Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Individual learner differences'

The implementation of Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) policies has reduced the rate of car crashes among adolescents. However, limited research has focused on adolescents’ supervised driving during the learner permit stage of GDL. The study aimed to describe supervised driving practice during the learner permit stage and to test predictors of individual differences in the amount and the quality of supervised driving. 183 adolescents (M age = 16.4 years, 54.1% female) and their parents (84.1% mothers) participated. Adolescents reported driving an average of 25 minutes per day. Adolescents living in single-parent households, with less family income, and with a stronger motivation to drive reported more daily driving. Adolescents with a stronger motivation to drive reported driving in more settings. Discussion focuses on implications for developing effective driving-specific parenting strategies and helping to enrich adolescents’ supervised driving experiences.

CITE/Language Arts
Ed.D.
The primary purpose of this study is to investigate external and internal factors that act as learning demotivators that can discourage students from learning in Japanese high school English classrooms. More than 1,200 students responded to two questionnaires designed to measure five external demotivators, Teachers, Characteristics of Classes, Experiences of Failure, Class Environment, Class Materials, and one internal demotivator, Learners‘ Lack of Interest. Using the Rasch rating scale model and confirmatory factor analysis, the questionnaire results were analyzed to test the inter-relationships among the six hypothesized demotivators. Qualitative data were also obtained from an open-ended questionnaire asking the participants what demotivated them from learning. Two models, a six-factor and a four-factor demotivation model, were tested. As the four-factor model displayed slightly better fit than the six-factor model, it was selected as the final model. In this model, the first-order latent variable that best explained Demotivation was Experiences of Difficulty (b = .74), which was followed by Class Environment (b = .72), and Loss of Interest (b = .71). In contrast to the findings of previous studies, teachers‘ direct behaviors (b = .51) were the least influential of all the demotivators studied. In a follow up study, relationships between the teacher ratings of students‘ motivation, the students‘ perception of their current motivational level and their motivation in high school were investigated. Although it was anticipated that students‘ self-reported motivational states and teacher ratings of students‘ motivation would have a reasonably strong relationship, a series of regression analyses indicated that the teacher rating of students‘ motivation was not significantly related to either motivational level. While students might appear to be motivated in the classroom from the teachers‘ point of view, the students might feel otherwise. The first important finding concerned the two hypothesized demotivation models that were tested using confirmatory factor analysis. In the final four-factor model, the first-order latent variable that best explained Demotivation was Experiences of Difficulty followed by Loss of Interest, and Class Environment. In contrast to the findings of previous studies, teachers‘ direct behaviors were the least influential of all the demotivators studied. The results revealed that Japanese high school English learners can become demotivated due to difficult experiences they encounter or loss of interest in studying in the classroom. While influences from teacher behaviors can also cause demotivation, it appears that the approach or materials that focus on difficult reading passages and/or vocabulary cause the strongest sense of demotivation. The second important findings concerned group differences. The high and low motivation groups and the male and female groups differed in their perceptions of Class Environment. However, no statistically significant differences were found among the first- and second-year groups, and the students attending academic and non-academic schools. The third finding was from the follow-up study. It was found that the teacher rating of students‘ motivation is not related to the students‘ perception of their current motivational level and their motivation in high school time. While students might appear to be motivated in the classroom from the teachers‘ point of view, the students‘ perception of their current motivational level and their motivation in high school can differ greatly. Overall, the results revealed that Japanese high school English learners can become demotivated due to the difficulties they experience in the English language classroom, or a loss of interest in classroom study. While influences from teacher behaviors can also cause demotivation, this study shows that an approach or materials that focus on difficult reading passages and/or vocabulary cause the strongest sense of demotivation.
Temple University--Theses

Emotions, both positive and negative, play an important role in foreign language learning. However, whereas a great number of studies have investigated the construct and sources of negative emotions such as foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) in second language learning, whereas less attention has been paid to the construct and sources of positive emotions such as foreign language enjoyment (FLE). The aims of this one-year longitudinal study are: (1) to determine the level of FLCA and FLE among adult EFL learners; (2) to explore the progress of the relationship between FLCA and FLE throughout the academic year; (3) to gauge the effect of FLCA and FLE on adult learners’ performance in EFL, measuring their grammatical accuracy and communicative skills; (4) to examine the relationship between FLCA and FLE and a range of individual variables (age, gender, proficiency levels, study abroad experience, language repertoire, age they started learning English, educational levels and speaking English outside the classroom; and, (5) to explore the sources of FLCA and FLE that students experience in class from the point of view of students and their teachers. The data for the study was gathered at two public language schools (known in Catalan as Escola Oficial d’Idiomes or EOI) in the Barcelona area at the beginning and at the end of the academic year 2015-2016. In total, 237 bilingual Spanish/Catalan EFL learners at different proficiency levels (B1, B2, C1) with an age range between 16 to 68 participated. The quantitative and qualitative data was obtained through three sections of a questionnaire, a language test and a semi-structured interview. Results indicate that 1) Students experienced FLCA and FLE from time to time and they experienced more FLE than FLCA at the beginning and at the end of the year in addition, they experienced higher levels of anxiety at the beginning of the year than at the end, whereas there was no significant difference between the level of FLE at the beginning and at the end of the year. 2) There was a significant negative relationship between FLCA and FLE that became weaker at the end of the academic year. 3) FLE had a significant positive effect on students’ performance, and FLCA had a significant negative effect. Regarding the individual variables, there were mixed results. Some variables were not significant at all, such as age and educational level; and others changed throughout the course, such as gender or speaking English outside the classroom. 5) The sources of FLCA and FLE reported by language learners and teachers were connected to classroom-related factors; learner-related factors or teacher-related factors. This current study extended several other previous studies and contributed new aspects to FLCA and FLE: while as speculated, FLCA had a detrimental effect on the language learning process, there was evidence that FLE can facilitate language learning. Language instructors must therefore be aware of the presence of FLCA and FLE so they can find various ways to minimise FLCA and increase students’ FLE.
Las emociones, tanto positivas como negativas, juegan un papel muy importante en el aprendizaje. A pesar de ello, la mayoría de estudios sobre las emociones en adquisición de lenguas se centran en las emociones negativas, con menos atención dedicada a las positivas. Por ello, el presente estudio pretende: (1) determinar el nivel de FLCA y de FLE entre estudiantes adultos de inglés como lengua extranjera; (2) explorar la relación entre estos dos constructos a lo largo de un curso académico; (3) medir su efecto en los resultados académicos de los estudiantes en un examen de corrección gramatical y competencia comunicativa; (4) examinar cómo se relacionan con otras variables individuales (edad, género, nivel de lengua, experiencias en otros países, repertorio lingüístico, edad a la que comenzaron a estudiar inglés, nivel educativo y uso del inglés fuera del aula); y, (5) explorar las fuentes de FLCA y FLE desde el punto de vista de profesores y estudiantes. Para ello contamos con los datos de 237 estudiantes de inglés como lengua extranjera y 3 de sus profesores en dos EOI del área metropolitana de Barcelona, recogidos durante el curso 2015-16 a través de un cuestionario, una prueba de nivel y entrevistas. Los resultados indican que (1) se reporta más FLE que FLCA al principio y al final del curso, y niveles más altos de FLCA al principio del curso, mientras que el nivel de FLE no cambia significativamente; (2) hay una relación significativa negativa entre FLCA y FLE, que se hace más débil al final de curso; (3) ambas emociones tienen un efecto significativo y opuesto sobre los resultados de los estudiantes; (4) la relación entre ambas emociones y otras variables individuales ofrece resultados poco concluyentes, ya que algunas variables no son significativas y otras cambian a lo largo del curso; y, (5) las emociones reportadas surgen del contexto, los propios aprendices y los profesores. A través de este estudio, hemos explorado los resultados de otros estudios en el contexto del aprendizaje de adultos, y hemos contribuido a los datos aportados por otros autores: FLCA tiene un efecto negativo sobre el aprendizaje de lenguas, mientras que FLE contribuye a su mejora. Por tanto, es importante que los profesores sean conscientes del rol que juegan estas emociones y desarrollen estrategias para gestionarlas.

