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1

Bornkessel, Ina. The argument dependency model: A neurocognitive approach to incremental interpretation. Leipzig: MPI of Cognitive Neuroscience, 2002.

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2

Gettings, Michael. Diamond: A model of incremental decision making for resource acquisition of electric utilities. Oak Ridge, Tenn: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1991.

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3

Mitchell, Bridger M. Incremental capital costs of telephone access and local use. Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 1989.

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4

Baldwin, Richard E. Incremental trade policy and endogenous growth: A q-theory approach. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1998.

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5

Krimgold, Frederick. Incremental seismic rehabilitation of hotel and motel buildings: Providing protection to people and buildings. [Washington, D.C.]: U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security, FEMA, 2005.

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6

Puga, Diego. Wake up and smell the ginseng: The rise of incremental innovation in low-wage countries. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2005.

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7

Nonlinear computational structural mechanics: New approaches and non-incremental methods of calculation. New York: Springer, 1999.

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8

Buchler, Justin. Incremental Polarization. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190865580.001.0001.

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This book provides a unified spatial model of legislative elections, parties, and roll call voting to address three primary questions: why do legislators adopt extreme positions, how do they win given their extremism, and what role do parties play in promoting polarization? The book links spatial models of elections to spatial models of roll call voting in the legislature, and suggests that the key to understanding polarization is to reverse the order of conventional models and place the legislative session before the election because legislators adopt positions in the policy space, extreme or otherwise, through the incremental process of casting roll call votes. Linking a spatial model of an election to a model of roll call voting, the book derives the following. When a legislative caucus is ideologically homogeneous, electorally diverse, and policy motivated, it will empower party leaders to solve the collective action problem of sincere voting by counterbalancing members’ electoral pressure to vote as centrists. The result is that the caucus achieves policy goals at the cost of some electoral security, but agenda paradoxes minimize the electoral damage done, so most incumbents win re-election anyway at only slightly diminished margins. This model explains the development of polarization in the House of Representatives throughout the post–World War II period, and key votes on legislation such as the Affordable Care Act. Moreover, even the unusual politics within the Republican Party during the divided government period from 2011 through 2016 follow naturally from extensions of the model.
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9

Boehm, Barry W. Incremental Commitment Spiral Model: Principles and Practices for Successful Systems and Software. Pearson Education, Limited, 2014.

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10

Gettings, M. B. DIAMOND: A model of incremental decision making for resource acquisition by electric utilities. Oak Ridge National Laboratory., 1991.

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11

Atm Cost Model: A Survey of Fully Weighted and Incremental Atm Transaction Costs-1984. Bank Administration Inst, 1985.

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12

A text of the incremental model of federal budgeting: Library of Congress program priorities FY 1961-1981. Ann Arbor, Mich: University Microfilms International, 1988.

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13

A text of the incremental model of federal budgeting: Library of Congress program priorities FY 1961-1981. Ann Arbor, Mich: University Microfilms International, 1988.

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14

Watson, David, and Sara M. Stasik. Examining the Comorbidity Between Depression and the Anxiety Disorders From the Perspective of the Quadripartite Model. Edited by C. Steven Richards and Michael W. O'Hara. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199797004.013.026.

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Major depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) represent heterogeneous combinations of symptoms. Analyses focusing on these distinctive symptom dimensions can play an important role in explicating key diagnostic phenomena such as comorbidity. We review depression and PTSD from the perspective of the quadripartite model, which posits that it is important to consider two quantitative elements when analyzing the properties of symptoms: (a) the magnitude of their general distress component and (b) their level of specificity. Within both disorders, we identified certain symptoms—insomnia and appetite disturbance in the case of depression, dysphoria within PTSD—that both (a) exhibited poor diagnostic specificity and (b) provided little or no incremental information to their respective diagnoses. We therefore argue that deemphasizing these weak and nonspecific indicators and focusing primarily on more specific types of symptoms potentially can improve the diagnosis and assessment of these disorders.
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15

Papadia, Francesco, and Tuomas Vӓlimӓki. Central Banking after the Great Recession. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198806196.003.0004.

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The central banking model prevailing before the Great Recession suffered six hits during the crisis. First, new financial stability responsibilities created dilemmas in the use of the interest rate. Second, quantitative easing blurred the borders between monetary and fiscal policy. Third, the action to support banks and, in the euro-area, peripheral sovereigns created moral hazard. Fourth, the ECB had to take on itself the task of preserving the euro. Fifth, the ECB had to participate in the so-called troika. Sixth, both the Fed and the ECB had to adopt a more global perspective. This chapter concludes that these hits have not basically jeopardized the pre-crisis central bank model. Still, four of the six hits to the pre-crisis central bank model identified above have a good probability of requiring changes in the pre-crisis model, thus some incremental adaptations to that model are proposed.
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16

Huffaker, Ray, Marco Bittelli, and Rodolfo Rosa. Empirically Detecting Causality. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198782933.003.0008.

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Phenomenological models mathematically describe relationships among empirically observed phenomena without attempting to explain underlying mechanisms. Within the context of NLTS, phenomenological modeling goes beyond phase space reconstruction to extract equations governing real-world system dynamics from a single or multiple observed time series. Phenomenological models provide several benefits. They can be used to characterize the dynamics of variable interactions; for example, whether an incremental increase in one variable drives a marginal increase/decrease in the growth rate of another, and whether these dynamic interactions follow systematic patterns over time. They provide an analytical framework for data driven science still searching for credible theoretical explanation. They set a descriptive standard for how the real world operates so that theory is not misdirected in explaining fanciful behavior. The success of phenomenological modeling depends critically on selection of governing parameters. Model dimensionality, and the time delays used to synthesize dynamic variables, are guided by statistical tests run for phase space reconstruction. Other regression and numerical integration parameters can be set on a trial and error basis within ranges providing numerical stability and successful reproduction of empirically-detected dynamics. We illustrate phenomenological modeling with solutions of the Lorenz model so that we can recognize the dynamics that need to be reproduced.
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17

Estimating incremental costs of bus route service changes. Washington, D.C: Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 1988.

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18

Meyer, Alan Charles. Procedures for incremental update of B-spline objects. 1989.

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19

Papadia, Francesco, and Tuomas Välimäki. Central Banking in Turbulent Times. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198806196.001.0001.

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The book describes the long and difficult process that led to the central banking model prevailing in most advanced economies at the end of last century. The critical institutional basis of that model is an independent central bank with price stability as its dominant objective. The book, which looks in particular at the Federal Reserve of the United States (Fed) and at the European Central Bank (ECB), also presents the essential components of that model, while noting that financial stability did not fit well in it and was the neglected child of central banks before the Great Recession. The book then illustrates the hits that the Great Recession delivered to that model and asks whether a radical rethinking of the model is necessary. In particular, it examines whether the renewed importance of the financial stability objective, the blurred borders between fiscal and monetary policies, the moral hazard created by the central bank’s forceful actions, and, finally, the actions of the ECB to protect the euro have jeopardized the pre-crisis central bank model. The answer to this question is that, while it is not possible to simply return to the pre-crisis central bank model, the adaptations that are needed are more incremental than radical when considered in a long historical perspective. They nevertheless require changes in the statutes of both the Fed and the ECB, and thus will have to overcome a high institutional hurdle.
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20

Delbridge, Rick. HRM and Contemporary Manufacturing. Edited by Peter Boxall, John Purcell, and Patrick M. Wright. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199547029.003.0020.

