Journal articles on the topic 'Individualité – Aspect religieux'

The topic of forgiveness and reconciliation is one of the areas in Hegel's philosophy in which an uneasy tension between philosophy and religion, logic and existence, is most obvious. My goal in this paper is to illuminate Hegel's discussion of forgiveness and reconciliation in his Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion by examining his treatment of the same topic in the Phenomenology of Spirit. Previous commentators have discussed the political and social aspects of reconciliation, but paid little attention to its religious aspects. Similarly, commentators who have addressed the psychological and social aspects of reconciliation in the Phenomenology, have too seldom turned their attention to Hegel's full discussion of the religious aspect of reconciliation in the Lectures. In bringing these two texts together, I hope to make a contribution to the larger project of showing the relevance of the Phenomenology to Hegel's later works. Finally, I will suggest some limitations in Hegel's analysis of forgiveness and reconciliation.Part III of the Lectures delineates three levels of rupture and reconciliation: within the individual consciousness, among individuals of the community, and between the individual and God (215-251 ). This last level of reconciliation is the religious aspect and presupposes the earlier levels. To help understand the individual's reconciliation within himself and with others, which will be my main area of concern in this paper, we will now look at the relevant passage of Phenomenology of Spirit.

The relevance of the topic is determined by the second wave of the religious “renaissance” (after “returning to the path leading to church” in the 1990s). Russian and European intellectuals express their undiminished interest in the spiritual practices of philosophizing, now in the communicative environment of the Internet. The article discusses the problem of metaphysical understanding of “content different from being” in connection with the fundamental question of the German philosophical thought – the question of the spiritual self-determination of an individual, which basically means the transformation of the “positive” religious philosophy into the “religion of revelation”. The aim of the work is to clarify the nature, content and form of philosophical and theological constructs and philosophical and religious systems that explain the interaction of the “uncreated Spirit” and “spiritual individuality”. These constructs are drawn on the philosophizing practices of the German romantic school of thought. In this sense, there is no particular distinction between Fichteanism, Schellingianism and Hegelianism. The methods of the study are defined by the methodology of the sources themselves (adjusted for the difference between the research paradigms of the past and the present), with special focus on dialectics. Some of the hermeneutic methods were also used for interpreting religion as the “revelations” of an individual spirit. The study resulted in revealing the continuity between the “positive” philosophy of the 1820s and the 1830s and the romantic philosophy of the 1790s and the 1800s, which predetermined the epistema of the philosophy of religion, characteristic of classical German philosophy. The author comes to the conclusion that “positive” religion, ontologically significant for the “self-determination” of an individual (and correlating with the individual’s relationships with the world), in the gnoseological terms is close to philosophical cognition, which makes it a specific form of socialization.

AbstractGlobalization is not a new phenomenon, but it is being expressed in a new way. It is a phenomenon all over the world; not only does it have a deep impact on the economy, it also affects all countries, all aspects of our daily life, such as our society, culture, economy, and religion. The value of globalization is the subject of debate: it has positive and negative effects. Some religious problems have emerged from globalization: secularism, individualism, New Age religious movements, the rise of religious radicalism, and the growth of religious commerce.Theologians view their religion as a universal that can live inand adapt all ages all of the time and in any social surrounding. Their religion is weatherproof. According to this approach, theologians have to find a persuasive solution to global theological problems.

The aim of this article is to present the results of a sociological study on everyday life within a female cloistered monastery. This is a radical form of religious life, highly routinised, distanced from the outside world and conducted in community yet in almost total silence. By elaborating upon the concepts of everyday and lived religion, the scope of our examination complements dominant sociological approaches to the study of this religious phenomenon. By addressing the following research question: ‘Do cloistered monasteries de-individualise and totally regulate the life of nuns?’, we discuss selected aspects of everyday life in the institution and its contemporary transformations related to, among other things, new communication technologies and new generations of nuns. We show that in this highly institutionalised place nuns remain reflexive individuals.

Abstract The article deals with the ideas of humanity and morality as reflected in the works of R. W. Emerson, the main representative of an intellectual movement called American transcendentalism. It conveys basic facts about the movement and focuses on the key aspects of Emerson’s transcendental philosophy, particularly his concept of the Over-soul and his concept of Nature, which gave his humanistic philosophy a religious and moral accent. Due to it, Emerson’s religious humanism also became the basis of American democratic individualism. The article offers insight into Emerson’s ideas on morality and ethical behaviour, which challenge us to live in harmony with God and nature.