Learner-controlled e-learning has become a preferred medium for the delivery of organizational training. While e-learning offers organizations and trainees many advantages, it also comes with several potential disadvantages. The aim of this study was to explore the relative efficacy of learner- and program-controlled e-learning for content that differs in its complexity. This study also explored cognitive load as a differential mediator of the interaction between learner control and training content complexity for predicting cognitive and behavioral learning outcomes. Finally, learning goal orientation was explored as a motivational individual difference that helps learners cope with complex, learner-controlled e-learning environments. Results suggest that while there is little difference between learners in learner- and program-controlled e-learning environments for content that is relatively simple in nature, complex, learner-controlled e-learning environments are detrimental to cognitive learning relative to complex, program-controlled environments. Moreover, the results suggest that this interaction is differentially mediated by cognitive load, suggesting that complex, learner-controlled environments induce high cognitive demands onto learners which ultimately inhibit cognitive learning. Finally, learning goal orientation was identified as more facilitative individual difference in learner-controlled e-learning environments relative to program-controlled and simple training environments. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are also discussed.

The main focus of this thesis is on the effectiveness of project-based learning (PBL) in engineering design. The literature review has shown that there is much confusion and ongoing arguments concerning the implementation of PBL in engineering design, and there lacks consensus on its effectiveness. Little research has been done on providing measurable metrics of PBL effectiveness, not to mention discovering the optimal PBL and its underlying mechanisms based on solid educational theories and rigorous research methodology. In this thesis, the measurement of the optimal PBL effectiveness (effect) is studied and a theoretical model of PBL is built in order to identify parameters (cause) controlling the effectiveness and to study the interplay between effectiveness and the parameters. The model is built through three main phases, with a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods. In phase one, the effectiveness of PBL is studied from the perspectives of the engineering design lecturers and engineering graduates by interviews, which is used to represent effect (Y axis) of the model. In phase two, on the basis of self-directed learning theory (SDL) and learner engagement theory,two key parameters of PBL, i.e. SDL and learner engagement, are identified and quantified respectively to represent cause (X axis) of the model. With the key parameters of PBL (X axis) and PBL effectiveness (Y axis) obtained, a theoretical model of PBL is proposed. The model is verified by means of experiments (student self-reported surveys). A specified Moving Average Method (MAM) is used for data analysis and findings demonstrate different trends of the relations between SDL and PBL effectiveness, and between learner engagement and PBL effectiveness. Consequently, a 3D model of PBL is built by combining the data in aforementioned 2D models,through which the optimal PBL effectiveness in 3D are identified and measured and the interplay between different parameters are found. In phase three, in order to find out more delicate features in PBL ignored by MAM, the dynamic interaction of individual differences in PBL teamwork is explored by the ethnological method (including participant observations and interviews), which is conducted as a supplement to the model of PBL. The theoretical model of PBL effectiveness proposed in this thesis is novel and groundbreaking. Firstly, a series of 2D and 3D models are presented and the relations between SDL, learner engagement and PBL effectiveness are revealed for the first time, which provides guidance for the optimal PBL measurement and implementation. Secondly, a qualitatively-quantitatively-combined strategy is used to discover the mechanisms controlling optimal PBL at different scales. Thirdly, the experiments verifying the model provide fresh quantitative insight into optimal PBL. In summary, the research in this thesis opens up a new research methodology for studying PBL effectiveness, which makes contribution to the educational field as well. Keywords: Project-based learning, Self-directed learning, Learner engagement, Optimal PBL effectiveness, 3D model, Individual differences, Engineering design, Pedagogy.

