Journal articles: 'Indentured labourers'

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Mishra, Amit Kumar. "Indian Indentured Labourers in Mauritius." Studies in History 25, no. 2 (2009): 229–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/025764301002500203.

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Sharma, Umesh, and Helen Irvine. "The social consequences of control: accounting for indentured labour in Fiji 1879-1920." Qualitative Research in Accounting & Management 13, no. 2 (2016): 130–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/qram-04-2015-0039.

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Purpose This is a study of the social consequences of accounting controls over labour. This paper aims to examine the system of tasking used to control Indian indentured workers in the historical context of Fijian sugar plantations during the British colonial period from 1879 to 1920. Design/methodology/approach Archival data consisting of documents from the Colonial Secretary’s Office, reports and related literature on Indian indentured labour were accessed from the National Archives of Fiji. In addition, documented accounts of the experiences of indentured labourers over the period of the study gave voice to the social costs of the indenture system, highlighting the social impact of accounting control systems. Findings Accounting and management controls were developed to extract surplus value from Indian labour. The practice of tasking was implemented in a plantation structure where indentured labourers were controlled hierarchically. This resulted in their exploitation and consequent economic, social and racial marginalisation. Research limitations/implications Like all historical research, our interpretation is limited by the availability of archival documents and the theoretical framework chosen to examine these documents. Practical implications The study promotes a better understanding of the practice and impact of accounting controls within a particular institutional setting, in this case the British colony of Fiji. Social implications By highlighting the social implications of accounting controls in their historical context, we alert corporations, government policy makers, accountants and workers to the socially damaging effects of exploitive management control systems. Originality/value The paper contributes to the growing body of literature highlighting the social effects of accounting control systems. It exposes the social costs borne by indentured workers employed on Fijian sugar plantations.

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Brown, Laurence. "Experiments in indenture: Barbados and the segmentation of migrant labor in the Caribbean 1863-1865." New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 79, no. 1-2 (2008): 31–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/13822373-90002500.

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Focuses on indentured and other labour migration from Barbados to other parts of the Caribbean starting in 1863. Within the context of the sugar estate-dominated agriculture of Barbados, as well as its high population density, the author describes the policies and decisions of the governors and local assemblies regarding emigration. He points out how the sugar industry's need for labourers remained dominant in the policies, but that the drought in 1863 caused privations and unrest among the labourers, resulting in more flexibility regarding allowance of indentured emigration schemes and recruitment, such as toward St Croix and Antigua, and later toward British Guiana, and to a smaller degree Jamaica. He discusses how this led to rivalries regarding labour immigrants between colonies, and further attempts at restrictions on labour emigration and recruitment in Barbados.

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Brown, Laurence. "Experiments in indenture: Barbados and the segmentation of migrant labor in the Caribbean 1863-1865." New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 79, no. 1-2 (2005): 31–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22134360-90002500.

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Focuses on indentured and other labour migration from Barbados to other parts of the Caribbean starting in 1863. Within the context of the sugar estate-dominated agriculture of Barbados, as well as its high population density, the author describes the policies and decisions of the governors and local assemblies regarding emigration. He points out how the sugar industry's need for labourers remained dominant in the policies, but that the drought in 1863 caused privations and unrest among the labourers, resulting in more flexibility regarding allowance of indentured emigration schemes and recruitment, such as toward St Croix and Antigua, and later toward British Guiana, and to a smaller degree Jamaica. He discusses how this led to rivalries regarding labour immigrants between colonies, and further attempts at restrictions on labour emigration and recruitment in Barbados.

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Maurer, Jean-Luc. "The Thin Red Line between Indentured and Bonded Labour: Javanese Workers in New Caledonia in the Early 20th Century." Asian Journal of Social Science 38, no. 6 (2010): 866–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853110x530778.

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AbstractThis short article presents a relatively unknown historical experience of indentured labour having seen thousands of Javanese workers being sent from the end of the 19th century to the outbreak of WWII by the colonial authorities of the Netherlands Indies to New Caledonia, a French colony in the south-west Pacific. Being drawn from a comprehensive study of historical sociology written in French and published in 2006, it summarises the reasons behind this odd labour migration movement and focuses on the recruitment and working conditions of these indentured labourers. Its main argument is to show that there are many points of comparison between past and present forms of labour migration and that one finds some elements of bondage in both of them, the red line being therefore very thin indeed between indentured labour of the colonial period and present day globalisation migrant workers recruitment and employment practices.

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Robie, David. "The paradox of two countries called Fiji." Pacific Journalism Review : Te Koakoa 13, no. 2 (2007): 207–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.24135/pjr.v13i2.915.

