSG coat. Results presented here demonstrate that the host's ability to produce VSG-specific antibodies and activate B cells during early infection with VSG double expressers is compromised relative to that during infection with the parental strain, which displays a monotypic coat. These findings suggest a previously unrecognized mechanism of immune response evasion in which coat-switching trypanosomes fail to directly activate B cells until coat VSG homogeneity is achieved. This process affords an immunological advantage to trypanosomes during the process of antigenic variation.

SUMMARYAfrican trypanosomes have been around for more than 100 million years, and have adapted to survival in a very wide host range. While various indigenous African mammalian host species display a tolerant phenotype towards this parasitic infection, and hence serve as perpetual reservoirs, many commercially important livestock species are highly disease susceptible. When considering humans, they too display a highly sensitive disease progression phenotype for infections withTrypanosoma brucei rhodesienseorTrypanosoma brucei gambiense, while being intrinsically resistant to infections with other trypanosome species. As extracellular trypanosomes proliferate and live freely in the bloodstream and lymphatics, they are constantly exposed to the immune system. Due to co-evolution, this environment however no longer poses a hostile threat, but has become the niche environment where trypanosomes thrive and obligatory await transmission through the bites of tsetse flies or other haematophagic vectors, ideally without causing severe side infection-associated pathology to their host. Hence, African trypanosomes have acquired various mechanisms to manipulate and control the host immune response, evading effective elimination. Despite the extensive research into trypanosomosis over the past 40 years, many aspects of the anti-parasite immune response remain to be solved and no vaccine is currently available. Here we review the recent work on the different escape mechanisms employed by African Trypanosomes to ensure infection chronicity and transmission potential.

Salivarian trypanosomes are extracellular parasites causing anthroponotic and zoonotic infections. Anti-parasite vaccination is considered the only sustainable method for global trypanosomosis control. Unfortunately, no single field applicable vaccine solution has been successful so far. The active destruction of the host’s adaptive immune system by trypanosomes is believed to contribute to this problem. Here, we show that Trypanosome brucei brucei infection results in the lasting obliteration of immunological memory, including vaccine-induced memory against non-related pathogens. Using the well-established DTPa vaccine model in combination with a T. b. brucei infection and a diminazene diaceturate anti-parasite treatment scheme, our results demonstrate that while the latter ensured full recovery from the T. b. brucei infection, it failed to restore an efficacious anti-B. pertussis vaccine recall response. The DTPa vaccine failure coincided with a shift in the IgG1/IgG2a anti-B. pertussis antibody ratio in favor of IgG2a, and a striking impact on all of the spleen immune cell populations. Interestingly, an increased plasma IFNγ level in DTPa-vaccinated trypanosome-infected mice coincided with a temporary antibody-independent improvement in early-stage trypanosomosis control. In conclusion, our results are the first to show that trypanosome-inflicted immune damage is not restored by successful anti-parasite treatment.

SUMMARYThe experimental studies ofBruceigroup trypanosomes presented here demonstrate that the balance of host and parasite factors, especially IFN-γGPI-sVSG respectively, and the timing of cellular exposure to them, dictate the predominant MP and DC activation profiles present at any given time during infection and within specific tissues. The timing of changes in innate immune cell functions following infection consistently support the conclusion that the key events controlling host resistance occur within a short time following initial exposure to the parasite GPI substituents. Once the changes in MP and DC activities are initiated, there appears little that the host can do to reverse these changes and alter the final outcome of these regulatory events. Instead, despite the availability of multiple innate and adaptive immune mechanisms that can control parasites, there is an inability to control trypanosome numbers sufficiently to prevent the emergence and establishment of virulent trypanosomes that eventually kill the host. Overall it appears that trypanosomes have carefully orchestrated the host innate and adaptive immune response so that parasite survival and transmission, and alterations of host immunity, are to its ultimate benefit.