Students’ metacognition, that is, the ability to accurately assess one’s skill level and to update one’s internal model of those skills, is a crucial educational factor, as it can help students selfregulate their learning. The purpose of this thesis is to assess how individuals’ metacognitive abilities relate to learning processes and outcomes in STEM-related tasks. It also highlights how they relate to students’ characteristics, as their gender. This thesis also presents the first steps towards a methodology to teach programming and robotics to elementary-school children and a study on digital technologies in museums to present historical content. Finally, it also explores prediction and collaborative behaviour in young adults in the autistic spectrum, and how this behaviour is self-perceived during a collaborative task with an artificial agent.
Las capacidades metacognitivas de los/as estudiantes (la habilidad de evaluar con precisión las capacidades de uno/a mismo/a y de actuar con nuestro modelo interno de estas capacidades) es un factor educativo crucial, ya que puede ayudar a los/as estudiantes a autorregular su proceso de aprendizaje. El objetivo de esta tesis es evaluar como las habilidades metacognitivas de los/as estudiantes se relacionan con su proceso de aprendizaje y resultados en tareas STEM (Ciencia, tecnología, ingeniería y matemáticas). También investiga cómo se relacionan estas capacidades con sus características, como el género. Esta tesis también presenta los primeros pasos para desarrollar una metodología para enseñar programación y robótica a niños/as de primaria y un estudio sobre tecnologías digitales en museos para mostrar contenido histórico. Finalmente, explora también procesos de predicción y colaboración en adultos jóvenes dentro del espectro autista y cómo perciben su comportamiento durante una actividad colaborativa con un agente sintético.
Les capacitats metacognitives dels/les estudiants (l’habilitat d’avaluar amb precisió els capacitats d’un mateix i d’actualitzar el nostre model intern d’aquestes capacitats) és un factor educatiu crucial, ja que pot ajudar els/les estudiants a autoregular el seu procés d’aprenentatge. L’objectiu d’aquesta tesi és avaluar com les habilitats metacognitives dels/les estudiants es relacionen amb el seu procés d’aprenentatge i resultat en tasques STEM (ciència, tecnologia, enginyeria i matemàtiques). També investiga com es relacionen amb les seves característiques, com el gènere. Aquesta tesi també presenta els primers passos per desenvolupar una metodologia per ensenyar programació i robòtica a nens/es de primària i un estudi sobre tecnologies digitals en museus per mostrar contingut històric. Finalment, també explora processos de predicció i col·laboració en adults joves dintre de l’espectre autista i com perceben seu comportament durant una activitat col·laborativa amb un agent sintètic.

In today’s globalised world it is becoming increasingly common that adults need to learn new languages at any age. And while the number of foreign language adult learners keeps growing, there is still a dearth of research aiming at elucidating what individual differences explain variation in foreign language learning outcomes in students placed in schools which do not have any entry requirements. This study investigated which individual differences impact second language acquisition at two levels of proficiency out of a set of four IDs: language aptitude, L1 literacy, motivation and orientations, and age; with a special focus on language aptitude and L1 literacy. Finally, the study aimed at explaining the possible interactions amongst the four IDs under scrutiny. Two groups of adult EFL learners at two different levels of proficiency (beginners, n = 52, and upper intermediate learners, n = 88), were tested on a number of variables composing the four constructs, and on five L2 language dimensions. It has been speculated that different IDs may have different impacts at two levels of proficiency; in terms of language aptitude, it has been hypothesised that for low-proficiency students, the faster learning students will exhibit higher levels of auditory ability, while analytic ability is expected to contribute in a similar manner at beginner and advanced levels (Skehan, 1989). Concerning L1 literacy, the hypothesis is that at beginner levels L1 literacy will play a much more prominent role than for advanced learners, providing support for the threshold hypothesis (Cummins, 1979a), and the linguistic coding differences hypothesis (Sparks, 1995; Sparks&Ganschow, 1991, 1993, 1995). Findings did not confirm a differential impact of language aptitude in L2 learning at two levels of proficiency when looking at a global language aptitude score; however, when looking at language aptitude components, results confirmed the hypothesised prominent role of auditory ability for beginners and a role for analytic ability at the two proficiency levels, although the impact of the latter was larger in the upper intermediate learners’ group. For L1 literacy, the hypothesis that L1 literacy would play a key role for beginners and not for upper intermediate learners was confirmed. This is consistent with the main tenet of the linguistic coding differences hypothesis that L1 skills serve as the foundation for L2 learning, as well as for the purported existence of a threshold of L1 literacy which learners need to attain for cross-linguistic transfer to occur. Results for motivation and orientations were also different for the two proficiency groups: while professional orientations explained variance in the beginner group, in the upper intermediate learners’ group motivation was the variable that correlated with L2 learning. Finally, age at testing was the variable exerting the largest impact on L2 development in the beginner group, while it did not have any impact on the upper intermediate learner group. However, when L2 development scores where disaggregated in five L2 dimensions, findings were asymmetric: while age at testing impacted four out of five dimensions for beginners, there was only one skill which was strongly impacted in the upper intermediate learner group: L2 listening. The study also investigated the interactions amongst variables by applying multiple regression analysis and PLS modelling. In the model obtained for beginners, only three variables were predictive: academic development, L1 literacy, and age at testing. Conversely, the predictive variables in the model for upper intermediate learners were motivation, language aptitude, and reading habits. As a conclusion, findings suggested that different IDs impact L2 learning differently at two levels of proficiency for this participant sample. In addition, the study provided insights as to which were the language aptitude components having an influence at each stage, and what L2 language dimensions were impacted by language aptitude and L1 literacy. Finally, and to the best of the author’s knowledge, this is the first study in second language acquisition to use PLS-SEM to explore complex relationships amongst latent constructs.
En el món globalitzat que ens envolta és cada cop més comú que els adults hagin d’aprendre idiomes a qualsevol edat. Aquest estudi investiga quines són les diferències individuals que tenen impacte en l’adquisició de segones llengües en dos nivells de llengua estrangera, d’un conjunt de quatre diferències individuals: aptitud lingüística, nivell de primera llengua, motivació i orientacions, i edat; a més de les interaccions entre elles. Els participants són dos grups d’estudiants adults d’anglès com a llengua estrangera en dos nivells (nivell inicial, n = 52; nivell intermedi-alt, n = 88). Pel que fa a aptitud lingüística, la hipòtesi planteja que, en nivells inicials, els alumnes que progressen més ràpidament són aquells que tenen un nivell més alt d’aptitud auditiva, mentre que la capacitat analítica és igual d’important a tots els nivells. Respecte al nivell de primera llengua, la hipòtesi suggereix que pot tenir un paper fonamental en els nivells inicials. Els resultats no confirmen que hi hagi un impacte diferent de l’aptitud lingüística global segons el nivell de llengua estrangera. En canvi, si es miren els components, els resultats confirmen el paper primordial que té l’aptitud auditiva per als principiants, i també que la capacitat analítica és important per ambdós nivells. Pel que fa al nivell de primera llengua, els resultats confirmen la hipòtesi que té un paper clau per als principiants. Els resultats per motivació i orientacions també varien en funció del nivell de segona llengua: en el nivell inicial, la orientació professional explica la major part de les diferències; en canvi, en el nivell intermedi-alt la variable més important és la motivació. Finalment, el factor edat en el moment de prendre els tests és la variable més predictiva en el grup inicial. En canvi, no juga cap paper en el nivell intermedi-alt. Tot i així, quan els resultats de desenvolupament de la segona llengua es categoritzen per dimensió lingüística, els patrons són asimètrics: l’edat té efecte en quatre de les cinc dimensions lingüístiques en el grup inicial, mentre en el grup de nivell intermedi-alt només una dimensió mostra els efectes de l’edat: la comprensió oral. Pel que fa a interaccions, en el model PLS del grup inicial, només tres variables tenen valor predictiu: desenvolupament acadèmic, nivell de primera llengua, i edat. En canvi, les variables predictives del model generat pel grup intermedi-alt són motivació, aptitud lingüística, i hàbits de lectura.