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This article outlines the key elements of organization and HRM associated with contemporary high-volume production, in particular the key arguments and characteristics of lean manufacturing. Lean manufacturing and the associated high-performance work system model has been influential in the development of management practices throughout manufacturing sectors and beyond. However, they are primarily premised on labor efficiencies and incremental improvement. The article reviews the evidence on the implementation and outcomes of lean adoption. The second main section reviews alternatives to ‘lean’. The requirement for innovation and higher value added noted above has meant that a greater emphasis on creating and managing knowledge than that associated with lean manufacturing has become central. One insightful, and increasingly influential, way of conceiving of this challenge has been developed from the concept of ‘communities of practice’, i.e. groups of largely autonomous and self-organizing experts.
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21

Cave, Terence. Towards a Passing Theory of Literary Understanding. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198794776.003.0010.

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Relevance theory offers a model of communication where utterances are constantly updated by the speaker, inviting the listener to engage in a corresponding activity of inferential adjustment. In the case of literature, the potential time-scale of this activity is expanded, whether by the length of the text, the passage of historical time, or the demands of close reading. How then do incremental effects operate within the virtual time of literary utterance? How does one effect become a platform or trigger for others? This chapter touches on issues such as the situated logic of collocation and the ‘echoic’ as a way of approaching literary allusiveness, and brings together the micro-analysis of a line of poetry with a broader-scope reflection on the principles that operate over extended fictions. Adapting to literary understanding Davidson’s notion of a ‘passing theory’, it tracks the time-bound, ephemeral passage of verbal events through the reader’s cognitive focus.
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22

Buchler, Justin. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190865580.003.0001.

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Spatial theory is divided between models of elections and models of roll call voting, neither of which alone can explain congressional polarization. This chapter discusses the history of spatial theory, why it is important to link the two strands of spatial models, and the value of reversing the order of conventional models. Conventional models place an election before policy decisions are made. This chapter proposes a unified spatial model of Congress in which the conventional order is reversed. First, there is a legislative session, then an election in which voters respond retrospectively, not to the locations candidates claim to hold, but to the bundles of roll call votes that incumbents cast to incrementally adopt their locations in the policy space. Such a model is best suited to explaining three puzzles: why do legislators adopt extreme positions, how do they win, and what role do parties play in the process?
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23

A diameter increment model for red fir in California and southern Oregon. Albany, Calif: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, 1992.

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24

Buchler, Justin. A Unified Spatial Model of Congress. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190865580.003.0004.

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This chapter presents a unified model of legislative elections, parties, and roll call voting, built around a party leadership election. First, a legislative caucus selects a party leader who campaigns based on a platform of a disciplinary system. Once elected, that leader runs the legislative session, in which roll call votes occur. Then elections occur, and incumbents face re-election with the positions they incrementally adopted. When the caucus is ideologically homogeneous, electorally diverse, and policy motivated, members will elect a leader who solves the collective action problem of sincere voting with “preference-preserving influence.” That leader will threaten to punish legislators who bow to electoral pressure to vote as centrists. Consequently, legislators vote sincerely as extremists and get slightly lower vote shares, but they offset that lost utility with policy gains that they couldn’t have gotten without party influence. Party leaders will rarely pressure legislators to vote insincerely.
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25

Field, Clive D. Periodizing Secularization. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198848806.001.0001.

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Moving beyond the (now somewhat tired) debates about secularization as paradigm, theory, or master narrative, this book focuses upon the empirical evidence for secularization, viewed in its descriptive sense as the waning social influence of religion, in Britain. Particular emphasis is attached to the two key performance indicators of religious allegiance and churchgoing, each subsuming several sub-indicators, between 1880 and 1945, including the first substantive account of secularization during the fin de siècle. A wide range of primary sources is deployed, many relatively or entirely unknown, and with due regard to their methodological and interpretative challenges. On the back of them, a cross-cutting statistical measure of ‘active church adherence’ is devised, which clearly shows how secularization has been a reality and a gradual, not revolutionary, process. The most likely causes of secularization were an incremental demise of a Sabbatarian culture and of religious socialization (in the church, at home, and in the school). The analysis is also extended backwards, to include a summary of developments during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries; and laterally, to incorporate a preliminary evaluation of a six-dimensional model of ‘diffusive religion’, demonstrating that these alternative performance indicators have hitherto failed to prove that secularization has not occurred. The book is designed as a prequel to the author’s previous volumes on the chronology of British secularization – Britain’s Last Religious Revival? (2015) and Secularization in the Long 1960s (2017). Together, they offer a holistic picture of religious transformation in Britain during the key secularizing century of 1880–1980. [250 words]
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26

Lamb, Kevin L., Gaynor Parfitt, and Roger G. Eston. Effort perception. Edited by Neil Armstrong and Willem van Mechelen. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198757672.003.0015.

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As the Borg rating of perceived exertion scale was not appropriate for children, investigators set about developing child-specific scales which employed numbers, words and/or images that were more familiar and understandable. Numerous studies have examined the validity and reliability of such scales as the CERT, PCERT and OMNI amongst children aged 5 to 16 years, across different modes of exercise (cycling, running, stepping, resistance exercise), protocols (intermittent vs. continuous, incremental vs. non-incremental) and paradigms (estimation vs. production). Such laboratory-based research has enabled the general conclusion that children can, especially with practise, use effort perception scales to differentiate between exercise intensity levels, and to self-regulate their exercise output to match various levels indicated by them. However, inconsistencies in the methodological approaches adopted diminish the certainty of some of the interpretations made by researchers. The scope for research in the application of effort perception in physical education and activity/health promotion is considerable.
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27

Knill, Christoph, and Jale Tosun. 20. Policy-making. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hepl/9780198737421.003.0022.

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This chapter examines the process related to policy-making as well as potential determinants of policy choices. It begins with a discussion of conceptual models of policy-making, namely: the institutional, rational, incremental, group, elite, and process models. It then considers the policy cycle, which models the policy process as a series of political activities, consisting of agenda setting, policy formulation, policy adoption, implementation, and evaluation. It also analyses the role of institutions, frames, and policy styles in policy-making and concludes with an assessment of the most crucial domestic and international factors shaping the design of policies, focusing in particular on theories of policy diffusion, policy transfer, and cross-national policy convergence, along with international sources that affect domestic policy-making.
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28

Mundy, Peter. A Neural Networks, Information-Processing Model of Joint Attention and Social-Cognitive Development. Edited by Philip David Zelazo. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199958474.013.0010.

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A neural networks approach to the development of joint attention can inform the study of the nature of human social cognition, learning, and symbolic thought process. Joint attention development involves increments in the capacity to engage in simultaneous or parallel processing of information about one’s own attention and the attention of other people. Infant practice with joint attention is both a consequence and an organizer of a distributed and integrated brain network involving frontal and parietal cortical systems. In this chapter I discuss two hypotheses that stem from this model. One is that activation of this distributed network during coordinated attention enhances the depth of information processing and encoding beginning in the first year of life. I also propose that with development joint attention becomes internalized as the capacity to socially coordinate mental attention to internal representations. As this occurs the executive joint attention network makes vital contributions to the development of human social cognition and symbolic thinking.
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29

Pacific Northwest Research Station (Portland, Or.), ed. Some simulation estimates of mean annual increment of Douglas-fir: Results, limitations, and implications for management. Portland, Or. (333 S.W. First Avenue, P.O. Box 3890, Portland 97208-3890): U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 1994.