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This book, Stopover, is a poignant documentary of the lives of the cane families and a story of migration. It is illustrated with some 59 sepiatoned Connew portraits and other studies, seven diaspora snapshots, two grainy Speight television images and a faded image of two unkown men, earlier descendants (c. 1940's) of the girmitiya, 19th century indentured labourers brought to Fiji by the British colonialists to establish the sugar plantations.

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Kothari, Uma. "Geographies and Histories of Unfreedom: Indentured Labourers and Contract Workers in Mauritius." Journal of Development Studies 49, no. 8 (2013): 1042–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2013.780039.

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Mohabir, Nalini. "Kala Pani: Aesthetic Deathscapes and the Flow of Water after Indenture." Asian Diasporic Visual Cultures and the Americas 5, no. 3 (2019): 293–314. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/23523085-00503003.

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This article focuses on the kala pani (dark waters) as a deathscape particular to indentured labourers and their descendants. Following a historical discussion of representations of the kala pani, the author turns to contemporary artists Maya Mackrandilal and Andil Gosine to explore how their artistic engagements are rerouting the flows of the kala pani away from discourses of caste stigma or the finality of (social) death to a reckoning of past and future time for those living in the diasporic space of North America.

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Pandey, Suesh Kumar, and GAURAV SHUKLA. "Cultural Change and Economic Achievements of Descendants of Indian Indentured Labourers in Fiji." International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management 1, no. 1 (2020): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/ijicbm.2020.10030040.

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Pandey, Suesh Kumar, Gaurav Shukla, and Shiu Lingam. "Cultural change and economic achievements of descendants of Indian indentured labourers in Fiji." International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management 22, no. 3 (2021): 417. http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/ijicbm.2021.114082.

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Gonzales, Michael J. "Chinese Plantation Workers and Social Conflict in Peru in the late Nineteenth Century." Journal of Latin American Studies 21, no. 3 (1989): 385–424. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022216x00018496.

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As the world capitalist system developed during the nineteenth century non-slave labour became a commodity that circulated around the globe and contributed to capital accumulation in metropolitan centres. The best examples are the emigration of millions of Asian indentured servants and European labourers to areas of European colonisation. Asians replaced emancipated African slaves on plantations in the Caribbean and South America, supplemented a declining slave population in Cuba, built railways in California, worked in mines in South Africa, laboured on sugarcane plantations in Mauritius and Fiji, and served on plantations in southeast Asia. Italian immigrants also replaced African slaves on coffee estates in Brazil, worked with Spaniards in the seasonal wheat harvest in Argentina, and, along with other Europeans, entered the growing labour market in the United States. From the perspective of capital, these workers were a cheap alternative to local wage labour and, as foreigners without the rights of citizens, they could be subjected to harsher methods of social control.1

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Vahed, Goolam. "The Protector, Plantocracy, and Indentured Labour in Natal, 1860–1911." Pacific Historical Review 87, no. 1 (2018): 101–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/phr.2018.87.1.101.

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Between 1860 and 1911, a total of 152,641 Indian indentured workers arrived in the then British Colony of Natal. The first group of workers who returned home in 1871 complained of ill-treatment and abuse by employers and the Indian government refused to sanction further allotments of labourers until the Natal government investigated their complaints. The ensuing Coolie Commission of 1872 called for the appointment of a Protector of Indian Immigrants, as one of several recommendations. The Natal Government duly complied as the Colony was desperate for labour. Such officials were also appointed in other colonial contexts around this time. Instances of worker abuse, however, continued throughout the period of indenture in Natal, notwithstanding some observers’ claim that the appointment of a Protector was a watershed moment for bonded labour. It appears that the vastness of the area under the Protector’s jurisdiction and the enormous power of planters made it difficult for Protectors to balance the needs of workers and employers. But workers found creative ways to use the office of the Protector to resist the system; and, on occasion, the abuse was so great that the Protector was forced to intervene publicly to safeguard the rights of workers and the integrity of his office. In focusing on the Protector, this article makes a contribution to the emerging literature on empire that focuses on connections and networks across colonies and the agency and actions of ordinary people.

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Basu, Rajsekhar. "Kunti’s cry: Responses in India to the cause of emigrant women, Fiji 1913–16." Studies in People's History 7, no. 2 (2020): 180–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2348448920951547.

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The publication in August 1913 of a letter attributed to Kunti, an Indian woman in Fiji, raised an outcry in India. First, the Hindi press took it up; then the Marwaris of Calcutta organised a campaign for the relief of emigrant labourers; and finally, the protection of Indian women in Fiji became a part of the nationalist campaign against indentured labour. This article examines the ideological basis of the agitation, arising from traditional male chauvinism merging with the anti-colonial upsurge, treating especially the reaction in the Hindi press, the Marwari intervention and the nationalist campaign.