This study aims to identify, explore and elucidate the language-learning strategies used by African English second-language learners participating in peer tutoring in Gauteng province, South Africa. Informed by pragmatism, this study was situated in a constructivist epistemology and a relational ontology. Consistent with a constructivist epistemology, Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theory was utilised and adapted for the purpose of this study to reflect a hybridised model which is more suitable for studying the language-learning strategies used by indigenous learners. Using a convergent mixed methods design, a total of 137 second-language learners in Grades 8 and 9 from seven different peer tutoring programmes were purposefully sampled to be part of this study. The data collection methods used for this study were: a quantitative as well as a qualitative questionnaire, focus group discussions and non-participant observation. The findings of this study show that learners use a range of conventional strategies at a high frequency (metacognitive, social, cognitive and affective) while compensation and memory strategies were used at a medium frequency. The qualitative results show that the use of conventional strategies took place in a collectivist manner, which relates to the relational ontology of this study. A significant insight derived from this study is that African second-language learners use a range of indigenous strategies for L2 learning. These strategies include various art forms such as dance, music, poetry and word games. Consistent with the use of humour by many African literary scholars, learners in this study also used humour for downplaying their second-language mistakes, managing emotions and for critical thinking. The use of strategies was shown to be affected by learner motivation, gender, resource availability, identity, home language knowledge and the context in which learners learn. The peer tutoring learning context was shown to be an effective method for scaffolding second-language learning by allowing learners to be taught within their zone of proximal development. I theorise that the use of a hybridised framework that combines both conventional and indigenous knowledge systems should be considered to aid the learning of a second language. This framework lends support for strengthening learners’ home language(s) through translanguaging practices and by valorising learners’ translingual identity. Therefore, it is recommended that policymakers should ensure the inclusion of indigenous knowledge systems in the curriculum and put measures in place for monitoring the effective implementation of these indigenous knowledge systems in the South African curriculum.
Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2020.
pt2021
Humanities Education
PhD
Unrestricted

Hypermedia Learning Systems (HLS) are being used increasingly widely in Higher Education, offering non-linear navigation through complex learning materials and, it is argued, leading to improve cognitive flexibility. For some learners, though, nonlinear navigation in HLS leads to higher levels of disorientation, which can have an impact on their learning performance and attitudes towards the learning system. There has been significant research into the factors that can influence individual learners‘ experiences. For example, a number of studies have confirmed that individual differences such as cognitive style, domain knowledge and computer experience affect individuals‘ levels of disorientation and learning performance, and influence their attitudes towards HLS. It has also been suggested that instructional aids (in the form of certain visual elements and audio elements) can reduce levels of disorientation and, in turn, increase learning performance in, and positive attitudes towards, HLS for some learners. However, existing studies have tended to look at only a subset of these three individual differences in relation to an individual and/or consider only a small number of visual instructional aids. No study up to this point has considered the impact of cognitive style, domain knowledge and computer experience on disorientation, learning performance and attitudes in a HLS that incorporates a full range of visual instructional aids. In terms of the research related to audio instructional aids, no studies have looked into the effects of audio aids and these three individual differences in relation to disorientation, learning performance and attitudes in HLS. This thesis addresses these two shortcomings through two experiments. The aim of experiment 1 was to examine the effects of and between these three individual differences with respect to disorientation, learning performance and attitudes in two versions of a HLS: one that incorporated the set of visual instructional aids and one that did not. Experiment 2 aimed to do the same, but with respect to a HLS that provided audio instructional aids. The experiments used quantitative and qualitative approaches to gather data to address a set of research questions and research hypotheses. The participants were 384 university students from across London. The Cognitive Style Analysis (CSA) test was administered to determine participants‘ field dependence, and participants‘ demographic information, levels of computer experience and levels of prior knowledge were gathered using questionnaires. Learning performance was measured through achievement tests and a practical task. Levels of disorientation were measured using questionnaires, and attitudes were assessed using questionnaires and interviews. Participants were also observed when they were interacting with the HLS to perform learning tasks. A number of interesting results were revealed. Significant effects were found between the three individual differences with respect to disorientation, learning performance and attitudes in the HLS that provided no instructional aids. No significant effects were found between the three individual differences with respect to disorientation or learning performance in the other two versions of the HLS – those providing visual and audio instructional aids. Significant effects were found between the three individual differences with respect to the use of the visual and audio instructional aids to perform learning in the HLS. No significant effects were found between the three individual differences with respect to attitudes in the HLS that provided visual instructional aids. Significant effects were found between the three individual differences with respect to attitudes in the version that provided audio instructional aids. Analysis of the results led to the framing of a set of HLS design guidelines which are presented in this thesis. Finally, an agenda for future research leading on from the study‘s findings is presented.

Informe de Seminario para optar al grado de Licenciado en Lengua y Literatura Inglesa
The main goal of the present study is to do research on group and individual word associations with the purpose of identifying similarities and differences between native and nonnative speakers at different levels of proficiency both in English and in Spanish. For this purpose, data were elicited through two word association tests, one in English and one in Spanish. Both tests included 30 stimulus words, and they were given to a total of 42 participants. The data obtained were described, analysed, and quantitatively compared in order to answer the research questions. Finally, some conclusions were drawn from the research analysis. In relation to the formal arrangement of the present study, it consists of six major sections. First, the Introduction, followed by the study, which is subdivided into Objectives, Research Questions, Theoretical and descriptive framework, and Methodology. The third section is the Discussion of results, followed by the conclusions. The two last sections are Bibliography and Appendixes