Salivarian trypanosomes comprise a group of extracellular anthroponotic and zoonotic parasites. The only sustainable method for global control of these infection is through vaccination of livestock animals. Despite multiple reports describing promising laboratory results, no single field-applicable solution has been successful so far. Conventionally, vaccine research focusses mostly on exposed immunogenic antigens, or the structural molecular knowledge of surface exposed invariant immunogens. Unfortunately, extracellular parasites (or parasites with extracellular life stages) have devised efficient defense systems against host antibody attacks, so they can deal with the mammalian humoral immune response. In the case of trypanosomes, it appears that these mechanisms have been perfected, leading to vaccine failure in natural hosts. Here, we provide two examples of potential vaccine candidates that, despite being immunogenic and accessible to the immune system, failed to induce a functionally protective memory response. First, trypanosomal enolase was tested as a vaccine candidate, as it was recently characterized as a highly conserved enzyme that is readily recognized during infection by the host antibody response. Secondly, we re-addressed a vaccine approach towards the Invariant Surface Glycoprotein ISG75, and showed that despite being highly immunogenic, trypanosomes can avoid anti-ISG75 mediated parasitemia control.

Major modifications of immune system have been observed in African trypanosomiasis. These immune reactions do not lead to protection and are also involved in immunopathology disorders. The major surface component (variable surface glycoprotein,VSG) is associated with escape to immune reactions, cytokine network dysfunctions and autoantibody production. Most of our knowledge result from experimental trypanosomiasis. Innate resistance elements have been characterised. In infected mice, VSG preferentially stimulates a Th 1-cell subset. A response of <FONT FACE=Symbol>gd</FONT> and CD8 T cells to trypanosome antigens was observed in trypanotolerant cattle. An increase in CD5 B cells, responsible for most serum IgM and production of autoantibodies has been noted in infected cattle. Macrophages play important roles in trypanosomiasis, in synergy with antibodies (phagocytosis) and by secreting various molecules (radicals, cytokines, prostaglandins,...). Trypanosomes are highly sensitive to TNF-alpha, reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates. TNF-alpha is also involved in cachexia. IFN-gamma acts as a parasite growth factor. These various elements contribute to immunosuppression. Trypanosomes have learnt to use immune mechanisms to its own profit. Recent data show the importance of alternative macrophage activation, including arginase induction. L-ornithine produced by host arginase is essential to parasite growth. All these data reflect the deep insight into the immune system realised by trypanosomes and might suggest interference therapeutic approaches.

African trypanosomes escape the mammalian immune response by antigenic variation—the periodic exchange of one surface coat protein, in Trypanosoma brucei the variant surface glycoprotein (VSG), for an immunologically distinct one. VSG transcription is monoallelic, with only one VSG being expressed at a time from a specialized locus, known as an expression site. VSG switching is a predominantly recombination-driven process that allows VSG sequences to be recombined into the active expression site either replacing the currently active VSG or generating a ‘new’ VSG by segmental gene conversion. In this review, we describe what is known about the factors that influence this process, focusing specifically on DNA repair and recombination.

ABSTRACTRelative resistance to African trypanosomiasis is based on the development of a type I cytokine response, which is partially dependent on innate immune responses generated through MyD88 and Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9). Therefore, we asked whether enhancement of the immune response by artificial stimulation with CpG oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN), a TLR9 agonist, would result in enhanced protection against trypanosomes. In susceptible BALB/c mice, relative resistance to infection was significantly enhanced by CpG ODN treatment and was associated with decreased parasite burden, increased cytokine production, and elevated parasite-specific B- and T-cell responses. In relatively resistant C57BL/6 mice, survival was not enhanced but early parasitemia levels were reduced 100-fold and the majority of the parasites were nondividing, short stumpy (SS) forms. CpG ODN treatment of lymphocyte-deficient C57BL/6-scidand BALB/cByJ-scidmice also enhanced survival and reduced parasitemia, indicating that innate resistance to trypanosome infection can be enhanced. In C57BL/6-scidand BALB/cByJ-scidmice, the parasites were also predominantly SS forms during the outgrowth of parasitemia. However, the effect of CpG ODN treatment on parasite morphology was not as marked in gamma interferon (IFN-γ)-knockout mice, suggesting that downstream effects of IFN-γ production may play a discrete role in parasite cell differentiation. Overall, these studies provide the first evidence that enhancement of resistance to African trypanosomes can be induced in susceptible animals in a TLR9-dependent manner and that CpG ODN treatment may influence the developmental life cycle of the parasites.