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30

Thelen, Kathleen, and James Conran. Institutional Change. Edited by Orfeo Fioretos, Tulia G. Falleti, and Adam Sheingate. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199662814.013.3.

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This chapter traces developments in historical institutionalist approaches to institutional change. Originally, historical (like rational choice and sociological) institutionalism focused on institutions as “independent” variables, favoring a “comparative statics” mode of analysis. Institutions were relatively fixed and unproblematically enforced rules, while change came through periodic “critical junctures.” A dualistic institutional imagery treated institutions as exogenous for some analytical purposes, highly plastic for others. More recently, historical institutionalists have turned their attention to the dynamics of institutional evolution through political contestation and contextual change. This has allowed the identification of previously neglected processes of incremental and endogenous institutional change.
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31

Galvin, Daniel J. Qualitative Methods and American Political Development. Edited by Richard Valelly, Suzanne Mettler, and Robert Lieberman. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199697915.013.36.

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American Political Development (APD) research is well positioned to benefit from advances in qualitative methodology. Drawing on those tools and research strategies more regularly and explicitly, this essay argues, should help to foster more cumulative research programs both within the APD community and across related historical-institutional subfields. Reviewing three common modes of analysis found in APD scholarship, this essay suggests that more explicit identification of each study’s main theoretical contributions and empirical limitations should help to promote more healthy debate around matters of evidence and theory and make it easier for the community of scholars to identify areas in which to build on each other’s work and make more incremental, cumulative gains.
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32

Sundararaman, T., and Rajani Ved. Innovations in the Organization of Public Health Services for Rural and Remote Parts of India. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199476084.003.0007.

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Facilitated by the National Rural Health Mission, the last decade has witnessed a number of innovations in the delivery of public health services in India. The pathways by which innovations happened are categorised into three groups: (a) identifying ‘best practices’ which are then scaled up; (b) the effort to build viable business models; and (c) driven by policy-level prioritization. Seventeen brief case studies are presented illustrating the variety of innovations and innovation pathways that exist, and an attempt is made to elucidate the general features of successful innovation. Innovations driven by critical problem-solving, dedicated innovators, and developments in technology with ability to manage its social interface do better. We also note that, despite much attention to transformational or disruptive innovations, it is home grown incremental innovations that have held sway.
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33

Wilson, Keeley. We Were the Only Ones to See It. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198777199.003.0003.

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Nokia’s executives were alone in the industry in perceiving the full potential of mobile phones as a mass consumer product. This chapter describes and analyzes how this perceptive framing emerged over time and why other firms (the leading incumbents) did not develop a comparable framing. Conceptually, the key points are that innovative winning strategies result from clear, lucid, and determined strategic opportunism, not from grand plans or a sudden awakening to a new reality. They evolve and develop incrementally and often iteratively. Nor are the most important innovations necessarily technological: Nokia grew globally very rapidly in that period by understanding the needs of new, recently licensed mobile service operators and how different their business model needs were from traditional incumbent telecoms firms.
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34

Maman, Daniel, and Zeev Rosenhek. The Reconfigured Institutional Architecture of the State. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198793021.003.0004.

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This chapter examines the institutional dynamics that have marked the reconfiguration of the Israeli state in the course of the transition to a neoliberal regime. In analyzing the transformation of the state and its relationships with the economy, it first assesses changes in the institutional architecture of the state and then discusses the modes of action of pivotal state agencies and the patterns of relationships among them. Specifically, the ascendency of the two most powerful state agencies in charge of macroeconomic management—the Ministry of Finance and the Bank of Israel—is examined, as well as the ways in which these actors promoted the adoption of particular reforms as key factors in the institutionalization of the neoliberal regime. The chapter claims that the incremental liberalization of the Israeli political economy was fundamentally molded by actions and interactions among state agencies striving to further their position within the political–economic field.
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35

Buchler, Justin. Polarization and Solving the Collective Action Problem. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190865580.003.0005.

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The unified model predicts that a legislative caucus that is ideologically homogeneous, electorally diverse and policy-motivated will empower party leaders to solve the collective action problem of sincere voting. The result will be that legislators incrementally adopt ideologically extreme, electorally suboptimal positions in the policy space. Over the course of the post-World War II period, the party caucuses became more ideologically homogeneous, but retained their electoral diversity, thereby creating the conditions for party government. Legislators from centrist, competitive districts closely tracked their party medians rather than adopting centrist positions, which would have satisfied their constituents. That suggests parties are solving the collective action problem of sincere voting. No other institution is comparably suited to creating that effect, and even the rise of competitive primaries serves as a poor explanation for the phenomenon.
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36

Sahay, Sundeep, T. Sundararaman, and Jørn Braa. Complexity and Public Health Informatics in Low and Middle-Income Countries. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198758778.003.0007.

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This chapter enriches the Expanded PHI perspective through the lens of complexity. Current technical health systems and institutional developments, including the increasing inter-connections between them, and the uncertainities associated with both context and goals are enhancing complexity exponentially. Simple linear approaches to design and develop systems can no longer work, as they imply trying to bring order into processes which by definition defy them. Cloud computing and big data are offered as examples to depict this rising complexity, providing rich opportunities to materialize them. Many organizations are adopting outsourcing models as a means to manage this complexity. However, outsourcing comes in multiple hues and shades, from a simple use of third party hardware to the externalization of the whole value chain of activities, including the analysis and use of data. Public health informatics in LMICs, which are population-based and taking place in largely resource-constrained and unstructured settings, are by definition problematic to outsource and should be approached with caution. An incremental approach where a ‘cultivation strategy’ addresses uncertainities, and ‘attractors’ draw in user-participants are more likely to succeed.
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37

Psygkas, Athanasios. Increasing the “Democratic Surplus”: What Should the Path to the Future Look Like? Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190632762.003.0006.

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This chapter concludes by exploring how the findings in the previous chapters can inform future developments in the EU regulatory system and further enhance democratic accountability at both the national and the supranational levels. The chapter first tells a story of convergence: in all three country cases, EU mandates transformed aspects of the preexisting administrative governance, and brought about accountability gains on all prongs of the deliberative-participatory model. However, cross-national variations still exist. This invites consideration of proposals for further EU-driven convergence through the creation, for instance, of a European telecommunications regulatory agency. The chapter suggests that at this stage this idea would result in losses in democratic accountability and would therefore be unwise. Instead, I put forth a proposal that harnesses the accountability benefits of the EU regulatory architecture by tapping into the institutional creativity of the member states and incrementally incorporating further EU-level requirements through a system of feedback loops.
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38

Auty, Richard M., and Haydn I. Furlonge. The Rent Curse. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198828860.001.0001.