Applied Linguistics
Ph.D.
Learning kanji (i.e., the Chinese characters utilized in the Japanese writing system) is unique for learners of Japanese who speak Chinese as their first language (L1) due to their ability to transfer their knowledge of L1 hanzi (i.e., the Chinese characters utilized in the Chinese writing system). The present study is a longitudinal investigation into the effects of affective variables and kanji growth on kanji learning utilizing the self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002). L1 Chinese learners of Japanese as a second language (L2) responded to a questionnaire designed to measure eleven affective variables and took kanji tests three times over one academic semester (N = 229-340). In addition, interviews were conducted with 12 participants to further explore the affective variables influencing kanji learning. The data were analyzed using univariate and multivariate latent growth modeling, multiple regression analyses, and path modeling to answer six research questions. The results showed that: (a) there were no associations between the initial affective status and the initial kanji proficiency; (b) intrinsic motivation and introjected regulation exerted significant positive and negative influences on short-term kanji growth, respectively; (c) growth in kanji proficiency did not cultivate intrinsic motivation, nor did intrinsic motivation lead to growth in kanji proficiency; (d) perceived competence was significantly associated with both the initial status of intrinsic motivation and changes in intrinsic motivation; (e) perceived competence was not associated with either the initial level or the development of kanji proficiency; (f) perceived competence positively affected four variables, intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, external regulation, and mastery goals; (g) perceived autonomy led to lower amotivation and higher intrinsic motivation, but caused lower external regulation; (h) peers' positive influences positively affected all six variables, cultivating higher intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, introjected regulation, external regulation, and mastery goals, as well as causing lower amotivation; (i) peers' negative influences led to lower identified regulation and higher amotivation, and higher introjected regulation, and; (j) attitudes toward L2 community/speakers did not influence any of the SDT kanji learning motivation and mastery goals. The results of the interview study revealed that (a) the participants felt various types of enjoyment in kanji learning, including intrinsic motivation-knowledge, intrinsic motivation-stimulation, and intrinsic motivation-accomplishment; (b) ideal L2 self guided intrinsic motivation; (c) introjected regulation was channeled by ought-to L2 self and feared L2 self, and; (d) feared L2 self was uniquely formulated as a result of the complex interactions of various factors such as pride as L1 hanzi knowledge holders and normative pressure from Chinese peers. Evidence gathered in research targeting English learners is not necessarily applicable to the learning and motivation for learning other languages. The present study contributes to a better understanding of the universality as well as the individuality of the roles of motivation in L2 learning.
Temple University--Theses

This thesis critically examines two distinct differences among learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) in Saudi Arabia: their learning styles (specifically, perceptual learning styles, peer collaboration and tolerance of ambiguity (TA)) and the affective factors (namely, anxiety, motivation and self-efficacy) that influence their learning. This mixed-methods study builds systematically and methodically on the little that is known about these variables among Arab learners of EFL. Its originality lies in it being the first study to explore the interrelationships between six major learning styles and affective factors in an EFL learning context. To achieve this, three self-developed questionnaires were distributed to 334 freshman students at a public university in Saudi Arabia. Semi-structured interviews were also conducted with 20 learners. Findings revealed that the participants were multimodal, exhibited a moderate preference for peer collaboration and were moderately tolerant of ambiguity. They also showed moderate levels of anxiety, motivation and self-efficacy. Importantly, all six variables were significantly related to English proficiency and/or performance. Furthermore, all correlations between learning styles and affective factors were significant, except those between peer collaboration and self-efficacy and between TA and motivation. The thesis concludes with a discussion of theoretical, practical and research implications of the findings.

This study explored the relationship between implicit and explicit knowledge of 13 second language (L2) English grammar points and the relationship of each type of knowledge with language learning aptitude and working memory capacity in 90 Mexican learners of L2 English at three different levels of proficiency (Level 5, Level 7, Level 9). An elicited imitation test and an oral narrative test were used to measure implicit knowledge, and a metalinguistic knowledge test was used to measure explicit knowledge. With respect to language learning aptitude and working memory, the former was operationalised by the LLAMA test, and the latter by the backward digit span test. With regard to the relationship between implicit and explicit knowledge, implicit knowledge correlated positively and weakly with explicit knowledge while an analysis by grammar point showed a non-significant negative correlation approaching significance between implicit and explicit scores. These results indicate that learners found some grammar points easy in terms of explicit knowledge and other grammar points easy in terms of implicit knowledge, and vice versa. Learners’ language aptitude and working memory did not significantly predict explicit or implicit knowledge of the targeted difficult and easy grammar points for the cohort of participants as a whole. Another analysis by level group (Level 5, Level 7, Level 9) indicated that the cognitive variables did not significantly predict explicit knowledge of easy or difficult grammar points. However, with respect to implicit knowledge, working memory significantly predicted implicit knowledge of easy grammar points in Level 5, and language aptitude marginally predicted implicit knowledge of difficult grammar points in Level 5. Overall, the findings support the view that language aptitude and working memory are better predictors at lower levels of proficiency. The findings of this study contribute to researchers’ understanding of the distinction between implicit and explicit knowledge and the relevance of language aptitude and working memory at different levels of proficiency.

This paper reports on the study of the strategy use of Chinese English majors in vocabulary learning; the individual differences between effective and less effective learners in employing vocabulary learning strategies and the relationship between their strategies and their outcome in English learning. In this research, 118 junior English majors inChineseUniversitywere investigated. The participants were asked to take a vocabulary test and complete a vocabulary-learning questionnaire.   The data collected was analyzed using the SPSS (the Statistical Package for Social Science) and the result indicates that there are significant differences between effective and less effective learners. Effective learners use strategies more frequently and flexibly, while less effective learners turn out to be rote learners. They employ repetition strategy more often and they rely more on their mother tongue, Chinese, in vocabulary learning. Thus the translation strategy was extensively used among them. The result also shows that seven strategies, namely applied, categorization, self-monitoring, cooperation, media, elaboration and dictionary strategy are positively correlated with the vocabulary test scores and the Test for English Majors (Grade 4) scores. The above findings have certain implication for both learners and teachers.

This study investigated relationships between individual learner differences and the learning of two English structures that differed in their grammatical difficulty. Using a quasi-experimental design, 66 secondary-level learners of English as a foreign language from three intact classes were provided with four hours of instruction on two L2 structures –one considered relatively easy to learn (i.e., past progressive) and the other relatively difficult to learn (i.e. passive construction). The participants were pretested on their knowledge of both structures and posttested immediately after the instruction. Learners’ progress was measured via written grammaticality judgment tests (GJT) and oral production tasks (OPT). The instruments to measure individual learner differences included a computerized language aptitude test, an L1 metalinguistic awareness test, a motivation questionnaire, a backward digit span test, and a learner retrospection questionnaire. The results revealed that aptitude and motivation were the two variables that significantly contributed to learners’ gains with respect to the ‘passive’ and that L1 metalinguistic awareness explained significant variation in learners’ gains regarding the ‘past progressive’. These relationships were observed with learners’ performance on the written but not oral measures. A detailed analysis of the aptitude test components revealed that the grammatical inferencing subtask was significantly related to L2 gains on the ‘passive’ – again only with respect to learners’ performance on the written GJT. The results also revealed that learners with different aptitude profiles (i.e., low, medium, high) benefited differently from instruction on the two target features. High aptitude learners performed better than low aptitude learners on the ‘passive’ as measured by the GJT posttest. With respect to the ‘past progressive’ only learners in the medium aptitude profile group improved significantly on the written GJT. These findings confirm that language aptitude holds a role in language learning but that there are other factors (i.e., motivation and L1 metalinguistic awareness) that also contribute to L2 progress. These results also provide evidence from a classroom-based study that the grammatical difficulty of what is to be learned is a factor in determining what cognitive abilities L2 learners rely on in their efforts to learn a new language.