An early and essential event in the protective immune response against most viruses and protozoa is the production of interferon-γ (IFN-γ). In contrast, during infection with African trypanosomes, protozoan parasites that cause human sleeping sickness, the increased levels of IFN-γ do not correlate with a protective response. We showed previously that African trypanosomes express a protein called T lymphocyte triggering factor (TLTF), which triggers CD8+ T lymphocytes to proliferate and to secrete IFN-γ. Here, we isolate the gene for TLTF and demonstrate that the recombinant version of TLTF specifically induces CD8+, but not CD4+, T cells to secrete IFN-γ. Studies with TLTF fused to the green fluorescent protein show that TLTF is localized to small vesicles that are found primarily at or near the flagellar pocket, the site of secretion in trypanosomes. TLTF is likely to be only the first example of a class of proteins that we designate as trypanokines, i.e., factors secreted by trypanosomes that modulate the cytokine network of the host immune system for the benefit of the parasite.

Le Trypanosome africain, dont Trypanosoma brucei est le prototype, est un parasite sévissant en Afrique sub-tropicale. Il est responsable de la maladie du sommeil chez l’Homme et de diverses affections chez les animaux tant sauvages que domestiques.

T. brucei est un parasite extracellulaire qui se développe dans le sang de son hôte mammifère. Il est donc confronté en permanence au système immunitaire de l’hôte et a en conséquence, afin de générer un environnement plus favorable à sa croissance, établit différents mécanismes d’échappement tels que la variation antigénique ou l’immunomodulation.

Dans ce contexte, il a été montré que T.brucei libère des facteurs capables d’induire la voie arginase des macrophages. Cette induction peut favoriser la croissance des trypanosomes dans le sang de leur hôte de diverses manières. Premièrement, l’arginase participe à la synthèse de composés tels que les polyamines ou la trypanothione, facteurs de croissance des cellules. Deuxièmement, l’arginase partage le même substrat que la NO synthase inductible (iNOS), ces deux enzymes sont donc en compétition et l’activation de l’arginase pourrait contribuer à diminuer la quantité de NO, composé cytostatique et cytotoxique, produit par les macrophages en limitant le substrat disponible pour l’iNOS. Troisièmement, la déplétion du milieu en arginine suite à l’activation de l’arginase inhibe la prolifération de cellules du système immunitaire dont les lymphocytes T.

Nous avons identifié une chaîne lourde de kinésine chez T.brucei, TbKHC1 (Trypanosoma brucei Kinesin Heavy Chain 1), appartenant à la superfamille des kinésines, comme un candidat potentiellement capable d’induire la voie arginase des macrophages. TbKHC1 est principalement exprimée au stade sanguicole du parasite et est localisée au niveau de la région endo-exocytaire. Dans un modèle d’infection murin, une invalidation de l’expression de TbKHC1 (par ARN interférence ou par knock-out) conduit à une diminution du premier pic de parasitémie et à une prolongation de la survie des souris infectées. Nous avons montré que TbKHC1 joue un rôle dans l’interaction hôte/parasite à deux niveaux indépendants :premièrement, l’induction de la voie arginase des macrophages par TbKHC1 en début d’infection favorise la croissance du parasite et son établissement au sein de son hôte. Deuxièmement, elle joue un rôle dans l’induction de la pathologie liée à l’infection.