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This book analyses the political economy of economic development using two stylized facts models of rent-driven growth. The models show that: (i) the resource curse is a variant of a wider rent curse that can be driven by geopolitical rent (foreign aid), labour rent (worker remittances), or regulatory rent (government manipulation of relative prices); (ii) the rent curse is caused by policy failure and is avoidable; (iii) the global incidence of the rent curse varies over time, which reflects development policy fashions; and (iv) the intensity of the rent curse also varies with rent linkages. Rent cycling theory posits that low rent incentivizes the elite to grow the economy to become wealthy, whereas high rent encourages siphoning rent for immediate enrichment at the expense of sustainable and diversified economic growth. The contrasting incentives trigger divergent policies and structural change. Low rent motivates the efficient allocation of inputs in line with the economy’s comparative advantage in labour-intensive exports, which drives: structural change; rapid egalitarian economic growth; and incremental democratization. High rent, however, elicits contests to capture rent for immediate enrichment so the economy absorbs rent too quickly. The economy experiences Dutch disease effects that expand a subsidized urban sector whose rent demands outstrip supply, resulting in a staple trap and a protracted growth collapse. The economy fails to diversify competitively and depends for growth on expanding rent rather than on competitive diversification that boosts productivity. The book uses the models to explain why many developing countries in Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Gulf followed a staple trap trajectory and draws on East Asia and South Asia for reform.
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39

Familias Fuertes: Amor y Límites. Guía para la gestión y la aplicación del programa. Pan American Health Organization, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.37774/9789275321690.

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El programa Familias Fuertes: Amor y Límites es una intervención primaria de capacitación en habilidades de crianza y relación familiar encaminada a promover la salud y el bienestar de los y las adolescentes y prevenir conductas de riesgo. En respuesta al incremento de conductas de riesgo a edades cada vez más tempranas, la Organización Panamericana de la Salud (OPS) seleccionó este programa como una intervención modelo para su puesta en práctica con familias de América Latina. Esta guía se dirige a los países y partes interesadas que estén aplicando el programa o prevean hacerlo, con objeto de ayudarlos a mejorar los procesos de planificación, aplicación, monitoreo y evaluación. El paquete del programa Familias Fuertes, que consta de la Guía para el facilitador y los videos de las sesiones, puede obtenerse mediante solicitud a la Unidad de Curso de Vida Saludable del Departamento de Familia, Promoción de la Salud y Curso de Vida de la OPS (webmaster@paho.org).
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40

Familias Fuertes: Amor y Límites. Manual para la formación de recursos humanos del programa. Pan American Health Organization, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.37774/9789275321751.

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El programa Familias Fuertes: Amor y Límites es una intervención primaria de capacitación en habilidades de crianza y relación familiar encaminada a promover la salud y el bienestar de los y las adolescentes y prevenir conductas de riesgo. En respuesta al incremento de conductas de riesgo a edades cada vez más tempranas, la Organización Panamericana de la Salud (OPS) seleccionó este programa como una intervención modelo para su puesta en práctica con familias de América Latina. El propósito de este manual es guiar la formación de los recursos humanos encargados de la aplicación del programa, con objeto de estructurar y homogenizar las sesiones de capacitación en todos los países y de mantener la elevada calidad técnica del programa. El paquete del programa Familias Fuertes, que consta de la Guía para el facilitador y los videos de las sesiones, puede obtenerse mediante solicitud a la Unidad de Curso de Vida Saludable del Departamento de Familia, Promoción de la Salud y Curso de Vida de la OPS (webmaster@paho.org).
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41

Brazier, John, Julie Ratcliffe, Joshua Saloman, and Aki Tsuchiya. Measuring and Valuing Health Benefits for Economic Evaluation. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198725923.001.0001.

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This is the second edition of the first comprehensive textbook about the measurement and valuation of health benefits for economic evaluation. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) and similar agencies around the word require cost-effectiveness evidence in the form of incremental cost per quality-adjusted life year (QALY) in order to make comparisons across competing demands on resources, and this has resulted in an explosion of theoretical and empirical work in the field. This book addresses the theoretical and practical considerations in the measurement and valuation of health benefit with empirical examples and applications to help clarify understanding and make relevant links to the real world. It includes a glossary of key terms and provides guidance on the use of different methods and instruments. This updated edition provides an-up-to date review of the theoretical basis of the QALY; the definition of health; the techniques of valuation (including ordinal); the modelling of health state values (including mapping between measures); a detailed review of generic preference-based measures and other instruments for obtaining health state utility values (with recent developments); cross-cultural issues (including the disability-adjusted life year); the aggregation of QALYs; and the practical issues surrounding the use of utility values in cost-effectiveness models. The book concludes with a discussion on the way forward in light of the substantial methodological differences, the role of normative judgements, and where further research is most likely to take forward this fascinating component of health economics.
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Maron, Asa, and Michael Shalev, eds. Neoliberalism as a State Project. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198793021.001.0001.

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This book explores the politics, institutional dynamics, and outcomes of neoliberal restructuring in Israel. It puts forward a bold proposition: that the very creation of a neoliberal political economy may be largely a state project. Correspondingly, it is argued that key political conflicts surrounding the realization of this project may occur within the state. Neoliberal restructuring and the institutionalization of permanent austerity are dependent on reconfigured power relations between state actors and are manifested in a new institutional architecture of the state. This architecture, in turn, is the context in which efforts to change social and employment policies play themselves out. The book begins by construing the coming of neoliberalism as a set of concrete and far-reaching changes in the power and modes of operation of the key players in the political economy. These include neutralizing or undermining veto players and enabling the ascendance of two state agencies—the Ministry of Finance and the Central Bank—which gained greatly augmented authority and autonomy. These reconfigurations were set in motion by state initiatives that combined punctuated and incremental change. Then, attention shifts to changes in specific social and labor market policies, to reveal a close elective affinity between programmatic neoliberal changes and the proactive drive of the Ministry of Finance to enhance its control over public spending and policy design. The book explores triumphant neoliberal reforms but also reforms that were blocked, undermined, or overturned by opposition, emphasizing the importance of reformers’ capacity to translate temporary achievements into entrenched strategic advantages.
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León Silva, Glorimar Alejandra. Protección de los derechos humanos en la detención y expulsión de inmigrantes: Aportes del modelo europeo al sistema migratorio chileno. Universidad Autónoma de Chile, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.32457/20.500.12728/87522020dd3.