碩士
國立高雄第一科技大學
應用日語研究所
103
This research is to investigating the learning status of Japanese learner in Taiwan recently. It will contain, first, what are the learner’s motivations and purpose in Japanese learning. Second, what are the difficulties while learning Japanese? Third, what kinds of strategies in learning Japanese? Researchers collect data by questionnaire survey, and compare learners’ individual differences of each learning motivation, learning difficulties, learning strategies based on statistical results. They will also find out the problems of Japanese education in Taiwan according to these differences and make recommendations from the problems. This research will apply to three different science and technology universities in Taiwan as the respondents and these students are majoring Japanese (total of 448 people). Using implemented questionnaire survey to collect the information of their own personal learning experience, learning motivation, learning difficulties, and learning strategies. Research is constituted by three projects of 1) to survey the structure with each of their learning motivation, learning difficulties, and learning strategies. 2) to compare the differences of their learning difficulties and learning strategies based on the strength of their learning motivation. 3) to compare the differences of their learning motivation, learning difficulties and learning strategies based on the time period in study Japanese. To conclude above of results, it''s more important to educate the shorter time period learners to have self-direct learning ablity, which are to pronunce vocabularies and practice speaking Japanese accuratley. For the longer learning period learners are to have lessons based on training the Japanese communication ability would considered more suitable.

博士
國立臺灣師範大學
體育學系
97
Although interests on individual difference in motor learning were evident in the last century (Adams, 1987), psychological-based individual difference in motor learning are receiving less attention today. This is despite the fact that differences at that level may have important implications for research and practice. In this thesis, differences in self-controlled learning behavior in relation to learners’ psychology related to passing time are examined. It is likely that different learners would perceive time differently and thus learning behavior might be affected by how they perceived time subconsciously. The current focus is placed on examining individual difference in self-controlled learning, where difficulty level can be controlled. Specifically, difference in the three learner-types, namely, alternating, conservative, and stubborn, are examined in terms of their time perspective, behavior during different time pressure, and in terms of their enjoyment level. Thirty-two participants underwent 5 days (50 trials per day) of self-controlled learning of the roller ball task, and were allowed to select their difficulty levels over the trials. They were then classified into the three learner types based on their learning behavior. Results show that after completing the five-day practice protocol, conservative learners reported a reduction in present fatalism score compared to their earlier report. Perceived time pressure also peaked for different learner-types on different days of practice. Differences in behaviorial variability were also observed between learners over the five days. Finally, results show that enjoyment was the highest for alternating learners on the final day of practice. By showing that individual difference can be observed systematically in a self-controlled motor learning situation, it is proposed that future researchers should not merely treat individual factors as variances that can be tolerated, but should instead pay more attention to the effects of individual preference and inclinations. Limitations and practical implications are discussed.

Dissertação de mestrado integrado em Psicologia
Several studies acknowledged the problems with the use of the standard two-alternative-forced choice (2-AFC) task to assess statistical learning (SL) in a valid and reliable way. The purpose of this study was to directly examine the cost that the use of multiple repetition of same items during the 2-AFC task involve. Furthermore, to test whether that cost might be modulated by words’ predictability and the prior knowledge of the to-be-learned regularities, “words” with transitional probabilities (TPs) of 1.0 (easy “words”) and TPs of .50 (hard “words”) were used during the familiarization phase of an SL task performed under incidental (implicit) and intentional (explicit) conditions. Although results from all participants failed to show signs of detrimental effects of item repetition, the analyses including only the participants who showed clear evidence of learning in each of the SL tasks indicated that item repetition had indeed detrimental effects on the 2-AFC performance particularly for hard “words” under implicit conditions.
Vários estudos reconheceram os problemas que a utilização da tarefa de escolha forçada entre duas alternativas (2-AFC) para avaliar a aprendizagem estatística acarretam. O objetivo deste trabalho foi o de examinar o custo que a repetição dos mesmos itens numa tarefa 2-AFC envolve. Além disso, testámos se esse custo seria modulado pela previsibilidade das palavras e pelo conhecimento prévio das regularidades a aprender usando "palavras" com probabilidades de transição (TPs) de 1.0 (palavras fáceis) e TPs de .50 (palavras difíceis) durante a fase de familiarização de uma tarefa de aprendizagem estatística realizada sob condições acidentais (implícitas) e intencionais (explícitas) de aprendizagem. Embora os resultados das análises conduzidas com de todos os participantes não tenham revelado sinais de efeitos prejudiciais da repetição dos itens, os resultados das análises conduzidas apenas os participantes que mostraram evidência clara de aprendizagem em cada uma das tarefas, indicaram que a repetição de itens teve de facto efeitos prejudiciais no desempenho da tarefa 2-AFC, particularmente para "palavras" difíceis em condições implícitas.
Este estudo integra-se no âmbito do projeto "Correlatos neurodesenvolvimentais dos mecanismos implícitos-explícitos de aprendizagem em crianças com Perturbação Específica de Linguagem: Evidência com potenciais evocados cerebrais" (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-028212) financiado pela Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) e pelo Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior, através de fundos nacionais, e co-financiado pelo FEDER, através do COMPETE2020, no âmbito do acordo Portugal 2020.