Doctorat en Sciences
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

A dehidroepiandrosterona (DHEA) tem sido considerada como o esteróide de múltiplas ações e vem interessando pesquisadores da área médica. Trabalhos demonstram a estimulação imunológica induzida pelo DHEA em animais de laboratório e humanos, como terapia alternativa e imunomoestimuladora nas infecções virais, bacterianas e parasitárias. O presente projeto avaliou os efeitos terapêuticos da administração de DHEA em ratos Wistar machos e fêmeas infectados com a cepa Y de Trypanosoma cruzi durante a fase aguda da infecção chagásica. Os parâmetros analizados foram o número de parasitas sangüíneos e teciduais, bem como produção de citocinas (TNF-, IFN-, IL-2, IL-12, IL-10, IL-4 e TGF-) e populações celulares (CD3+, CD4+ e CD8+), análise de glicose, colesterol e triglicérides, produção de anticorpos líticos, óxido nítrico, contagem global de leucócitos e macrófagos. Através dos resultados obtidos podemos concluir que o DHEA quando utilizado como tratamento na infecção chagásica experimental é parcilamente eficaz, pois reduz o número de parasitas sanguíneos e teciduais em ratos machos e fêmeas. Os diferentes parâmetros imunológicos analisados na vigência da terapia com DHEA revelou uma ação parcialmente efetiva sobre a resposta imunológica, o que favoreceu o controle da evolução da fase aguda da infecção experimental, deve ser levado em conta que a utilização deste hormônio não assume caráter curativo, apenas propicia melhores condições ao hospedeiro de direcionar sua resposta imunológica de forma a controlar a replicação parasitária, sem causar no hospedeiro os efeitos colaterais danosos ocasionados pelas drogas tripanossomicidas disponíveis atualmente no mercado.
Dehidroepiandrosterone (DHEA) has been considered for many researchers as the steroid of multiple functions. The immunologic stimulation triggered by DHEA has been demonstrated not only in animal models but also in humans. DHEA has been used as an alternative therapy to up-modulate immune response in host bearing viral, bacterial and parasitic infections. The present work evaluate the therapeutic effects of DHEA administration in male and female Wistar rats infected with the Y strain of T. cruzi during the acute phase of infection. The evaluated parameters were the blood and tecidual parasitic intensity, cytokines and cellular population, glucose analysis, cholesterol and triglycerides, percentage of lytic antibodies, nitric oxide, global counting of leukocytes and macrophages. DHEA, when used as a treatment of experimental T. cruzi infection is efficient; reducing the number of blood and tissue parasites of both genders. The therapy with DHEA demonstrated cellular and humoral immune stimulation for the control of the evolution of the acute phase. It has to be emphasized that DHEA therapy is not curative, but improves to the host immunological response to control the parasitic burden, without the harmful collateral effects caused by the available T. cruzi drugs in the market.

La maladie de Chagas, due au protozoaire Trypanosoma cruzi, est un important problème de santé publique en Amérique latine. Le parasite peut se transmettre à l’homme via un vecteur de la famille des triatomes, par transfusion sanguine ou transplantation d’organe et congénitalement de la mère à son fœtus. Le Laboratoire de Parasitologie s’est particulièrement intéressé à la maladie de Chagas congénitale. Dans le cadre de cette thématique, le Laboratoire a montré que les nouveau-nés congénitalement infectés par T. cruzi développent une forte réponse lymphocytaire T CD8+ spécifique semblable à celle des adultes, accompagnée d’une production d’interféron-gamma (IFN-g), et ce en dépit de l’immaturité bien connue du système immun néonatal. En effet, le système immun néonatal est naturellement orienté vers le développement de réponses immunes Th2 tandis que la réponse Th1 est inhibée. De multiples mécanismes sont à l’origine de cette déviation en début de vie. Certaines déficiences au niveau des cellules du système immun inné y contribuent, dont la difficulté des cellules dendritiques (DCs) à produire de l’IL-12, cytokine clé dans l’induction d’une réponse Th1. Les multiples déficiences du système immun en début de vie rendent les nouveau-nés et jeunes enfants particulièrement sensibles aux pathogènes et limitent l’efficacité des vaccins administrés en début de vie.