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La migración internacional es un fenómeno que se ha incrementado a nivel mundial, alcanzando sus niveles máximos históricamente. A esta realidad global están innegablemente asociadas las múltiples formas de discriminación que experimentan muchos inmigrantes en base a su nacionalidad y estatus legal. En Europa este panorama no es un asunto de data reciente y sus Estados no están excluidos del fenómeno de la globalización y la migración. Por ello, la Unión Europea (en lo sucesivo, UE) ha consagrado –a través de una serie de normativas regulatorias– la protección de derechos humanos. Esta salvaguarda se ha extendido expresamente a los inmigrantes a través de la implementación de una serie de directivas. Pese a tales previsiones –en atención al principio de subsidiariedad– los Estados miembros de la UE por separado han promulgado legislaciones y adoptado decisiones judiciales con contenido muy variado respecto de sus asuntos migratorios. Esto ha generado debates y polémicas en diferentes ámbitos. A lo anterior se suma la propagación del racismo y xenofobia en Europa –así como el pronunciamiento de órdenes de expulsión– que, lejos de posibilitar la inclusión dentro de la sociedad europea de estos grupos migratorios, exacerba tales conflictos creando segundas categorías de ciudadanos. Por tanto, a nivel de la UE no es tarea sencilla determinar el alcance y contenido de las directivas relativas a los procedimientos de detención y expulsión de inmigrantes. Especialmente cuando se pretende aglutinar los diferentes criterios en la materia contenidos en las diversas legislaciones migratorias de los Estados miembros. Con este propósito, la Directiva 2008/115/CE9 (en lo sucesivo, directiva retorno), se erige como una normativa de mínimos a ser implementada por los Estados miembros. Sin embargo, en su implementación se enfrenta a criterios interpretativos de índole diversa. Estos han pretendido zanjarse mediante el planteamiento de la cuestión prejudicial, con resultados de naturaleza dispar por parte del Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea (en lo sucesivo, TJUE). Por ello, la primera parte de esta investigación tiene por propósito identificar el aporte específico de la UE en la protección de los inmigrantes ante la detención y expulsión. Ello a través del estudio de los principios emanados del derecho europeo primario relativos a la progresiva protección de los derechos humanos de los inmigrantes, junto a la Carta de los Derechos Fundamentales de la UE (en lo sucesivo, la CDFUE) y sus directivas, a fin de responder: ¿bajo qué parámetros se promueve la protección de los derechos humanos de los inmigrantes en estos procedimientos administrativos?, y ¿cómo ha interpretado el TJUE la aplicación de estos principios europeos en relación a la protección de los derechos humanos de los inmigrantes frente a la detención administrativa y la expulsión?
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Ortega, Vera Lucia Robles. Planejamento sucessório, governança corporativa e inovação, uma investigação em empresas familiares. Brazil Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.31012/978-65-5861-097-7.

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Este estudo teve como objetivo investigar o planejamento sucessório, a governança corporativa e a inovação em empresas familiares com idade de 30 anos ou mais. Uma inquietude da autora encontrava-se nas razões que levam as empresas familiares alcançarem estatísticas tão acentuadas de mortalidade quando atravessam os períodos de sucessão familiar. A partir das literaturas especializadas referente ao tema, muitos fatores são enumerados e nos levam ao modelo dos três círculos de Gersick (1993), que descreve o sistema da empresa familiar como três subsistemas independentes, mas sobrepostos – gestão, propriedade e família – e quando afirma que a sucessão não é uma situação, mas várias, sendo possível ir além, retomando as variáveis de tempo, processo e preparação. Assim, o resultado da pesquisa realizada espelha que quanto maior longevidade um empreendimento familiar possui, mais presente estão as boas práticas de governança corporativa, mitigando conflitos inerentes aos processos sucessórios, quando se fala em propriedade e gestão. 78,6% das empresas familiares, ou seja, 44 organizações pesquisadas entendem a importância do planejamento do processo de sucessão e o efetivo processo de sucessão. A governança corporativa incorpora-se na pesquisa pela capacidade de implementar mecanismos para orientar e conduzir o processo de sucessão, contribuindo para o equilíbrio e a perpetuação dos negócios da família. Rossetti e Andrade (2014) afirmam que uma das mais importantes dimensões da governança corporativa são os valores que lhe dão sustentação, amarrando concepções, práticas e processos de alta gestão. Da pesquisa, 46 empresas familiares encontram-se em estágio semidesenvolvido e desenvolvido de governança corporativa. Por fim, entendendo que para a longevidade das empresas é requerido inovação, foi adicionado o estudo da ambidestralidade apresentada por March (1991) e, a partir dessa investigação, verifica-se que em 83,9% são empresas ambidestras, ou seja, com ações de inovação incremental ou radical.
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45

Brunner, Ronald D., and Amanda H. Lynch. Adaptive Governance. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.601.

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Adaptive governance is defined by a focus on decentralized decision-making structures and procedurally rational policy, supported by intensive natural and social science. Decentralized decision-making structures allow a large, complex problem like global climate change to be factored into many smaller problems, each more tractable for policy and scientific purposes. Many smaller problems can be addressed separately and concurrently by smaller communities. Procedurally rational policy in each community is an adaptation to profound uncertainties, inherent in complex systems and cognitive constraints, that limit predictability. Hence planning to meet projected targets and timetables is secondary to continuing appraisal of incremental steps toward long-term goals: What has and hasn’t worked compared to a historical baseline, and why? Each step in such trial-and-error processes depends on politics to balance, if not integrate, the interests of multiple participants to advance their common interest—the point of governance in a free society. Intensive science recognizes that each community is unique because the interests, interactions, and environmental responses of its participants are multiple and coevolve. Hence, inquiry focuses on case studies of particular contexts considered comprehensively and in some detail.Varieties of adaptive governance emerged in response to the limitations of scientific management, the dominant pattern of governance in the 20th century. In scientific management, central authorities sought technically rational policies supported by predictive science to rise above politics and thereby realize policy goals more efficiently from the top down. This approach was manifest in the framing of climate change as an “irreducibly global” problem in the years around 1990. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established to assess science for the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The parties negotiated the Kyoto Protocol that attempted to prescribe legally binding targets and timetables for national reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. But progress under the protocol fell far short of realizing the ultimate objective in Article 1 of the UNFCCC, “stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference in the climate system.” As concentrations continued to increase, the COP recognized the limitations of this approach in Copenhagen in 2009 and authorized nationally determined contributions to greenhouse gas reductions in the Paris Agreement in 2015.Adaptive governance is a promising but underutilized approach to advancing common interests in response to climate impacts. The interests affected by climate, and their relative priorities, differ from one community to the next, but typically they include protecting life and limb, property and prosperity, other human artifacts, and ecosystem services, while minimizing costs. Adaptive governance is promising because some communities have made significant progress in reducing their losses and vulnerability to climate impacts in the course of advancing their common interests. In doing so, they provide field-tested models for similar communities to consider. Policies that have worked anywhere in a network tend to be diffused for possible adaptation elsewhere in that network. Policies that have worked consistently intensify and justify collective action from the bottom up to reallocate supporting resources from the top down. Researchers can help realize the potential of adaptive governance on larger scales by recognizing it as a complementary approach in climate policy—not a substitute for scientific management, the historical baseline.
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46

Souza, Gustavo Henrique Silva de. Administração e empreendedorismo: temas emergentes e aplicações contemporânea. Editora Amplla, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.51859/amplla.aet474.1121-0.