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Emmer, P. C. "IX. Asians Compared: Some Observations regarding Indian and Indonesian Indentured Labourers in Surinam, 1873-1939." Itinerario 11, no. 1 (1987): 149–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0165115300009438.

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The drive towards the abolition of the slave trade at the beginning of the 19th century was not effective until the 1850s. It was perhaps the only migratory intercontinental movement in history which came to a complete stop because of political pressures in spite of the fact that neither the supply nor the demand for African slaves had disappeared.Because of the continuing demand for bonded labour in some of the plantation areas in the New World (notably the Guiana's, Trinidad, Cuba and Brazil) and because of a new demand for bonded labour in the developing sugar and mining industries in Mauritius, Réunion, Queensland (Australia), Natal (South Africa), the Fiji-islands and Hawaii an international search for ‘newslaves’ started.

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Mahase, Radica. "‘Plenty a dem run away’1 – resistance by Indian indentured labourers in Trinidad, 1870–1920." Labor History 49, no. 4 (2008): 465–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00236560802376946.

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Hardwick, Louise. "Creolizing the Caribbean ‘Coolie’: A biopolitical reading of Indian indentured labourers and the ethnoclass hierarchy." International Journal of Francophone Studies 17, no. 3 (2014): 397–419. http://dx.doi.org/10.1386/ijfs.17.3-4.397_1.

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Pandey, Dr Suesh Kumar. "Reconciliation of Cultural Change and Economic Achievements of Descendants of Indian Indentured Labourers in Fiji." International Journal of Management Research and Social Science 8, no. 1 (2021): 16–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.30726/ijmrss/v8.i1.2021.81004.

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Brennan, Lance, John McDonald, and Ralph Shlomowitz. "The geographic and social origins of Indian indentured labourers in Mauritius, Natal, Fiji, Guyana and Jamaica." South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 21, sup001 (1998): 39–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00856409808723350.

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Govinden, Betty. "Poem in celebration of the 150thAnniversary of the arrival of Indian indentured labourers in South Africa." English Academy Review 28, no. 2 (2011): 105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10131752.2011.618006.

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Emmer, P. C. "Caribbean Plantations and Indentured Labour, 1640–1917: A Constructive or Destructive Deviation from the Free Labour Market?" Itinerario 21, no. 1 (1997): 73–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0165115300022713.

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In surveying the negative effects of the expansion of Europe it seems difficult to find an area which was worse affected than the Caribbean. The autochthonous population of Amerindians had been decimated on a scale unknown elsewhere. Rather than becoming an attractive refuge for migrant Europeans, the Caribbean became the home of plantation agriculture, which ruthlessly destroyed the existing environment and small scale farming. To top it all, the Caribbean plantations needed a constant influx of labourers. The success of Caribbean exports created a paradox: the region was in constant and increasing need of manpower while at the same time the number European migrants was decreasing rapidly

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ELTIS, DAVID. "Free and coerced migrations: the Atlantic in global perspective." European Review 12, no. 3 (2004): 313–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1062798704000298.

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What distinguished the mass transatlantic migration that occurred between Columbian contact and the early nineteenth century from the movements of peoples around the globe that occurred both before and after this phenomenon? Two central distinguishing features were the large element of coercion in the movements across the early modern Atlantic world, and the central importance of identity in shaping both the direction of migration and its composition. On the first of these, coercion was a sine qua non, not only of the well-known slave trade, but also of the much smaller migrations of convicts and – given the temporary, if voluntary, signing away of the migrants' freedom – indentured servants and contract labourers. On the second, the question of who became slaves was determined by the refusal of Europeans to enslave other Europeans.

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Beckles, Hilary McD. "Plantation Production and White “Proto-Slavery”: White Indentured Servants and the Colonisation of the English West Indies, 1624-1645." Americas 41, no. 3 (1985): 21–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1007098.

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Two dominant features of agricultural history in the English West Indies are the formation of the plantation system and the importation of large numbers of servile labourers from diverse parts of the world—Africa, Europe and Asia. In Barbados and the Leeward Islands, the backbone of early English colonisation of the New World, large plantations developed within the first decade of settlement. The effective colonisation of these islands, St. Christopher (St. Kitts) in 1624, Barbados 1627, Nevis 1628, Montserrat and Antigua 1632, was possible because of the early emergence of large plantations which were clearly designed for large scale production, and the distribution of commodities upon the world market; they were instrumental in forging an effective and profitable agrarian culture out of the unstable frontier environment of the seventeenth century Caribbean. These plantations, therefore, preceded the emergence of the sugar industry and the general use of African slave labour; they developed during the formative years when the production of tobacco, cotton and indigo dominated land use, and utilised predominatly European indentured labour. The structure of land distribution and the nature of land tenure Systems in the pre-sugar era illustrate this. Most planters who accelerated the pace of economic growth in the late 1640's and early 1650's by the production of sugar and black slave labour, already owned substantial plantations stocked with large numbers of indentured servants.