Afin de mieux connaître les mécanismes par lesquels T. cruzi induit cette forte réponse immune de type 1 chez les nouveau-nés, nous nous sommes intéressés à l’activation de la réponse immune innée par le parasite. De nombreuses cellules peuvent être impliquées dans la mise en place d’une réponse de type 1, dont les cellules dendritiques (DCs), les monocytes et les cellules NK. Le Laboratoire de Parasitologie a montré que T. cruzi activait in vitro les DCs néonatales, les rendant capables d’induire une réponse lymphocytaire T plus orientée vers la production d’IFN-g. D’autres données obtenues chez les nouveau-nés congénitalement infectés par T. cruzi suggèrent que les cellules NK ont été activées in utero quand le parasite a été transmis par la mère infectée. Nous nous sommes ici intéressés à la capacité des cellules NK néonatales à produire rapidement de l’IFN-g en réponse à T. cruzi. Une telle production précoce est en effet un élément contribuant à orienter une réponse immune de type 1.

Nous avons effectué des co-cultures de cellules mononucléaires de sang de cordon de nouveau-nés sains (CBMC) ou de sang périphérique adulte (PBMC) avec des trypomastigotes vivants de T. cruzi. Nos résultats montrent qu’en présence d’IL-15, T. cruzi induit une forte production d’IFN-g par les CBMC. Cette réponse est précoce et est accompagnée d’une production de TNF-a mais pas d’IL-10. Les cellules NK CD56brightCD16-/low et CD56dimCD16- sont les meilleures productrices d’IFN-g dans les deux groupes d’âges. La réponse des cellules NK néonatales est substantielle mais reste légèrement inférieure à celle des cellules adultes. Nous avons par ailleurs observé un déficit de production précoce d’IFN-g par les cellules T CD3+CD56+ (NK-like) et CD3+CD56- (« classiques ») néonatales par rapport aux cellules adultes.

La réponse IFN-g par les cellules NK est proportionnelle aux concentrations de parasites et d’IL-15 et accompagnée d’une activation phénotypique des cellules NK. Il est bien connu que des cellules accessoires telles que les cellules dendritiques et les monocytes contribuent généralement à activer indirectement les cellules NK. Des expériences de déplétion cellulaire indiquent que la production d’IFN-g par les cellules NK néonatales sensibilisées par l’IL-15 fait intervenir les monocytes mais pas les DCs myéloïdes, et qu’un contact avec les monocytes est nécessaire. De plus, elle requiert un contact du parasite vivant avec les CBMC et implique l’engagement des TLR2 et TLR4, ainsi qu’une production endogène d’IL-12.

Enfin, nous avons observé que les monocytes, et non les DCs myéloïdes, sont la source précoce de l’IL-12p70. Les parasites sont capables d’induire la synthèse de cette cytokine importante pour l’initiation d’une réponse de type 1 en l’absence de cytokines additionnelles, aussi bien dans les monocytes néonataux qu’adultes. La synthèse d’IL-12 par les monocytes s’accompagne d’une augmentation de l’expression de molécules co-activatrices CD40, CD80 et CD83 à leur surface. Ces dernières pourraient dès lors jouer un rôle supplémentaire dans l’activation indirecte des cellules NK néonatales par le parasite.

Cet ensemble de résultats montre que T. cruzi active les cellules néonatales du système immunitaire et plus particulièrement la production d’IL-12 par les monocytes et d’IFN-g par les cellules NK. Cette voie d’activation monocytes – IL-12 – cellules NK – IFN-g pourrait contribuer à la levée de l’immaturité du système immun des nouveau-nés congénitalement infectés décrite plus haut. Ces observations ont d’importantes implications pour la compréhension des mécanismes de protection en début de vie et pourraient aboutir à la mise au point d’un nouvel adjuvant vaccinal permettant de réduire la polarisation Th2 physiologique des nouveau-nés.
Doctorat en Sciences biomédicales et pharmaceutiques
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