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Nos dias atuais, a administração (de empresas ou pública) tem assimilado conceitos e características de natureza empreendedora, que levam a mudanças de paradigmas dentro da própria área do conhecimento. Nesse limiar, a administração e o empreendedorismo se tornaram indissociáveis não apenas a nível acadêmico, mas na prática gerencial cotidiana. Com efeito, esse cenário chama a atenção dos pesquisadores e, cada vez mais, estudos são desenvolvidos com o foco em novas aplicações do conhecimento gerencial. É pensando nessa indissociabilidade, que este livro surge. Organizado em duas partes, o livro traz 15 capítulos que abordam temas extremamente atuais e emergentes que partem, ora de uma compreensão macro, ora de uma compreensão micro dos fenômenos que impactam diretamente as organizações, passando por temas, como: perfil empreendedor, liderança, pandemia, gestão estratégica, gestão de serviços, gestão de pessoas, gestão pública. A esse respeito, as implicações da pandemia da COVID-19 para as organizações e o mercado também ganham espaço contundente nesta obra, frente a uma série de rápidas mudanças que tornaram a gestão significativamente desafiadora neste ambiente complexo e instável. A obra foi concebida para ser utilizada, principalmente, por estudantes, professores, pesquisadores das subáreas ligadas às Ciências Sociais Aplicadas, mais enfaticamente a Administração. Apesar disso, empresários e gestores perceberão que podem se beneficiar de modo contundente desta obra, uma vez que são trazidas temáticas das mais diferentes ordens e cujo dimensionamento está na aplicabilidade prática da gestão empreendedora. Na primeira parte, “Discussões em Empreendedorismo”, abordam-se questões relacionadas conceitualmente e empiricamente ao empreendedorismo e à inovação, compreendendo o contexto empresarial e mercadológico em 7 capítulos. O Capítulo 1, “Barreiras e Facilitadores ao Empreendedorismo: Aspectos Teóricos e Instrumentação”, apresenta uma medida psicométrica inédita que mapeia a capacidade de desenvolvimento empreendedor individual a partir da identificação das principais barreiras (inibidores) e facilitadores (incentivadores). A ferramenta demonstra aplicabilidade para a realização de novas pesquisas e também fornece um mapeamento fidedigno do perfil empreendedor, considerando variáveis comportamentais e contextuais. O Capítulo 2, “Aversión Al Riesgo de Fracasar al Emprender un Negocio en México: Un Acercamiento con algunos Factores Educativos” (em tradução livre, Aversão ao Risco de Fracassar ao abrir um Negócio no México: Uma abordagem com alguns Fatores Educacionais), traz um estudo desenvolvido no México que relaciona a baixa escolaridade, a falta de acesso à educação e, consequentemente, a dificuldade de inserção no mercado de trabalho como condicionantes para a intenção de empreender. Trazendo dados demográficos e socioeconômicos, o estudo contribui com uma discussão extremamente pertinente para a compreensão do empreendedorismo por necessidade e seu impacto direto no desenvolvimento produtivo local – um cenário muito semelhante ao contexto brasileiro. O Capítulo 3, “A Importância da Gestão em Tempos de Crises: Uma Reflexão sobre a Pandemia da Covid-19”, trata de uma temática emergente e, por meio de uma interessante revisão de literatura, destaca práticas e ações a nível gerencial que impactam diretamente a vida nas organizações no momento pandêmico. Nos Capítulos 4 e 5, “Financiamento para Inovação: Pontos Positivos e Negativos do Crowdfunding” e “Financiamento da Inovação por Meio do Crowdfunding: Fatores de Sucesso”, descrevem os principais pontos (positivos e negativos) da prática de financiamentos coletivos ou crowdfunding, por meio de uma análise focada na inovação tecnológica. Os capítulos trazem contribuições principalmente para micro e pequenas empresas que atuam com inovação e necessitam superar dificuldades de acesso a recursos financeiros. No Capítulo 6, “Empresas Familiares: Gestão e Características Empreendedoras em Tempos de Pandemia da COVID-19”, tem-se um levantamento com gestores de empresas familiares, em que são discutidas as relações gerenciais e sociais com implicação direta no cotidiano organizacional, com um enfoque direto neste tipo de organização. Além disso, é um estudo extremamente atual, pois traz uma contextualização sobre os desafios e impactos da Pandemia da COVID-19 no mundo empresarial. O Capítulo 7, “A Liderança Feminina nas Organizações de Trabalho: Desafios e Construções Sociais”, traz uma importante discussão sobre a igualdade de gênero e os desafios que as mulheres enfrentam no mercado de trabalho e no mundo empresarial. Por meio de uma pesquisa empírica, o capítulo aponta para uma profunda reflexão sobre o enfrentamento à desigualdade que envolve, de maneira coletiva, diversas áreas do conhecimento, instâncias e organizações sociais e educacionais. Fechando a primeira parte do Livro, o Capítulo 8, “Emergencia de Nuevos Modelos de Gestión Estrategica” (em tradução livre, Surgimento de Novos Modelos de Gestão Estratégica), embarca em uma análise teórica visando responder à seguinte questão: quais novas perspectivas e modelos de gestão estratégica estão surgindo para dar suporte ao desenvolvimento das empresas na atualidade? Dentro dessa perspectiva, tem-se um estudo que discute e reflete sobre o dinamismo e a complexidade dos ambientes social, econômico, tecnológico e natural, compreendendo a influência destes ambientes nas formas de gestão e de empreendedorismo. Na segunda parte, “Processos Gerenciais e Administrativas em Foco”, este livro aborda questões relacionadas às técnicas e ferramentas gerenciais e administrativas que se aplicam às organizações privadas e públicas, compreendendo variadas áreas do ambiente organizacional em 8 capítulos. No Capítulo 8, “Abordagem de Servicescape: Análise e Influência da Experiência do Consumidor em um Ambiente de Serviço”, analisa-se a influência da servicescape (ambiente físico onde acontece o serviço) na experiência do consumidor no processo de aquisição do serviço. Por meio de um estudo bibliométrico, o capítulo aprofunda sobre o servicescape e sobre o experienscape, levando em consideração também o que tem sido produzido academicamente na temática. O Capítulo 9, “A Importância do Treinamento como Estratégia de Potencialização do Desempenho dos Colaboradores nas Organizações”, faz uma breve análise sobre Treinamento, Desenvolvimento & Educação (TD&E), identificando os fatores que tornam esse processo tão relevante para as organizações, especialmente como estratégia de potencialização do desempenho dos colaboradores. Trazendo alguns conceitos gerais sobre a temática, o capítulo traça uma relação entre o processo de treinamento a nível de gestão de pessoas e o aumento da produtividade e a redução de custos. O Capítulo 11, “Cultura Organizacional: Uma Revisão Narrativa acerca das Tipologias e Influências na Gestão”, analisa os eventuais impactos que a cultura organizacional perfaz na gestão das organizações. Compreendendo as diversas tipologias culturais existentes, o capítulo oferece uma visão da gestão da cultura organizacional em prol da eficiência e do aumento da produtividade. No Capítulo 12, intitulado “Aplicação da Teoria das Filas em uma Hamburgueria: Um Estudo de Caso”, descreve uma pesquisa empírica realizada em um restaurante, do tipo hamburgueria, abordando-se a concepção do sistema de filas. O capítulo traz resultados interessantes para a compreensão dos fatores que envolve a gestão de filas dentro um ramo de negócio em extrema expansão no Brasil, que é o mercado de hambúrgueres e lanches. A partir deste momento, o livro se foca em estudos relacionados à gestão pública, trazendo 3 estudos que, individualmente, abordam a administração a nível municipal, estadual e federal. No Capítulo 13, “A Maturidade da Gestão do Conhecimento na SEAPI – Secretaria da Agricultura, Pecuária e Irrigação do Rio Grande do Sul (RS)”, tem-se um estudo que analisa como a gestão do conhecimento está inserida no ambiente organizacional de uma secretaria de estado, fazendo um paralelo teórico-empírico com o nível de maturidade gerencial. Este capítulo contribui especialmente para o mapeamento da maturidade em gestão do conhecimento em organizações públicas, apresentando ferramentas e técnicas para este tipo de análise. No Capítulo 14, intitulado “Avaliação dos Processos Gerenciais da Prefeitura de Luis Gomes/RN à Luz do Modelo de Excelência em Gestão Pública”, abordam-se os processos administrativos e de prestação de serviços de uma prefeitura. Neste capítulo, é utilizado um modelo padrão de análise baseado em excelência, cuja principal contribuição está em propor pontos de correção nos processos gerenciais cotidianos e ações estratégicas a serem realizadas para a melhoria da prestação de serviços aos cidadãos. Dando continuidade aos estudos relacionados à gestão pública, tem-se, por fim, o Capítulo 15, “Pregão Eletrônico nas Aquisições Públicas Federais: Economia e Impactos a Luz da Normativa 03/2011”, que trata do impacto causado na economia creditada ao uso do Pregão Eletrônico, após a implementação da Instrução Normativa nº 3/2011 do Ministério do Planejamento, Orçamento e Gestão (MPOG). Nesse sentido, o capítulo traz uma análise sobre a teoria dos leilões e a dinâmica do Pregão Eletrônico, à luz das demandas e necessidades da administração pública federal. Cabe ressaltar que este livro é fruto do esforço de cooperação desenvolvido por pesquisadores de diversas Instituições nacionais e estrangeiras, em que cada estudo apresentado perfaz uma particular contribuição para a área do conhecimento. E embora não se pretenda responder a todas as questões relacionadas à Administração e ao Empreendedorismo, esta obra traz algumas reflexões e discussões atuais que podem, de algum modo, contribuir positivamente com o avanço do conhecimento e incrementar a literatura na área.
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Hernández, Carlos. Positivismo inclusivo. Universidad Libre sede principal, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.18041/978-958-8981-73-4.