Food is one of the main requirements of human being. It is flattering for the preservation of wellbeing and nourishment of the body. The food of a society exposes its custom, prosperity, status, habits as well as it help to develop a culture. Food is one of the most important social indicators of a society. History of food carries a dynamic character in the socio- economic, political, and cultural realm of a society. The food is one of the obligatory components in our daily life. It occupied an obvious atmosphere for the augmentation of healthy life and anticipation against the diseases. The food also shows a significant character in establishing cultural distinctiveness, and it reflects who we are. Food also reflected as the symbol of individuality, generosity, social status and religious believes etc in a civilized society. Food is not a discriminating aspect. It is the part of a culture, habits, addiction, and identity of a civilization.Food plays a symbolic role in the social activities the world over. It’s a universal sign of hospitality.[1]

Present paper examines the processes of native Europeans conversion to Islam in relation to the Sufi communities in the West. It deals with theoretical aspects of the study of Western Sufi communities, the conceptualization of religious conversion and its motives, as well as collective factors and individual trajectories of conversion on the basis of own field research in the Sufi communities in Western Europe and materials presented in the relevant studies. The paper shows that conversion to Islam through Sufi communities is characterized by the transition from religious individualism to collectively shared normativity, while the charisma of the shaykh largely determines the collective identity of the community and affects the life trajectories of its members.

Despite the evidence of a progressive disenchantment, the religious sphere maintains a strong grip on current societies though undertaking some transformations. Pluralism, individualism and privatization are three features we cannot ignore if we choose to study religion in the contemporary world and, more broadly, if we choose to study modernity. The aim of this article is to illustrate some features of the different forms of religiosity in the secular age (Taylor, 2007). We have focused on modern Catholicism, with particular reference to religious experience in the Catholic lay group. The stories of Catholic militants show that the motivation behind their choice is the crucial factor to analyze their religious experience and worldview. In this sense, we will try to reflect on some indicators that can help us to understand the resources and limits of the contemporary Catholic pluralism and the aspects of the ‘modern desire for God’ (Abbruzzese, 2010).

AbstractClark Pinnock provides a rich resource to consider various constructive aspects of ecclesiology for Pentecostals. In response to his address, this article attempts to construct a rough sketch of one possible ecclesiology, focusing on the nature of the church from a Trinitarian Pentecostal perspective as a people of God’s presence and power. It investigates the idea of ‘power ecclesiology’ that was raised by Pinnock. It concludes by examining the challenges of appropriate structures in the church and the predominant problem of individualism in North American culture.

AbstractBoth literary theory and biblical narrative criticism lack an articulate, comprehensive theory of character. Many Gospel critics perceive character in the Hebrew Bible (where characters can develop) to be radically different from that in ancient Greek literature (where characters are supposedly consistent ethical types). Most people also sharply distinguish between modern fiction and its psychological, individualistic approach to character and ancient characterization where character lacks personality or individuality. In Part I, we examine concepts of character in ancient Hebrew and Greek literature as well as modern fiction, arguing that although there are differences in characterization, these are differences in emphases rather than kind. It is better to speak of degrees of characterization along a continuum. In Part II, we develop a comprehensive theory of character in the Fourth Gospel, consisting of three aspects. First, we study character in text and context, using information in the text and other sources. Second, we analyze and classify the Johannine characters along three dimensions (complexity, development, inner life), and plot the resulting character on a continuum of degree of characterization (from agent to type to personality to individuality). We observe that many Johannine characters are more complex and round than has been believed so far. Third, we analyze and evaluate the characters' responses to Jesus in relation to the Fourth Evangelist's evaluative point of view, purpose and dualistic worldview.