This thesis describes studies on immune responses and immunosuppression during experimental Trypanosoma evansi infections in sheep. The studies were initiated by investigations into: 1) routine parasitology and haematology, 2) cell population dynamics in blood and, 3) assessment of parasite-specific antibody responses. Investigations into the role of T.evansi in suppression of immune responses to heterologous antigens were carried out using Pasteurella haemolytica vaccine as a model antigen and involved: 1) assessment of local inflammation, and measurement of skin thickness, at the site of vaccination, 2) cell phenotype dynamics in blood and in efferent lymph draining the site of vaccination, 3) assay of anti-Pasteurella antibodies, 4) cellular responses to T and B cell mitogens. Pasteurella and homologous trypanosomal antigens in vitro, 5) cell depletion experiments to try and identify the cell phenotype(s) responsible for immunosuppression. T.evansi infections in sheep produced scanty and frequently cryptic parasitaemia, ending in selfcure in some cases. There was marked lymphocytosis from day 22 post infection (p.i.). Indirect immunofluorescence and flow cytometry revealed decreases in the proportions of CD5+ , CD4+ , CD8+ and SBU-T19+ (γdelta) T cells, which were paralleled by increases in slg+ , CD45R+ , CD1+ cells and cells expressing the MHC Class II antigen. These changes were relatively minor in the selfcured sheep except that there was a greater decrease in CD8+ than CD4+ cells resulting in increased CD4:CD8 ratio. Trypanosome-specific IgG and IgM antibodies were detected in all infected animals by enzyme immunoassays. However, the levels of these antibodies were greater in the selfcured animals. T.evansi infection actively suppressed the local inflammation and skin thickness normally induced in uninfected control sheep by subcutaneous inoculation of Pasteurella vaccine. Moreover, early systemic mobilisation of neutrophils as seen in uninfected controls was suppressed. Analysis of cell dynamics in the blood of infected, vaccinated sheep revealed that vaccination did not reverse the changes in the proportions of T cell subsets and B cells which was induced by T.evansi in the infected sheep. Two-colour cytometry also showed that T.evansi induced increases of up to 70 percent in B cells expressing the CD5 antigen (CD5+ B cells) which persisted after vaccination but was minimal in the selfcured animals.

Durante a infecção por Trypanosoma cruzi, o sistema endócrino exerce importante influência no direcionamento da resposta imune do hospedeiro. A prolactina é um dos diversos hormônios envolvidos em uma série de complexas interações com o sistema imunológico, participando diretamente do processo de imunorregulação. As pesquisas relacionadas com a administração de hormônios em modelos experimentais infectados por T. cruzi visam comprovar a modulação dos mecanismos de defesa por estas substâncias e contribuem para a busca de novas terapias auxiliares e melhorias no tratamento convencional da Doença de Chagas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi elucidar o papel da prolactina na modulação do sistema imune durante a fase aguda da doença de Chagas experimental, através da administração desta substância em ratos Wistar jovens infectados com a cepa Y de T.cruzi. O envolvimento e o perfil de ativação das células de defesa durante a infecção aguda foram analisados, utilizando-se ensaios de linfoproliferação, apoptose de linfócitos e análise de marcadores celulares. Além disso, outros parâmetros imunológicos também foram avaliados, entre eles, citocinas intracelulares IFN-?, TNF-?, IL-4 e IL-10, quimiocina MCP-1 e óxido nítrico. Os animais submetidos ao tratamento com prolactina apresentaram redução significativa na parasitemia sanguínea, bem como diminuição na apoptose celular e elevados percentuais de células essenciais na resposta imune do hospedeiro frente ao parasita. Desta forma, os dados obtidos neste trabalho demonstram os efeitos estimulatórios da prolactina e corroboram a ideia da utilização de substâncias imunomoduladoras no desenvolvimento de novas estratégias terapêuticas, que possam promover o equilíbrio da resposta imune do hospedeiro frente à infecção, prevenindo os possíveis danos teciduais observados tanto na fase aguda como crônica da doença de Chagas.
During the course of infection by Trypanosoma cruzi, the host immune system is involved in distinct, complex interactions with the endocrine system, and prolactin (PRL) is one of several hormones involved in immunoregulation. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the modulation of the immune system with the administration of regulatory hormones in different experimental models infected with T. cruzi, are very important inciting the investigation of new therapies for Chagas\' disease. The role of PRL as a possible factor in the modulation of the immune response was the target of this study using as animal model young rats infected with the Y strain of T. cruzi, in the attempt to demonstrate the relationship between the neuroendocrine system and the immune response involved in the acute phase of the experimental Chagas\' disease. For this purpose, some immune parameters were analyzed: dosages of cytokines IFN-?, TNF-?, IL-4, IL-10 and chemokine MCP-1, phenotypic analysis of cell subsets by flow cytometry, production of nitric oxide, lymphoproliferation and apoptosis of splenocytes. Therapy with PRL caused a significant decrease in parasitemia during the acute phase. PRL also triggered an increase in the percentage of cells of the innate and adaptive immune response and decreased apoptosis. Thus, the data obtained in this study corroborate the idea of using substances such as PRL in the development of new therapeutic strategies that can modulate the inflammatory response, contributing to the balance of the host body against infection, preventing the possible tissue damage observed in both acute and chronic Chagas\' disease.