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Emmer, P. C. "Immigration into the Caribbean; The Introduction of Chinese and East Indian Indentured Labourers Between 1839 and 1917." Itinerario 14, no. 1 (1990): 61–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0165115300005684.

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It seems no exaggeration to say that the Caribbean used to ‘eat’ people. The autochthonous inhabitants of the region, the Amerindians, estimated to have numbered about one million before Columbus, quickly embarked on a course of rapid demographic decline after the intrusion of the Europeans. Around 1700 all Amerindians had virtually disappeared from the islands and only a fraction of them remained in the hinterland of the Guianas.

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Allen, Richard B. "Capital, Illegal Slaves, Indentured Labourers and the Creation of a Sugar Plantation Economy in Mauritius, 1810–60." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 36, no. 2 (2008): 151–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03086530802180569.

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Emmer, P. C., and Ralph Shlomowitz. "Mortality and the Javanese Diaspora." Itinerario 21, no. 1 (1997): 125–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0165115300022749.

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During the past few decades, many scholars have studied the various demographic consequences of European overseas expansion. One focus of attention has been the fatal impact of European expansion on the native populations of the New World. Before contact with Europeans, the native populations of the Americas, Australia, and the Pacific were generally free of infectious diseases, and so lacked immunity to diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, which were introduced by Europeans. A second focus of attention has been the mortality among Europeans when they went overseas and encountered new diseases, such as malaria, yellow fever, and cholera, to which they had no immunity. And a third focus of attention has been the mortality among various African, Asian, and Pacific Islander labourers when they were procured as slaves or indentured servants for work on European plantations in various parts of the world.

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Daviron, Benoit. "Mobilizing labour in African agriculture: the role of the International Colonial Institute in the elaboration of a standard of colonial administration, 1895–1930." Journal of Global History 5, no. 3 (2010): 479–501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1740022810000239.

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AbstractHow could labour be mobilized for the production of agricultural commodities in colonial lands? This question was discussed by European powers on many occasions between 1895 and 1930, within the International Colonial Institute (ICI). Three key phases and issues can be identified in these debates relating to Africa: the recruitment of Indian indentured labour (1895–1905); the recruitment and management of indigenous peoples as paid labourers (1905–1918); and the mobilization of indigenous smallholder agriculture (1918–1930). During the whole period under study, the use of constraint, and its legitimacy, appear as a permanent feature of ICI debates. Associated first with European plantations, the use of force became a means to mobilize native farmers in accordance with the conceptions of colonial administrations regarding good agricultural practices. In addition, the ICI’s vision of colonial realities evolved from an out-of-date position during the first and second phases to a forward-looking one during the third phase, albeit one quite unrealistic in the scope of its ambition.

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Basu, Raj Sekhar. "Bhojpuri folk songs of Indians in Fiji." Studies in People's History 5, no. 1 (2018): 92–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2348448918759874.

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The export of Indian indentured labour to British oversea colonies containing sugar, cotton and indigo plantations began around mid-nineteenth century. One of the destinations was Fiji, the British island colony in the Pacific, to which the Indian labourers, men and women, mainly went from East UP and West Bihar where Bhojpuri was spoken. While archival documents can help us trace the fortunes of individuals, their own feelings and sentiments are best preserved in their songs orally carried from one mouth to another for decades. The earlier songs contain mournful dirges over separation, the misery of those whom they left behind and their own afflictions in Fiji’s harsh white-owned plantations. As the migrations ceased, the Fiji–Indian people’s interest shifted to restoring their connection with Hinduism and its customs, and this has become more prominent in later folk songs. The gender problem (women outnumbered by men) was severe earlier but has now eased as with the passage of generations, the sex ratio has normalised.

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Jones, Grant. "The construction of a slave identity: an examination of the dual identity of indentured labourers across the Western Pacific." Labor History 60, no. 5 (2019): 540–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0023656x.2019.1584272.

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Margaret Slocomb. "Preserving the Contract: The Experience of Indentured Labourers in the Wide Bay and Burnett Districts in the Nineteenth Century." Labour History, no. 113 (2017): 103. http://dx.doi.org/10.5263/labourhistory.113.0103.

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Abdel-Shehid, Malek. "A Home in Disorder is not a Home: Examining Race in Trinidad and Tobago." Caribbean Quilt 5 (May 19, 2020): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.33137/caribbeanquilt.v5i0.34365.