Mackey教授和她的研究夥伴於二零零二年进行的探索性研究，首次探討了二語學習者的工作記憶容量和他們在互動反饋中對於第二語言語法的重述 (recasts) 的注意力以及第二語言發展的內在關係。在这项研究中，研究人员提出，作为一个小规模的研究，研究结果僅具有啟發意義，而不是决定性的。所以未来的进一步探索將會非常有意義。
為了响应这项研究的呼吁，本研究將进一步探讨二語學習者的個體差異在互動型任務中對於學習者對語法的注意力以及語言發展的影響。學習者的工作記憶容量以及他們的第二語言能力水平在本研究中均視為獨立變量，以探究它們與學習者對英語的問句形式和過去式的重述的注意力之間的聯繫。立即刺激回憶法 (immediate stimulated recall)，作為本項研究中採用的一種新方法，將和傳統的刺激回憶法 (stimulated recall) 一起用來收集有關學習者注意力的數據。實驗包括兩個實驗組和一個對照組，並採用了前測-培訓-後測三個主要階段。對照組僅需與來自英語母語國家的對話者完成每項互動交流任務，對話者不提供任何語法的重述。而兩個實驗組都會接受他們的對話者提供的對於英語問句及過去式的重述。這兩個實驗組的唯一區別是收集學習者注意力數據的研究方法不同：其中一組將使用立即刺激回憶法，而另一組則採用傳統的刺激回憶法。
本研究旨在進一步發現二語學習者的工作記憶容量、第二語言能力水平與之注意力之間的關係。工作記憶對於二語發展的影響也作為研究問題之一。同時，重述式反饋的有效性以及立即刺激回憶法的反應特性 (reactivity) 也是本研究中的兩個重心。
研究結果發現二語學習者的工作記憶容量和他們對於語法的重述的注意力存在着統計學的顯著聯繫，然而這種聯繫只存在於對注意英語過去式的重述而非英語問句的重述之中。統計結果未能顯示學習者的第二語言能力水平對於注意力的顯著效果，也未能發現他們的工作記憶容量對於二語發展的顯著效果。研究結果還發現重述式反饋的延遲效應，然而這一效應也可能是由於刺激回憶法的使用與重述式反饋共同產生的效應。此外，立即刺激回憶法在本項研究中未產生任何反應特性。
The exploratory study conducted by Mackey, Philp, Egi, Fujii and Tatsumi (2002) first probed into the internal relationship among learners’ working memory capacity, noticing of recasts of English question formation in interactional feedback and their L2 development. The researchers in that study proposed that as a small-scale study, research findings were suggestive rather than conclusive and that further exploration would be helpful.
Responding to that research call, the present study further investigated the influence of individual variables on learners’ awareness and performance in interactional tasks. Learners’ working memory capacity and their L2 proficiency level were both regarded as independent variables in the present study to link with their noticing of recasts of two different target forms: English question formation and English past tense. Immediate stimulated recall, as a newly developed method in the present study, was used to collect noticing data as well as the use of traditional stimulated recall. The pretest-treatment-posttests design was adopted with two experimental groups and one control group involved in the experiment. The control group was asked to complete interactional tasks with interlocutors without any recasts provided. Two experimental groups were recasts groups with one of them attending stimulated recall interview after the immediate posttest and the other attending immediate stimulated recall interview every day immediately after the treatment and before the immediate posttest.
To find whether there was a relationship between WM and noticing of recasts of L2 forms was the first research goal in the present study. The effect of L2 proficiency level on noticing of L2 forms was another goal. While only a limited number of studies have investigated the role of WM in L2 implicit learning conditions, this issue will also be addressed. Finally, the effectiveness of recasts in instruction and the reactivity issue of immediate stimulated recall as a new method to detect noticing are two other focuses in the present study.
Research results found that there was a significant relationship between WM and noticing of English past tense but not English questions, which indicates that the relationship between WM and noticing of L2 forms may be target-specific. No significant effect of L2 proficiency on noticing was found. However, descriptive data showed a possible trend that the low-proficiency group reported more noticing of L2 forms than the high-proficiency group. The effect of WM capacity on L2 development under all those three implicit learning conditions was found insignificant. There may be a delayed effect of recasts in learners’ L2 development; however, due to the limitation in research design, this delayed effect may result from both recasts and stimulated recall interviews. Immediate stimulated recall was found non-reactive in the present study.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Dai, Binbin.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2013.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 174-192).
Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Abstracts in also in Chinese; appendix F includes Chinese.
Abstract --- p.i
Acknowledgements --- p.iv
Table of Contents --- p.vi
List of Tables --- p.x
List of Figures --- p.xiii
Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1
Chapter 1.1 --- Research Background and Rationale of the Present Study --- p.1
Chapter 1.2 --- Research Questions --- p.5
Chapter 1.3 --- Organization of the Dissertation --- p.5
Chapter Chapter 2 --- Literature Review --- p.9
Chapter 2.1 --- The Interaction Approach to Second Language Acquisition --- p.9
Chapter 2.2 --- The Interaction Hypothesis --- p.11
Chapter 2.3 --- Feedback in Interaction --- p.15
Chapter 2.3.1 --- Explicit and implicit feedback --- p.15
Chapter 2.3.2 --- Recasts and L2 learning --- p.17
Chapter 2.4 --- Noticing in interaction --- p.21
Chapter 2.4.1 --- Attention and awareness: Two theoretical positions --- p.21
Chapter 2.4.2 --- Recasts, noticing and L2 development --- p.23
Chapter 2.4.3 --- Measurement of learner awareness in SLA --- p.25
Chapter 2.4.3.1 --- Methodological innovation in the present study --- p.26
Chapter 2.4.3.2 --- Reactivity: Do recasts with post-task activity trigger more L2 development? --- p.32
Chapter 2.5 --- Working Memory and SLA --- p.35
Chapter 2.5.1 --- The role of working memory in SLA --- p.36
Chapter 2.5.2 --- Working memory in interaction-driven learning --- p.39
Chapter 2.5.2.1 --- Working memory and L2 development in interaction-driven learning --- p.39
Chapter 2.5.2.2 --- Working memory and noticing of L2 forms in interactional feedback --- p.43
Chapter 2.6 --- Research Questions --- p.46
Chapter Chapter 3 --- Methodology --- p.48
Chapter 3.1 --- Participants --- p.48
Chapter 3.1.1 --- Learner participants --- p.48
Chapter 3.1.2 --- Native speaker interlocutor --- p.50
Chapter 3.2 --- Procedure --- p.52
Chapter 3.3 --- Operationalizations --- p.57
Chapter 3.3.1 --- Recasts in interactional feedbacks --- p.58
Chapter 3.3.2 --- Working memory capacity --- p.59
Chapter 3.4 --- Linguistic Targets --- p.60
Chapter 3.5 --- Materials --- p.61
Chapter 3.5.1 --- Interaction materials for treatment and assessment tasks --- p.62
Chapter 3.5.2 --- Proficiency test: The application of the C-test --- p.63
Chapter 3.5.3 --- Working memory tests: Non-word span test & L2 listening span test --- p.65
Chapter 3.5.3.1 --- English nonword span test --- p.65
Chapter 3.5.3.2 --- English listening span test --- p.67
Chapter 3.5.4 --- Stimulated recall --- p.69
Chapter 3.5.5 --- Exit debriefing questionnaire --- p.71
Chapter 3.6 --- Data Coding and Scoring --- p.73
Chapter 3.6.1 --- The C-test --- p.74
Chapter 3.6.2 --- The WM tests --- p.75
Chapter 3.6.3 --- Stimulated recall comments: The noticing data --- p.77
Chapter 3.6.4 --- Task performance data --- p.80
Chapter 3.6.4.1 --- Developmental levels in English question formation --- p.80
Chapter 3.6.4.2 --- Error-free ratios in English past tense --- p.83
Chapter 3.6.5 --- Intrarater reliability --- p.86
Chapter 3.6.6 --- Interrater reliability --- p.86
Chapter Chapter 4 --- Results --- p.88
Chapter 4.1 --- Research Question 1: WM Capacity and Noticing of L2 Forms --- p.88
Chapter 4.1.1 --- Composite WM capacity and noticing of L2 forms --- p.88
Chapter 4.1.1.1 --- For two experimental groups as a whole --- p.89
Chapter 4.1.1.2 --- For each experimental group as an individual condition --- p.91
Chapter 4.1.2 --- Two sub-capacities of WM and noticing of L2 forms --- p.93
Chapter 4.1.2.1 --- PSTM capacity and noticing of L2 forms --- p.94
Chapter 4.1.2.2 --- Verbal WM capacity and noticing of L2 forms --- p.95
Chapter 4.1.3 --- Summary of Research Question 1 --- p.96
Chapter 4.2 --- Research Question 2: Proficiency Level and Noticing of L2 Forms --- p.97
Chapter 4.2.1 --- Proficiency level and noticing of both targets --- p.98
Chapter 4.2.2 --- Summary of Research Question 2 --- p.101
Chapter 4.3 --- Research Question 3: WM Capacity and L2 Development --- p.101
Chapter 4.3.1 --- WM capacity and L2 development in the control group --- p.102
Chapter 4.3.1.1 --- English question formation --- p.102
Chapter 4.3.1.2 --- English past tense --- p.104
Chapter 4.3.2 --- WM capacity and L2 development in Experimental Group A --- p.107
Chapter 4.3.2.1 --- English question formation --- p.107
Chapter 4.3.2.2 --- English past tense --- p.108
Chapter 4.3.3 --- WM capacity and L2 development in Experimental Group B --- p.111
Chapter 4.3.3.1 --- English question formation --- p.111
Chapter 4.3.3.2 --- English past tense --- p.113
Chapter 4.3.4 --- Summary of Research Question 3 --- p.116
Chapter 4.4 --- Research Question 4: Experimental Conditions and L2 development --- p.116
Chapter 4.4.1 --- English question formation --- p.116
Chapter 4.4.2 --- English past tense --- p.117
Chapter 4.4.3 --- Summary of Research Question 4 --- p.125
Chapter Chapter 5 --- Discussion --- p.127
Chapter 5.1 --- Working Memory and Noticing of L2 Forms --- p.127
Chapter 5.1.1 --- Different L2 forms --- p.129
Chapter 5.1.1.1 --- Developmental levels of L2 grammatical structures --- p.130
Chapter 5.1.1.2 --- Explicitness of L2 forms --- p.132
Chapter 5.1.2 --- Different measures of WM --- p.136
Chapter 5.1.3 --- Different methods to collect noticing data --- p.138
Chapter 5.2 --- Proficiency Level and Noticing --- p.140
Chapter 5.3 --- Working Memory and L2 Development --- p.145
Chapter 5.4 --- Recasts, the Immediate Stimulated Recall and L2 Development --- p.149
Chapter 5.4.1 --- Recasts, target structures and L2 development --- p.151
Chapter 5.4.2 --- Methodological implications: The immediate stimulated recall --- p.159
Chapter 5.4.3 --- Pedagogical implications --- p.161
Chapter Chapter 6 --- Conclusion --- p.164
Chapter 6.1 --- Summary of Research Findings --- p.164
Chapter 6.2 --- Limitations --- p.166
Chapter 6.3 --- Future Directions --- p.169
Chapter 6.4 --- Conclusion --- p.172
References --- p.174
Appendices --- p.193
Chapter Appendix A --- Research Participation Consent Form --- p.193
Chapter Appendix B --- Background Questionnaire --- p.194
Chapter Appendix C --- Instructions for the Interlocutors: Procedures and Tasks --- p.196
Chapter Appendix D --- The C-test Adopted from Dörnyei and Katona (1992) --- p.198
Chapter Appendix E --- Working Memory Tests --- p.200
Chapter Appendix F --- Exit Questionnaire Adapted from Sachs and Suh (2007) --- p.205