A doença de Chagas representa um importante problema para a Saúde Publica na América Latina, onde o tratamento é limitado principalmente na fase crônica. Mesmo controlando a replicação parasitária, a completa eliminação do parasita e a cura da doença não são observadas de forma consistente. A ativação do eixo adrenal-hipotálamo-hipófise possui um papel importante na supressão do sistema imune. Neste trabalho foram observados os efeitos do estresse repetitivo em ratos Wistar infectados com a cepa Y de Trypanosoma cruzi durante as fases aguda e crônica da doença experimental, através da exposição dos animais a vapores de éter por um minuto duas vezes ao dia. O estresse repetitivo provocou aumento do número de parasitas e a administração de DHEA reduziu significantemente a parasitemia durante a fase aguda. A resposta TH-1 foi mais vigorosa em animais submetidos à terapia com DHEA mesmo quando submetidos ao estresse repetitivo. Assim TNF-, IFN-, IL-2, NO e linfoproliferação mostraram concentrações mais elevadas quando comparadas aos animais não submetidos à terapia. A resposta TH-2 nos grupos sem suplementação com DHEA, IL-4 e IL-10 apresentaram valores reduzidos nos animais infectados e estressados submetidos à terapia com DHEA. A concentração de corticosterona mostrou-se elevada para animais estressados e infectados em relação aos animais submetidos a terapia com DHEA. A histopatologia apresentou redução no número de neurônios nas fases aguda e crônica para os animais estressados e infectados, os mesmos apresentaram desorganização tecidual cardíaca com aumento do número de ninhos de amastigotas e moderado processo inflamatório por células mononucleares. Estes resultados sugerem que o estresse repetitivo pode ser considerado como ii fator importante durante o desenvolvimento da doença de Chagas experimental, aumentando sua patogênese através de distúrbios do sistema imune do hospedeiro.
Chagas disease represents an important public health problem in Latin American, where the treatment is limited especially to chronic phase, besides the harmful side effects. Although controlling the parasite replication, the complete elimination of the etiologic agent still was not observed. Activation of the hypothalamuspituitaryadrenal axis plays a major role in the suppression of the immune system. We have investigated the effects of repetitive stress on Wistar rats infected with the Y strain of Trypanosoma cruzi during the acute and chronic phases of the experimental disease by the exposure to ether vapor for one minute twice a day. Repetitive stress resulted in an elevated number of circulating parasites and DHEA administration reduced significantly blood parasites during the acute phase. Several immunological parameters were evaluated. TH-1 response was more vigorous in animals submitted to DHEA therapy even those which underwent repetitive stress. So, TNF-, IFN-, IL-2, NO and lymphoproliferation displayed enhanced concentrations as compared to unsupplied animals. The TH-2 immune response in groups without DHEA supplementation, showed reduce values for IL-4 and IL-10 in groups infected and stressed submitted to DHEA therapy. Enhanced corticosterone concentration was a observed for infected and stressed animals. DHEA triggered reduced levels of corticosterone. The histopathology revealed that stressed animals showed a reduction in the number of neurons. Histological sections of heart smears from infected and stressed animals displayed deep tissue disorganization, increased parasite burdens and moderate diffused mononuclear inflammatory process. These results suggest that repetitive stress could be considered an iv important factor during development of experimental Chagas disease, enhancing pathogenesis through disturbance of the hosts immune system.