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Este libro contiene artículos de destacados profesores, los cuales reflexionan sobre temas de amplia repercusión en la teoría jurídica contemporánea. En el artículo Modest Objectivity e Interpretación Jurídica Aldo Schiavello analiza el trabajo de Jules Coleman y Brian Leiter sobre su propuesta de objetividad (denominada modest objectivity) y que aspira a superar el carácter indeterminable de las decisiones judiciales. Para Schiavello esta propuesta es insatisfactoria, pues debemos tener en cuenta que la noción filosófica de objetividad se relaciona con un determinado paradigma filosófico y epistemológico y en esa medida condicionan la estructura mental del sujeto. Schiavello nos recuerda que podemos distinguir entre varias nociones de objetividad. La clásica división entre objetividad fuerte y objetividad débil. La objetividad es fuerte cuando es independiente del mundo interior y es débil cuando es compartido por una comunidad lingüística. Pero interesante clasificación es la realizada por Andrei Marmor, quien diferencia entre objetividad semántica, objetividad metafísica y objetividad lógica. Según Marmor un enunciado es objetivo semánticamente si gira en torno a un objetivo y es subjetivo si afecta el estado mental de quien lo produce. Es decir, saber si un discurso es objetivo o subjetivo es la intención lingüística del hablante, además, esta dicotomía se caracteriza porque no tiene una relación con la verdad A diferencia de la objetividad semántica, la objetividad metafísica está muy estrechamente relacionada a la noción de verdad. Un enunciado es objetivo metafísicamente si existe una correspondencia entre un enunciado y el objeto en el mundo que describe con las propiedades correspondientes a su descripción en el enunciado en cuestión. Marmor afirma que entre la objetividad metafísica y realismo metafísico no existe una relación necesaria. Por un lado, el realismo moral afirma que es posible predicar la verdad o la falsedad de enunciados que contienen valoraciones morales, estos enunciados son verdaderos o falsos sin tomar en cuenta nuestras opiniones y que los estándares del razonamiento moral son un método adecuado para incrementar el conocimiento moral. Por último, la objetividad lógica implica la verdad, pero no implica determinabilidad. No es sencillo diferenciar entre objetividad lógica y objetividad metafísica, pues se puede afirmar que la objetiva metafísica implica objetiva lógica, pero no se puede afirmar lo mismo a la inversa. En tal sentido, la relación entre objetividad y conceptos como realismo, verdad y determinabilidad, cambia según el concepto de objetividad asumido. Para Schiavello, el concepto de objetividad propuesto por Coleman y Leiter es una propuesta intermedia entre objetividad metafísica y objetividad lógica. Schiavello señala que en el campo jurídico, el problema de la objetividad se relaciona con la interpretación y aplicación normativa e implica un conjunto de presupuestos teóricos sobre la concepción del derecho y la interpretación jurídica, además de relacionarse, generalmente, con el ideal de la seguridad jurídica. Es en este aspecto en el cual la objetividad se vincula con aspectos políticos, es decir, con un modelo de organización política como el Estado liberal de Derecho en el cual la certeza tiene un papel importante y que además de las normas generales es importante tener certidumbre sobre la interpretación y aplicación que realizarán los jueces. Schiavello nos recuerda que el tema de la objetividad de la interpretación del derecho está vinculado al valor de la certeza y, por lo tanto, los discursos sobre la objetividad plantean no solo cuestiones filosóficas sino también tiene repercusiones y relaciones políticas que se deben considerar. Como afirma el autor “una concepción de la objetividad de la interpretación del derecho presupone, implícita o explícitamente, una concepción de la identificación del derecho; las teorías de la identificación del derecho que excluyen la referencia a valores morales por los criterios de validez permiten identificar el derecho de manera más precisa que otras; quien, como Coleman o Dworkin, defiende la objetividad de la interpretación a partir de una concepción de la identificación del derecho que no excluye la referencia a valores morales por los criterios de validez, debe tomar en serio los problemas que ello conlleva”. Coleman y Leiter aspiran a construir una concepción liberal del derecho de las críticas formuladas por el Critical Legal Studies Movement. Ambos autores señalan que el error del Critical Legal Studies Movement es que la intrínseca indeterminación del derecho es incompatible con una concepción liberal del mismo. Recordemos que en el esquema de organización política de un Estado, uno de los postulados del liberalismo es un poder legislativo elegido democráticamente y las leyes aprobadas son aplicadas por el poder judicial, por ello, las decisiones judiciales deben ser determinadas. En tal sentido, las razones más importantes para decidir una disputa legal las proporcionan los legisladores. Si estas razones no motivan las decisiones de los jueces, entonces es dudoso afirmar la existencia de reglas democráticas en el Estado. Las objeciones que se han dirigido a la propuesta de reconstrucción de la determinabilidad en el derecho formulada por Coleman y Leiter son dos. La primera objeción está vinculada a la imposibilidad de distinguir con precisión los casos fáciles de los casos difíciles y la segunda se refiere al problema de la llamada indeterminación de segundo nivel. Según ambos autores el problema de la objetividad se refiere al status de los hechos jurídicos y la autoridad del derecho está justificado solo si los hechos jurídicos son objetivos. Coleman y Leiter rechazan la objetividad en sentido fuerte, es decir, lo que parece correcto a alguien no puede determinar lo correcto para los demás, también rechaza la objetividad mínima según la cual lo que parece correcto a la mayor parte de los miembros de una comunidad determina lo que es efectivamente correcto. Ambos autores están a favor de un “objetividad modesta” según la cual lo correcto es lo afirmado por sujetos en “condiciones epistémicas ideales”. Schiavello piensa que la alternativa propuesta por Coleman y Leiter no logra escapar de la objetividad en sentido fuerte y la objetividad mínima; y por el contrario, considera que su propuesta de objetividad puede ser entendida como una versión de la objetividad metafísica o de la objetividad mínima. Por ello, las críticas que Coleman y Leiter dirigen a estas dos concepciones de la objetividad se vuelcan en contra de su propuesta de objetividad modesta. Según la objetividad modesta es efectivamente correcto lo que parece a aquellos que se encuentran en “condiciones epistémicas ideales”. Estas condiciones pueden ser definidas como las mejores condiciones para alcanzar un conocimiento fiable de algo. En consecuencia, la objetividad modesta admite la posibilidad de errores, pero, a diferencia de la objetividad en sentido fuerte, esta incapacidad se debe a no poder plantearse la mejor perspectiva de observación. Coleman y Leiter no aspiran a desarrollar una concepción universal de la objetividad, sino solo una concepción de la objetividad que permita explicar en forma más conveniente la práctica interpretativa en el derecho. concepción de la objetividad sino que aspira a resaltar la relación que