This study was an exploratory study of how student teachers represent the real life teaching problem of adapting their instruction to individual differences among learners and how their representation changes over the course of the practicum experience. The extent to which Cases' (1985, 1991) neo-Piagetian conceptual framework may describe the development of these student teachers' ability to represent this real life teaching problem was also examined. The non-random sample consisted of 39 intermediate level student teachers who completed three sets of questionnaires prior to and during the fourth and ninth weeks of the practicum experience. Twelve faculty supervisors also completed rating forms and observations on the student teachers they supervised during the same weeks. Student teachers' responses to two questions regarding aspects of individual differences problematic for teaching prior to and during the practicum experience were rated according to the levels of problem representation derived from Case's neo-Piagetian theory of intellectual development. Faculty supervisors' rating forms and observations provided a means of assessing whether student teachers translated their representations into action. An additional variable of interest to the study included the nature of the individual differences noted by student teachers. The results suggested that student teachers' level of problem representation and description of the problem increased in complexity over the course of the practicum experience. Also, that Case's neo-Piagetian conceptual framework may provide a useful theoretical tool for describing the development of student teachers' ability to represent the individual differences teaching problem. Implications for teacher education and studies of teacher thinking were discussed. The need for clinical interviews augmented by classroom observations made by supervisors trained in a neo-Piagetian developmental perspective was emphasized for future studies. Several research questions, related to the use and further development of Case's neo-Piagetian conceptual framework in the domain of teaching, were generated.