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Among its neighbours, the island nation of Trinidad and Tobago stands out due to its ethnic makeup. The population of most Caribbean nations is mainly of African descent; similar to Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago is evenly divided between Afro-Trinidadians and Indo-Trinidadians. Unlike many of the other Caribbean colonies, Trinidad and Tobago were not extensive plantation economies until much later in the colonial period (Paton 291). This is one of the main reasons why the country presently hosts a proportionately lower Afro-Trinidadian population in comparison to other Caribbean countries. While other ethno-cultural groups reside in the country, the aforementioned groups have dominated the landscape in numbers since at least the early 20th century (United Nations Statistics Division). Afro-Trinidadians are generally descendants of enslaved Africans brought to the Caribbean to serve as plantation labourers; Indo-Trinidadians are generally the descendants of South Asian indentured labourers brought to Trinidad to fulfill the same role following the abolition of slavery in the British West Indies. Trinidad and Tobago's long history of colonial subjugation has bred a modern social hierarchy highly tied to race. Racial categories centered around physical characteristics and created during the colonial period have been instrumental in the development of this social hierarchy. Its institutionalization within the country’s modern national political system has resulted in persisting legacies evident throughout modern Trinidadian society. I focus on the island of Trinidad (while still making occasional reference to Tobago) and argue that Trinidadian national unity has been hampered by the foundations laid by the plantation system and consolidated by the modern political system.

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Johnston, Judith. ": Hail Mother Kali: A Tribute to the Traditions and Healing Arts Brought to Guyana by Indentured Madrasi Labourers . Stephanos Stephanides." American Anthropologist 91, no. 2 (1989): 531–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/aa.1989.91.2.02a00980.

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Twomey, Christina, and Katherine Ellinghaus. "Protection." Pacific Historical Review 87, no. 1 (2018): 2–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/phr.2018.87.1.2.

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This article is the guest editors’ introduction to a special volume of Pacific Historical Review entitled “Protection: Global Genealogies, Local Practices.” Guest editors Christina Twomey and Katherine Ellinghaus argue that the global discourse of protection had a strong presence beyond British humanitarian circles and a longer chronological and larger geographical reach than historians have previously noted. Articles in the special volume include Christina Twomey’s examination of protection as a concept with its origins in European, rather than British, colonialism, Trevor Burnard’s study of the Protectors of slaves in Berbice in the early to mid-nineteenth century, Goolam Vahed’s analysis of the Protectors appointed to lobby on behalf of immigrant Indian indentured labourers in late nineteenth century Natal, Rachel Standfield’s investigation of the use of language in Protectorates in Australia and New Zealand in the 1840s, Amanda Nettelbeck’s exploration of the concept of Aboriginal vagrancy in Australia in the 1840s, and Katherine Ellinghaus’s comparison of the discourse of protection in policies of exemption and competency utlised in Oklahoma and New South Wales in the 1940s and 1950s.

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Emmer, P. C. "A “Spirit of Independence” or Lack of Education for the Market ? Freedmen and Asian Indentured Labourers in the Post-emancipation Caribbean, 1834-1917." Bulletin de la Société d'Histoire de la Guadeloupe, no. 138-139 (2004): 79. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/1040712ar.

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Emmer, Pieter. "‘A spirit of independence’ or lack of education for the market? Freedmen and Asian indentured labourers in the post‐emancipation Caribbean, 1834–1917." Slavery & Abolition 21, no. 2 (2000): 150–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01440390008575310.

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Seetah, Krish. "Contextualizing Complex Social Contact: Mauritius, a Microcosm of Global Diaspora." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 26, no. 2 (2016): 265–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959774315000414.

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This article supplements current dialogue on the archaeology of slavery, offering an Indian Ocean counterpoint to a topic that has largely focused on the Atlantic world. It also delves into the essentially uncharted domain of the archaeology of indentured labour. New plural societies, characterized by cultural hybridity, were created around the world as a consequence of labour diasporas in the late historic period. What do these societies look like during the process of nation building and after independence? Can we study this development through archaeology? Focusing on Mauritius, this paper discusses the complexities of the island, and how it can be representative of similar newly formed plural societies in the Indian Ocean. During French and British imperial rule, the island served as an important trading post for a range of European imperial powers. These varied groups initiated the movement and settlement of African, Indian and Chinese transplanted communities. By exploring the dynamic nature of inter-group interaction on Mauritius, this paper emphasizes the nuanced nature of how different peoples arrived and made the island their home. Mauritius played a vital role in the transportation of forced and free labour, both within and beyond this oceanic world, and offers an important viewpoint from which to survey the ways in which historical archaeology can improve our understanding of the broader archaeo-historical processes of which these diasporas were an integral feature. The paper focuses on the outcomes of settlement, as viewed through the complex practices that underpin local food culture, the use and development of language and the way materials are employed for the expression of identity. The article also traces the roots of contemporary cultural retention for indentured labourers to administrative decisions made by the British, and ultimately explores how heritage and language can provide a powerful lens on mechanisms of cultural expression. In addition to illustrating the nuanced and multifaceted nature of group interaction on Mauritius itself, this article raises an issue of broader relevance—the need for historical archaeologists to give greater consideration to the Indian Ocean, rather than focusing on the Atlantic world. This would allow us to achieve a more informed understanding of European slave trading and associated systems of labour migration within a more global framework.