<p class="AbstrakAGC"><span lang="NL">This paper aims to explore the moral and spiritual dimensions of counseling. Since professional counseling has developed in the West, the cultural identity and individualistic orientation of identity has entered the counseling profession. Recently a surge of interest in spirituality and religion has been noted with several treatments focused on a new approach to counseling. The new approach shows that spirituality in life is central to individuals, families and communities. Therapists examine the relationship between spirituality and general psychological health. Secular and religious professionals recognize the paradigm shift from illness to health and from individualism to collectivism. Counseling that develops from the premise of such a therapist must be free of value. The emergence of an integrated perspective with religious and spirituality counseling views has resulted in a fundamental conflict with the prevailing professional value system. Counselors still want to avoid the role of a moralist. The controversy also relates to the firmness one wants, the therapist attaching moral and spiritual dimensions while advocating certain values. Psychotherapy, as a moralistic company, requires modification in its training program. Therapists need to change their orientation, namely as scientists with deep moral or spiritual commitment. Clients need and demand reorientation like this. This profession has a claim to respond to the needs of its clients and it cannot ignore the impetus that arises in practice.</span></p>

<span>Major historical aspects of the Japanese people reinforce their continued inclination to conform to societal norms at the cost of their own individualism. We look at this unique characteristic of their country, often referred to as a need for dependence versus the need for independence, with a historic perspective. We seek to identify these historic roots and its ramifications on the successful team-based Japanese management style. This paper examines the team concept as witnessed in (a) rice growing activities (100 BC to present); (b) religious influences, (500 BC to present); (c) the Tokugawa Period (1660-1867); and (d) the Meiji Period (1868-1911).</span>

God gave us the Earth, to use and enjoy. So says the Bible, and so says John Locke (1632-1704). The individualism and liberalism in Locke’s philosophy makes it decidedly modern and appealing to us today. However, he often uses God as a source of truth and premises in his arguments. This undermines the modern appearance and leaves us with a philosophy that is at times contradictory, at times brilliant, and at all times fixed to the anthropocentric rail that guides his philosophy. In this article, the element of Locke’s philosophy that concerns humanity’s relationship with the natural world is examined. Particular attention is paid to the value and nature of both biotic and abiotic nature. I argue that the religious aspects of Locke’s philosophy cannot be fully purged in an effort to create a pure rationalist, and this leads me to focus on how the religious aspects relate to Locke’s rationalism, and in particular what implications his combination of philosophy and theology carries for the prospects of a Lockean environmentalism. I conclude that such environmentalism has clear limitations, while still providing certain foundations for the idea of sustainability and scientific conservationism.

Background: Although human dignity is an unconditional value of every human being, it can be shattered by extrinsic factors. It is necessary to discover the authentic meaning of patients’ dignity preservation from different religious perspectives to provide professional cross-cultural care in a diverse setting. Research objective: This article identifies common experiences of Iranian Muslim and Armenian Christian patients regarding dignified care at the bedside. Research design: This is a qualitative study of participants’ experiences of dignified care elicited by individual in-depth semi-structured interviews. Participants and research context: A purposeful sample of 10 participants (five Iranian Muslims and five Iranian Armenians) from various private and governmental hospital settings was chosen. Ethical considerations: This study was approved by the ethics committee of Tehran University of Medical Sciences. All the participants were provided with information about the purpose and the nature of the study, the voluntary condition of their participation in this study, and the anonymous reporting of recorded interviews. Findings: The common experiences of Christian and Muslim patients regarding dignity preservation emerged as “exigency of respecting human nobility” and “providing person-centered care.” Discussion and conclusion: It is essential to recognize the humanness and individuality of each patient to preserve and promote human dignity in diverse cross-cultural settings. The findings support and expand current understanding about the objective and subjective nature of dignity preservation in cross-cultural nursing.

✓The seat of consciousness has not always been thought to reside in the brain. Its “source” is as varied as the cultures of those who have sought it. At present, although most may agree that the central nervous system is held to be the root of individualism in much of Western philosophy, this has not always been the case, and this viewpoint is certainly not unanimously accepted across all cultures today. In this paper the authors undertook a literary review of ancient texts of both Eastern and Western societies as well as modern writings on the organic counterpart to the soul. The authors have studied both ancient Greek and Roman material as well as Islamic and Eastern philosophy. Several specific aspects of the human body have often been proposed as the seat of consciousness, not only in medical texts, but also within historical documents, poetry, legal proceedings, and religious literature. Among the most prominently proposed have been the heart and breath, favoring a cardiopulmonary seat of individualism. This understanding was by no means stagnant, but evolved over time, as did the role of the brain in the definition of what it means to be human. Even in the 21st century, no clear consensus exists between or within communities, scientific or otherwise, on the brain's capacity for making us who we are. Perhaps, by its nature, our consciousness—and our awareness of our surroundings and ourselves—is a function of what surrounds us, and must therefore change as the world changes and as we change.