A identificação de moléculas com potenciais ações terapêuticas e a compreensão dos mecanismos envolvidos na modulação da resposta imune frente à administração de substâncias farmacologicamente ativas em modelos experimentais infectados por Trypanosoma cruzi tem contribuído de maneira importante nas investigações de novas terapias para a doença de Chagas. Estudos prévios demonstraram as ações do zinco e da melatonina sobre a imunidade do hospedeiro, durante a fase aguda da infecção chagásica experimental, potencializando a resposta imune gerada contra o parasita. O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o possível efeito imunomodulador da administração de zinco e melatonina em ratos Wistar machos durante a fase crônica da infecção por T. cruzi, utilizando os seguintes parâmetros: dosagens de citocinas IL-2, IL-4, IL-10, IFN-, e TNF-, produção de óxido nítrico, proliferação de esplenócitos, citometria de fluxo para análise fenotípica das subpopulações de células T CD3+CD4+ e CD3+CD8+, células dendríticas, células NK (CD161+) e NKT (CD3+CD161+), macrófagos, moléculas co-estimuladoras CD28, CD80 e CD86, RT1B, análise dos marcadores CD11a e CD25 e detecção do processo de apoptose celular. O efeito imuno-modulador do zinco e da melatonina durante a fase crônica da infecção chagásica pode ser comprovado através redução no percentual de macrófagos, células dendríticas, linfócitos TCD4+ e TCD8+, apoptose celular, das concentrações de óxido nítrico, IFN- e MCP-1. Adicionalmente, a terapia com zinco e melatonina durante a infecção experimental resultou em modificações importantes na resposta imunológica, como evidenciado pelo aumento no percentual de células T reguladoras, da proliferação celular e dos níveis das citocinas IL-2, IL-4 e IL-10. O desenvolvimento de novas estratégias terapêuticas, que possam modular a resposta inflamatória, contribuindo para prevenção dos danos teciduais observados na fase crônica da doença, são alvos importantes no tratamento da doença de Chagas.
The identification of molecules with potential therapeutic actions and the comprehension of the mechanisms involved in modulating the immune response by the administration of pharmacologically active substances in experimental models infected with Trypanosoma cruzi have contributed significantly in the investigation of new therapies for Chagas\' disease. Previous studies have demonstrated the actions of zinc and melatonin on host\'s immunity during the acute phase of experimental Chagas\' disease, enhancing the immune response generated against the parasite. The present study aimed to evaluate the possible immunomodulatory effect of zinc and melatonin administration in male Wistar rats during the chronic phase of T. cruzi infection, using the following parameters: measurement of IL-2, IL-4, IL-10, IFN- and TNF-, nitric oxide, proliferation of splenocytes, flow cytometry for phenotypic analysis of CD3+CD4+ and CD3+CD8+ T cells subpopulations, dendritic cells, NK cells (CD161+) and NK T (CD3+CD161+), macrophages, co-stimulatory molecules CD28, CD80 and CD86, RT1B, analysis of markers CD11a and CD25 and detection of the apoptosis process. The immunomodulator effect of zinc and melatonin during the chronic phase of Chagas\' disease was evaluated by a reduction of the percentage of macrophages, dendritic cells, CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes, cellular apoptosis, the concentrations of nitric oxide, IFN- and MCP-1. In addition, the treatment with zinc and melatonin during the experimental infection resulted in significant changes in the immune response, as evidenced by the increased percentage of regulatory T cells, cell proliferation and cytokine levels of IL- 2, IL-4 and IL-10. The development of new therapeutic strategies that can modulate the inflammatory response, contributing to prevention of tissue damage observed in the chronic phase, are important targets in the treatment of Chagas disease.

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Dissertacao (Mestrado)
IPEN/D
Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN/CNEN-SP