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Morgan, Kenneth. "Convict Runaways in Maryland, 1745–1775." Journal of American Studies 23, no. 2 (1989): 253–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021875800003765.

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That the newspaper press in the eighteenth-century Chesapeake colonies was chock-full of advertisements for runaway convicts is a clear indication of the significance of transportation to America in that period. The existence of convicts in Virginia and Maryland stemmed from the provisions of the Transportation Act passed by the British parliament in 1718. This stated that felons found guilty of non-capital crimes against property could be transported to America for seven years while the smaller number of criminals convicted on capital charges could have their death sentence commuted to banishment for either fourteen years or life. Between 1718 and 1775, when the traffic ended with the approach of war, more than 90 percent of the 50,000 convicts shipped across the Atlantic from the British Isles were sold by contractors to settlers in the Chesapeake, where there was a continuous demand for cheap, white, bonded labour. Though many convicts were people who had resorted to petty, theft in hard times rather than habitual criminals, they were often viewed with jaundiced eyes in the Chesapeake as purveyors of crime, disease and corruption. They also had to endure, along with slaves and indentured servants, the everyday reality of lower-class life in colonial America: the exploitation of unfree labour. It is therefore not surprising that many convicts, like other dependent labourers, tried to free themselves from bondage by escaping from their owners.

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Kaarsholm, Preben. "Indian Ocean Networks and the Transmutations of Servitude: The Protector of Indian Immigrants and the Administration of Freed Slaves and Indentured Labourers in Durban in the 1870s." Journal of Southern African Studies 42, no. 3 (2016): 443–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057070.2016.1173896.

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TEELOCK, VIJAYA. "LABOUR HISTORY OF MAURITIUS Slaves, Freedmen and Indentured Labourers in Colonial Mauritius. By RICHARD B. ALLEN. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pp. xvii + 221. £40 (ISBN 0-521-64125-X)." Journal of African History 41, no. 3 (2000): 487–526. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853700307836.

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Harris, Karen Leigh. "Indentured “coolie” labours in South Africa: the Indian and Chinese schemes in comparative perspective." Diaspora Studies 6, no. 2 (2013): 92–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09739572.2013.853440.

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Singh, Vishnudat. "From Indentured Labourer to Anglo-Indian Immigrant: A Study of A. R. F. Webber's Those That Be in Bondage." Caribbean Quarterly 32, no. 1-2 (1986): 47–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00086495.1986.11829417.

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Stanziani, Alessandro. "The Legal Status of Labour from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Century: Russia in a Comparative European Perspective." International Review of Social History 54, no. 3 (2009): 359–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020859009990307.

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SummarySince at least the eighteenth century, free labour in “the West” has been contrasted with serf labour in Russia and “eastern Europe”. This paper intends to call that view into question and to show that serfdom was never officially institutionalized in Russia, and that the regulations usually invoked to justify that opinion were actually intended not to “bind” the peasantry but to identify noble estate owners, as distinct from nobles in state service or the “bourgeoisie”. However, it is a matter not only of legal definitions. This paper studies how the tsarist administration, nobles, and peasants themselves made use of courts of law in order to contest ownership titles and, on that basis, the obligations and legal status of peasants and workers. Great changes had occurred in their legal status before the official abolition of serfdom in 1861, in outcomes that were rather similar to those which had been recently achieved in the “second serfdom” in Prussia, Lithuania, and Poland. In turn, that means that such labour contracts and institutions were not the opposites of “free labour” contracts and institutions, which placed many more constraints on workers than is usually acknowledged. To prove the point, we compare tsarist regulations with the Master and Servants Acts and indenture in Britain and its Empire and with French regulations on labour, domesticity, and day labourers.

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Evans, Raymond. "Queensland, 1859: Reflections on the Act of Becoming." Queensland Review 16, no. 1 (2009): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1321816600004931.