ABSTRACTPhilosophy and education are two things that cannot be separated. Philosophy is the basic foundation or direction for achieving the implementation and goals of education. Education aims to shape human beings in achieving complete humanity. Even Islam offers a concept of human beings, namely the prototype of humans who carry out their duties as khalifatullah fil ardh; humans who not only have intellectual intelligence (IQ), but also spiritual (SQ) and emotional intelligence (EQ). The problems that arise, complaints about the increasingly widespread individualist, materialist, and pragmatic nature of the community are allegedly because the modern education system ignores the basics of the value of education and only pursues material benefits. This article offers a solution to answer the challenges of education in the modern era which refers to the philosophical value of education. Especially the concept of the philosophy of Islamic education taught by al-Ghazali. In his education philosophy, al-Ghazali did not recognize the separation between religious education and general education without linking of them. There is no aqliyah term without including syar'iyyah. Cognitive aspects are not developed without involving affective and psychomotor aspects at once. Because faith, knowledge, and charity always go side by side.�Keywords: Philosophy, al-Ghazali, Education, Modern Era, Islamic Education

The presence of social networks has given a chance for social media influencers to emerge. Social media influencers creating and sharing content, endorsed or not, has become a growing marketing trend used by companies, as well as destinations. This article focuses on travel influencers who, with a help of social networks, particularly Instagram, are promoting local travel in Latvia. In this study, four emerging travel influencers and their posts were retrieved and analysed. The study results show that emerging travel influencers are trying to attract their followers by mostly sharing posts with landscapes and nature, art objects/statues, and nature activities/facilities. However, traditional artwork/objects, religious buildings/objects, and traditional or historic buildings are the pictures achieving the highest engagement rates. Finally, the study also relieved that influencers with a lower number of followers have a higher level of engagement. It is concluded that authenticity and individuality of account, as well as its organic, rather than paid growth, are the key aspects in creating a travel account that followers would engage (like, share and comment on the content). The theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

AbstractAlthough T.L.S. Sprigge described idealist philosophy as the stage beyond religion, his pantheistic idealism, while not itself a religion, offers a conception of God that seeks to meet the aspiration of human beings to understand their own place in the universe. While he shared with most mid twentieth century British philosophers a basic assumption of the primacy of experience, Sprigge took this strong empiricist assumption in a Berkeleyian rather than a Humean direction. This enabled him to find a place for the phenomenon of religious consciousness, which he saw as the source of a yearning that can be met by absolute idealism's conception of a ‘Whole’ that encompasses ourselves and all aspects of our world. He describes this recognition as the faltering adumbration of a truth – one that is sometimes encountered in aesthetic experience, and sometimes more directly in the lives of mystics. The metaphysical basis for this form of absolute idealism is provided by a concept of time in which each fleeting ‘now’ has a fixed and permanent place, and by a theory of identity according to which personal individuality is dissolved in a unitary ‘Whole’.

In one hand, modernity has fastened the development of science and technology, but on the other hand, it also alienates humans from their own spirit, caused by their exaltation on their industrial products. The effects of such condition occur in the following social and psycho logical symptoms: dislocation, disorientation and relative deprivation in certain social groups. In this context, da’wa has to deal not only with halal haram, but also with religious aspects of society and makes them a guideline to be adjusted to religious teachings. Da’wa needs to concern more on the aspect of mass psychology, with the emphasis on the principle of laa Rayba fiih in applying Islam, pathological treatment, and prevention of social deviation, as a result of modernity and laissez faire indi vidualism. The call for implementing the principles of bil hikmah, mauidah hasanah and mujadalah bi ahsan represents da’wa in its transmission, transformation, and socialization stages. Transmission deals with physical ap proach, transformation with social approach, and socialization with psy chological approach. They all present the historical facts, social-nuanced fiqh, grounded law, as well as prophetic mysticism. Modernitas di satu sisi telah melahirkan perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi yang sangat pesat, namun di sisi lain juga menciptakan keterasingan manusia dari jiwanya sendiri (alienasi) terjadi karena manusia telah mempertuhankan hasil-hasil industri yang dihasilkan oleh tangan mereka sendiri. Kemajuan pembangunan dan perubahan perubahan sosial yang diakibatkannya telah menimbulkan gejala-gejala sosial-psikologis; dislokasi, disorientasi dan deprivasi relatif pada kelompok-kelompok sosial tertentu. Dalam konteks ini, dakwah dituntut tidak hanya berbicara tentang halal haram, tapi harus lebih menitikberatkan pada aspek keberagamaan masyarakat sebagai gejala psikologis yang layakdijadikan kerangka acuan, guna disesuaikan dengan “tuntunan” keberagamaan yang hanif/lurus. Dakwah perlu lebih concern pada lahan garap psikologi massa, penekanan laa rayba fiih dalam ber-Islam, penanganan patologis, dan penanggulangan deviasi sosial, sebagai akibat modernitas dan laissez faire individualism. Perintah dakwah bil hikmah, mauidah hasanah dan mujadalah bi ahsan merupakan corak dakwah dalam proses pentahapan transmisi, transformasi dan sosialisasi. Transmisi merupakan pendekatan d}ahiriyyah-kejasmanian; transformasi adalah pendekatan sosio logis berfenomena massa, dan sosialisasi adalah pendekatan psikologis. Itu semua menampilkan fakta-fakta sejarah, fakta fiqh bernuansa sosial, syariat yang membumi, sekaligus tasawuf ala Nabi.