existe entre este concepto y otros elementos conceptuales más amplios, como la política, por ejemplo. Además, el autor identifica las dificultades que pueden generarse al proponer una vía intermedia (como la “objetividad modesta”) entre la objetividad en sentido fuerte y la objetividad en sentido débil. Eso no implica afirmar que sea imposible construir esta vía intermedia, pero sí resalta la necesidad de tomar consciencia de las dificultades para una audaz y bien estructurada nueva concepción de la objetividad. El ensayo de Vittorio Villa se dirige a esclarecer los diferentes conceptos sobre positivismo jurídico, en particular el de inclusive legal positivism (positivismo jurídico inclusivo) pues entiende que esta versión del positivismo es la más defendible y prometedora de las versiones iuspositivistas. Por ello, Villa aporta aclaraciones conceptuales de carácter epistemológico, metodológico y meta-teórico con la finalidad de poder ofrecer una versión del mencionado positivismo más coherente y defendible respecto a lo que sus principales exponentes han hecho. Villa parte de esclarecer el concepto de positivismo jurídico y sus articulaciones en forma de concepciones, para ello el autor identifica el contenido conceptual mínimo compartido por todas las versiones del iuspositivismo. Asimismo, realiza un esclarecimiento mediante análisis comparativo entre el positivismo inclusivo y positivismo exclusivo consideradas como concepciones del concepto de positivismo jurídico. Así, para Villa el positivismo inclusivo es un programa de investigación más prometedor y fecundo que el positivismo exclusivo. Otra clarificación importante que realiza Villa es la postura que adopta el positivismo inclusivo y el positivismo exclusivo en relación a la tesis conceptual de separación entre derecho y moral, enfocándose en los argumentos con los cuales el positivismo inclusivo justifica la intromisión de contenidos morales en los procedimientos con que jueces y juristas garantizarán la existencia y el contenido de las normas jurídicas formando parte de los Estados de derecho constitucionales. Villa parte por definir el iuspositivismo y el contenido conceptual mínimo compartido por todas las concepciones que puedan calificarse como tales. Este contenido conceptual está formado por una tesis sobre el derecho y por ello en una preocupación ontológica y una tesis sobre el conocimiento del derecho y por ello en una preocupación metodológica. Según la primera tesis, afirma Villa, “todos los fenómenos (en primer lugar, las reglas) que llevan el nombre de “derecho” constituyen invariablemente instancias de derecho positivo, y por tanto de un derecho que representa el producto normativo (y aquí evidentemente la potencialmente evasiva propiedad de la normatividad está por especificar por parte de las diferentes concepciones), de tipo convencional (en un sentido por precisar ulteriormente), de decisiones y/o de comportamientos humanos históricamente contingentes desde el punto de vista cultural, y por lo tanto, más en particular, desde el punto de vista ético-político”. Según Villa el elemento más importante por resaltar en la contraposición entre el positivismo inclusivo y el positivismo exclusivo es el vinculado a la diferente interpretación que estas dos concepciones proporcionan de la tesis de la separación. El mismo Villa afirma que “de acuerdo al positivismo inclusivo los criterios de naturaleza moral pueden muy bien servir para verificar la existencia y el contenido de las normas de un sistema jurídico. Según el positivismo exclusivo los tests para identificar la existencia y el contenido de las normas jurídicas dependen exclusivamente de hechos del comportamiento susceptibles de ser descritos en términos neutrales, y de ser aplicados sin recurrir a argumentos morales”. El autor nos recuerda que para el positivismo inclusivo la conexión es una tesis que se desarrolla “dentro de las actividades de jueces y estudiosos del derecho que tengan que ver con normas, entre la actividad destinada a determinar la existencia (en el sentido de validez) y la de determinar el contenido”, entendiendo que no se trata, de una conexión necesaria entre derecho y moral sino a una conexión que se desarrolla en una determinado contexto institucional representado por los Estados de derecho constitucionales contemporáneos que es el ámbito institucional que permite la validez de las tesis del positivismo inclusivo. Villa entiende que el positivismo inclusivo, dentro del positivismo jurídico mismo, tiene mayores recursos teóricos para explicar el cambio de paradigma que ha ocurrido en los Estados de derecho y que se materializan a través de las constituciones escritas y rígidas, además que las normas constitucionales en nuestros Estados de derecho contemporáneos establecen restricciones de carácter procesal a la producción de normas, sino también restricciones sustanciales y estas últimas provienen de un tipo de normas especiales (que para muchos son positivización de la moral): los principios. Villa “señala que el contenido de muchas de las disposiciones constitucionales que hacen referencia a valores morales es de carácter muy general, a veces también genérico, cuando no es –más o menos conscientemente– ambiguo. Por tanto, rendir cuenta del contenido semántico de estas disposiciones quiere decir en cada caso, efectuar las opciones interpretativas que privilegian –no necesariamente en forma arbitraria– uno de los posibles significados que estos enunciados pueden soportar; y hacer esto quiere decir también entrar en la cuestión del posible significado de atribuir a nociones essentially contested como “libertad”, “igualdad”, “democracia”, etcétera. Dichas disposiciones, además, no se presentan nunca por sí solas en un texto constitucional, sino junto a muchas otras, en una red muy confusa de enunciados entre ellos estrechamente interrelacionados. Una de las consecuencias de la naturaleza compleja de estas disposiciones es que su interpretación no es muy a menudo capaz de vislumbrar un orden jerárquico previamente preconstituido, capaz de determinar, de una vez por todas, cuáles son los principios más importantes, y bajo qué interpretación de su contenido. Esto ocurre –al menos– por dos razones fundamentales, una de carácter teórico-lingüístico, otra de carácter filosófico-político: i) con la primera se quiere poner en evidencia, como ya he dicho antes, que el contenido de estos principios es vago, genérico, a veces ambiguo, y no permite rastrear un orden preexistente; ii) con la segunda se observa que, en cada caso, el carácter pluralista de los valores presentes dentro de nuestras cartas constitucionales excluye la previa codificación de un orden jerárquico fijo e inmutable”. La parte más interesante del artículo de Villa es su propuesta constructivista del positivismo jurídico. El autor piensa que una importante tarea del positivismo jurídico, en su versión constructivista, es la de ofrecer una concepción alternativa a la concepción fuerte de la objetividad. Aun así, se debe destacar que entre las diferentes concepciones epistemológicas actuales existen aquellas que aspiran a constituirse en una vía intermedia entre objetivismo fuerte y relativismo fuerte. “Entre estas posiciones, el enfoque constructivista aspira a identificar el núcleo de esta “vía intermedia” en la transición de una objetividad metafísica a una objetividad epistémica”.
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