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We don't so much write the meaning of a period, as the history of some possible meanings; we study what was able to emerge within, and against, what seems to at first glance at least, to be a dominant field of social perception.Dana PolanIt has been observed elsewhere that Queensland, as a self-governing colony, did not ‘arise like the sun at an appointed time’ within an Empire on which the sun never set. Rather, to paraphrase British historian E.P. Thompson in another context, ‘It was present at its own making.’ December 1859 was only a moment of disjuncture according to certain political, administrative and fiscal effects. As a society, as a culture, Queensland was already in full and exuberant existence, having carved out a sense of its own intrusive perpetuity over a preceding period of some 35 years from both the lands of others and the labours of mostly convict, emancipated and indentured men and women. And these in turn marked the Antipodean sequel to ‘blue water’ Imperialism – trans-oceanic nomads drawn by the hazy promise of land on foreign shores or projected unwillingly there by the logic of their metropolitan transgressions. People of many nations, of ‘interacting, sometimes colluding, sometimes colliding cultures’, from its generative convicts, soldiers, penal commandants and manifold Aboriginal peoples to its waged workers, squatters, selectors, merchants and administrators, were in effect this colonial society in embryo, both formed and in process of formation. Only a name for the place was now lacking. Although small, isolated and stunted, this was nevertheless a multi-faceted, diverse and unequally graded social order, cloaked only one-dimensionally in the mantle of Britishness and Christianity. What follows are some observations about this conceptually unstable sense of consonance and divergence and the coincident business of simultaneously being and becoming.

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Sinha, Arnab Kumar. "Review Article: We Mark Your Memory: Writings from the Descendants of Indenture (2018)." Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities 12, no. 4 (2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v12n4.19.

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Writing the history of indentured diaspora primarily depends on the available archives that contain the official and personal documents related to this history. While the State archives contain scanty materials for research in this area, considerable efforts have been made by the descendants of the indentured labourers to retrieve personal narratives of their ancestors. Retrieving these personal narratives, have indeed, played a major role in creating small family archives, which have inspired the present generation of authors/researchers to document the history of indentured diaspora. Indeed, this history is the outcome of intensive research on the genealogies of the descendants of indentured labourers. Stories narrated by the indentured labourers, old photographs, diary writings, travel documents and such other records are significant archival materials based on which the present generation of authors/researchers trace their family’s past as well as that of the community. These family archives provide considerable resource for research on history of indentured diaspora. It is in the context of this background that the anthology, We Mark Your Memory: Writings from the Descendants of Indenture (2018) edited by David Dabydeen, Maria del Pilar Kaladeen and Tina K. Ramnarine may be considered as a worthy contribution to the history of indenture diaspora. This anthology, which the editors of the book claim to be a “commemorative volume” (Dabydeen, Kaladeen, & Ramnarine, 2018, p. xii), is an attempt to collate the creative/critical pieces written by the descendants of indentured labourers (coolies). Production of such an anthology to mark the centenary year of the abolition of indentureship (1917) is a praiseworthy initiative. The publication of this book is the outcome of a collaborative venture between the School of Advanced Studies, University of London and the association of Commonwealth Writers, which inevitably foregrounds the active global network of almost thirty writers from various regions of the world working seriously on this project of retrieving the lost indentured narratives. The editors of the book acknowledge the genuine contribution of the association of Commonwealth Writers, which is “the cultural initiative of the Commonwealth Foundation” and this association, the editors claim, “inspires and connects writers and storytellers across the world, bringing personal stories to a global audience” (Dabydeen et al., 2018, p. vii). The pronoun ‘we’ of the title of this book represents the storytellers of the present generation, while the determiner ‘your’, mentioned in the title, refers to the coolies, the ancestors of these storytellers. The book therefore is indicative of academic activism that seeks to highlight the significance of reading, researching and discussing these personal narratives in the context of indenture diaspora

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Adams, Estherine, Shammane Joseph Jackson, and Clare Anderson. "Immigration and Incarceration in Post-Emancipation British Guiana." LIAS Working Paper Series 4 (December 10, 2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.29311/lwps.202143751.

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This paper focuses on the incarceration of East Indian indentured labourers in colonial British Guiana between 1838 and 1917. Presenting new data on the prison population and the expansion and strategic location of prison infrastructure, it argues that the criminalization of labour through contracts and ordinances led to the disproportionate incarceration of East Indian immigrants in earlier years. It also suggests this was undertaken so as to facilitate labour extraction from immigrants in response to the loss of access to free labour occasioned by the abolition of slavery.

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Emmer, Pieter C. "Barriers Instead of Bridges: The Developed World and Intercontinental Migration." European Review, May 18, 2020, 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1062798720000642.