Transience forming life's very essence left an indelible mark on the creative explorations of Gerard Manley Hopkins and Walter Pater. The permanently indeterminable presence of mutability made both of them face the umbrous and unknowable aspect of death, thus revealing unto them the task of determining the role of art in life ruled by ceaseless corrosion. Pater accepts the flux of mutability as the primary particle in the revelatory act of the authentic creative experience. The power of that which is frolicsome in art augments the constitution of life's essence submerged in the unsettled condition of fate. Hopkins the priest particularly in his theoretic excursions recognizes in art itself only an approximate value to the timeless grandeur of God's ubiquity. His poetry, however, presents a dissimilar narrative. The poetic image that Hopkins forges corresponds to the mode of exposed individuality of the Romantic spirit, which Pater perceives as the harmony of strangeness and beauty. During Hopkins' student days at Oxford, Pater's relationship to the young poet was not confined to coaching only. Much of their time they spent in conversation, meditating upon the essential principles of artistic expression. Pater influenced Hopkins greatly and contributed impressively to the discipline of his poetic heart. Traces of this companionship do not find the path to Hopkins' religious ruminations; they announce their own existence, although very subtly, upon the individual levels of Hopkins' poetic yearnings.

The article deals with the issues, related to the problem of correlation between law, religion, morality and cultural traditions in the context of criminal behavior. The article analyses tendencies in determinism of philosophical-religious beliefs developed on the basis of centuries-long experience of Christianity, and their influence on the formation and development of the domestic criminal legislation. In her research the author founds upon such sources as the Statute of Prince Vladimir, the Russian Truth, the Code of Tsar Aleksey Mikhailovich. The author draws the conclusion that throughout the whole period of the Christian religion existence, the church and the state have never stayed apart from each other. The church has had a major impact on various aspects of social life, including formation of the customary law, which was one of the factors that seriously affected the development of the modern criminal legislation. Criminal law and the legislation of the pre-revolution Russia had gone hand-inhand with the Christian religion all the way up through the October Revolution of 1917, always finding from its ally spiritual support and canonic recipes to criminalize certain socially dangerous actions, and also to differentiate responsibility and individualize punishment.

Abstract Although the ‘mystical’ character of Ernst Troeltsch’s theological programme is controversial, the fact that ‘mysticism’ played an eminent role in his analysis of modern Christianity can hardly be denied. This article first spells out the different aspects of Troeltsch’s concept of mysticism (Mystik) against the background of contemporary theological and religious developments. On the one hand, the highly critical discourse on mysticism of the dominant Ritschl School is highlighted and on the other hand, the proliferation of all sorts of ‘mystical’ religiosity in Germany around 1900 is discussed. Secondly, it is shown that Troeltsch distanced himself to a large extent from the critics of mysticism. In fact, he takes the concept of mysticism to denote a typical, modern, individualistic form of piety and theology. Thirdly, attention is given to the fact that Troeltsch adopts the mystical terminology to describe his own position and uses it to develop his ecclesiology. Fourthly, Troeltsch’s view of the relationship between (individualist) mysticism and ethics is discussed. In his view, mysticism does not imply quietism, but an active engagement in church and worldly matters. All in all, this contribution underscores the importance of Christian mysticism for Troeltsch’s personal belief and piety as well as for his ‘mystical’ conceptualization of religion.

<div> </div><span lang="IN">This article elaborates on the role and movement of <em>murshid</em> as an informal institution in the tarekat, which is at the same time an integral part of the Sufism tradition. By using a socio-historical approach, this article identifies the intellectual movement of <em>murshid</em> in reproducing and reformulating strong beliefs as a connector of scientific transmission traditions (<em>sanad</em>), which are convened into two categories. First, the movement that interprets <em>murshid</em> activism in terms of their personal characteristics, such as their thoughts that play its function in regulating some religious aspects, especially as a reference for the followers. Second, the <em>musrhid</em> movement that links a structure into social functions, for example creating, disseminating, and carrying out culture. Murshid in this category is identified as the holder of scientific sanad that have vertical mobility to save the world so that it does not become a prison for individuality. This category of <em>murshid</em> charisma can be the foundation of the followers of the tarekat to avoid a lot of false information, the spread of hoax news from social media, and various other noises in this post-truth era.</span>

Cultural influence plays an important role in the association of attitudes towards science, this varies between countries because cultural context, including linguistic, social, political, economic, philosophical and religious aspects, determine and shape attitudes towards science. Cultural influence is the way we view the world. Learning, therefore, cannot be separated from its socio-cultural context (Vygotsky, 1987). Students carry their attitudes towards science into the classroom based upon their socio-cultural background influence. For example, Asian students choose a science predominantly even though science-based careers are less economically profitable because of their families’ important impact on their choice and science-related choices have a very great prestige within the Asian cultures. Whereas students within the western cultures are individualist and make attractive choices reflecting their personal enjoyment and skills to a more considerable effect. Moreover, in Turkish culture, science-related careers also have a great prestige and have been perceived as very important for the country’s development and therefore students’ attitudes towards science is very positive even though their performance on the PISA is lower than average. As a result of different cultures holding different attitudes towards science and science-related careers, there is a great impact upon student uptake of science and science-related careers. Key words: career choice, Christianity, culture, family influence, Islam, religion, science attitudes, science.

The publication proposes a set of theoretical and methodological approaches to the formation of a single philosophical and religious construction: "God – man – spirituality + freedom of will – active integrity of the individual – a holistic social system – a holistic philosophical and religious system", thus analyzing the emergence of a holistic personality, as the basis for the formation of a holistic social system, V. Zenkovsky's sophiology combines the process of functioning of two systemic projects – social and divine, it includes the realization of the relationship between God and a man on the basis of spirituality and freedom of will. It should be noted that from the point of view of the chronology of V. Zenkovsky's formation of the socio-economic project of arrangement of the social existence of European civilization, it is carried out in the period of economic decline and economic chaos of postwar Europe of the early twentieth century. Until recently, the implementation of such an approach was perceived as a social utopia, but to understand the need for such a way of unification, the global catastrophe of World War II had to take place. Similarly, the Ukraine’s desire to join the European family six years ago could be considered as the utopia, so we can state the praxeological aspect of the philosopher’s prognostic ideas regarding the formation of a holistic social system. The unique project's possibilities of a single V.Zenkivsky's "economic orchestra" as a free cooperation of European nations on the harmonization principles of economic interests, personal origins and economic individualism are analyzed in the article. The attention is paid to the new holistic form foundation of economic life, which is close to the type of family sociality on the basis of initiative and creativity freedom. Conducting such an orchestra continues to be one of the main problems of the current complex of relations in the European Union, ranging from specific amounts of aid to less affluent EU member states to the Brexit situation in the United Kingdom.