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In this article I discuss intercontinental migration during the early modern period. The discovery of the New World sparked a large-scale movement lasting more than four centuries. Before 1800, only 2 to 3 million Europeans availed themselves of the opportunity to move to the New World. Colonial powers, therefore, turned to Africa and transported about 11.5 million slaves to America. After 1850 and the gradual abolition of slavery, the migration of Europeans increased dramatically, but these migrants avoided the former slave regions. Some areas therefore resorted to the importation of Asian indentured labourers, mainly from British India.

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Allen, Richard B. "European Slave Trading, Abolitionism, and “New Systems Of Slavery” in the Indian Ocean." PORTAL Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies 9, no. 1 (2012). http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/portal.v9i1.2624.

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Recent scholarship on British, Dutch, French, and Portuguese slave trading in the Indian Ocean highlights the need to explore structural connections between pre- and post-emancipation migrant labour systems in the colonial world. Europeans purchased and transported a minimum of 431,000-547,000 slaves of African, Indian, Malagasy, and Southeast Asian origin to destinations in the Indian Ocean world between 1500 and 1850. These data, coupled with recent research on European abolitionist activity in the region and the movement of convict and indentured labourers throughout and beyond this oceanic basin, point to the development of an increasingly integrated global movement of migrant labour during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.

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Gibbon, Victoria E., Goran Štrkalj, Maria Paximadis, Paul Ruff, and Clem Penny. "The sex profile of skeletal remains from a cemetery of Chinese indentured labourers in South Africa." South African Journal of Science 106, no. 7/8 (2010). http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajs.v106i7/8.191.

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Shahadat, Khandakar, and Shahzad Uddin. "Labour Controls, Unfreedom and Perpetuation of Slavery on a Tea Plantation." Work, Employment and Society, July 23, 2021, 095001702110215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/09500170211021567.

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This article examines labour controls in traditional tea plantations in Bangladesh. This study finds how social and economic exclusion through discriminatory labour laws and labour–manager relations rooted in the ‘coolie’ system have built a captive workforce separated from the mainstream workforce. This ultimately produces and reproduces slavery–laden labour controls. An opaque but punitive incentive system, sunset-sunrise working hours, maximum engagement, and the restrictions of promotion to managerial posts are constant reminders of the historically rooted indentured labour system. This article contributes to understanding modern slavery in an organisational context and the obstacles that prevent ‘free’ labourers from walking away from exploitative conditions. Organisational sites such as tea plantations present clear examples of how specific types of labour control restrict freedom of choice and produce ‘willing slaves’.

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Speedy, Karin Elizabeth. "From the Indian Ocean to the Pacific: Affranchis and Petits-Blancs in New Caledonia." PORTAL Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies 9, no. 1 (2012). http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/portal.v9i1.2567.

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The sugar crisis of 1860 in Reunion motivated the migration of thousands of Réunionnais to New Caledonia. Along with sugar planters, wealthy enough to transport their production equipment as well as their indentured workers, significant groups of both skilled and unskilled labourers made their way from Reunion to the Pacific colony in the second half of the nineteenth century. In previous publications, I have focused my attention on the sugar industry and the immigration of the rich planters and their coolies. While I have drawn attention to the heterogeneity of the sugar workers and have signalled the arrival and numeric importance of tradespeople, manual and low skilled workers from Reunion, I have not yet described these immigrants in detail. This is because this group has been largely ignored by history and details surrounding their circumstances are scant. In this paper, I discuss the background and origins of these people and highlight some of the fascinating stories to emerge from this migration to New Caledonia and beyond.

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Sai, Siew-Min. "Benevolent technocracy: The Chinese Protectorate, migration control and racialised governmentality in colonised Malaya." Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, September 22, 2021, 1–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002246342100059x.

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The Chinese Protectorate was first established in Singapore in 1877 with the limited objective of preventing abuses in Chinese labour migration, but it evolved multiple functions dedicated to governing Chinese migrants and residents in colonised Malaya. The Protector possessed extensive statutory powers and he was regarded as the official authority on all matters ‘Chinese’. This was an important yet under-studied colonial institution in the history of Chinese migration and settlement in Singapore and Malaysia. This article narrates the history behind the establishment of the Protectorate in the 1870s when ‘racialised governmentality’ of the Chinese population was institutionalised in colonised Malaya. The article underscores the significance of imperial and local contexts of the Protectorate's creation, arguing that it was a product of flexible adaptation of empire-wide practices of ‘protecting’ and governing liberated slaves, indigenous peoples and subsequently, indentured Indian labourers ‘humanely’. It is notable, therefore, that there was a coeval and conjoined discussion of migration control of Chinese as well as Indian labour migrants in Malaya during this period, but this history is hidden from plain sight by popular approaches studying labour migration as components of ethnic diasporas migrating from a single point of origin.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Indentured labourers'

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