"The Imago Dei as an Interpretation of the Analogy of Being. Regular theological examination of human nature seems to be the exploding germ of a longer reflection and analysis. My expectations of this study, and hopefully also of the following ones, is that the crisis and uncertainty into which our churches have drifted can (and should) be the subject of theological inquiry. If we keep our study in the right trajectory, then, hopefully, a new light will be shed on the practical aspects of our church life as well. We need to show the world that the God we believe in has remained an active and immanent force in human lives and that there is a reason for a pure, diverse, and substantial unity of the world and existence. This monotheism, however, must be polar, in which the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit have their place as elements of analogy in the interaction of which the beauty and efficiency of service can be renewed and given a new meaning. This analysis implies a simultaneous two-way approach. On the one hand, it should be a God-centred approach that simultaneously embraces the realities of the horizontal world, and, on the other hand, in the vertical-horizontal pattern, it leaves room for a contemporary interpretation of the concept of analogia entis. I am aware that there has been an attempt to do this in the twentieth century. The reference to the dialogue between Karl Barth and Urs von Balthasar could serve as a good example of a fruitful conversation for the benefit of our spiritual and institutional lives. Together with Barth, the other “dialectical” theologian hoped and opened their dialogue in the hope of a “true rebirth of Protestantism”. The dialogues of the last century therefore must be the driving force behind the dialogues of today. Keywords: ecclesiology, relational theology, individuality, contextuality, God’s immanence- transcendence "

Contemporary art as a measure of social consciousness becomes a reference point for finding the boundary between the sacred and the anti-sacred, the aspect that acting as a mirror becomes a reflection of reality, and only at first glance, it speaks of identity but is not true in its essence. Through the semantic key of the symbols of mirroring and reflecting, in the knowledge of the true picture, from divine emptiness to holy fullness, a dialogue of contemporary Ukrainian artists with Kazimir Malevich is formed. The most powerful example of this dialogue is created in the works of Ukrainian classics Oleksandr Dubovyk, Oleksandr Roitburd, and Oleksandr Klymenko. On this path, artists are helped by the heritage of the Ukrainian ethnos, which harmoniously combines the memory of Trypillia culture, national symbols, traditions of icon painting, the school of Mykhailo Boychuk and much more. This article focuses on the sacred in the symbols of contemporary Ukrainian painting that absorbs the most characteristic signs, codes, and ciphers of the previous centuries, transferring spirituality into the 21st century. The transformation of religious symbols into contemporary ones, in consequence of building a discourse with mass culture, generates them into a new cultural code. The semantics of mass culture gives the visual material that forms the sacredness of the 21st century, which exists on the border of the material and the spiritual, as a reflection of the myth. The works of art by Nina Murashkina, Andriy Tsoy, and Mykyta Tsoy are a striking example of that. The sacred in which the mystery of real life is concentrated can endow thinking with a true, rather than an imaginary essence and provide a tool for solving the problem of individuality, freedom, and existence, which the new century is filled with.

This article studies the appropriation of Anglican choral evensong, and more specifically, dress at choral evensong, in the Netherlands outside the context of the Anglican Church to gain more insight into religiosity in the Netherlands. The authors explore the dress worn at choral evensong in the Netherlands and the meanings participants attribute to it. The concepts of denotational and connotational meanings are used as an analytical tool. In analysing their interviews, the authors came across three categories of meaning and function participants attribute to dress at choral evensong. The first category was the reference to ‘England as a model’. By wearing Anglican dress, choirs indicate they belong to the high-quality sound group of English cathedral choirs. At the same time, by changing the Anglican ‘dress code’, choirs emphasise their unicity and individuality, independent of church traditions. The second category was the marking of identity: choirs copy the dress from the English tradition, but add some elements to mark their own identity. Besides this marking of identity, aspects of unicity, uniformity, group identity, and gender-marking also play a part. The third category was metamorphosis and transcendence. Choir members refer to unarticulated transcendental experiences by wearing ritual liturgical dress. On the one hand the authors noted a ‘cathedralisation’ or ‘ceremonialisation’ of the singers’ dress, and on the other a de-institutionalisation, for example, in the dress of the minister, if present. The article’s main conclusion is that the fieldwork data reveal that dress at choral evensong in the Netherlands points to changing religiosity at two different levels. First, the authors observe a transformation in the way religion is expressed or ritualised in Reformed Protestant churches in the Netherlands. The popularity of evensong suggests a longing for other forms of worship, with a focus on ceremonies and Anglican-like vesture for the singers. Second, they observe a mix of concert practices and Anglican-like rituals, which the interviewees in our research refer to as a new form of religiosity. In both practices the traditional dress of the Anglican Church is used, whether copied exactly or adapted. A new phenomenon may be observed: choirs wear Anglican-like vesture decoupled from the Anglican Church as they are longing for transcendental experiences which they find in the musical-ritual form and high musical quality of choral evensong.

Проблема активности является одной из ключевых проблем человекознания, уделяется внимание теоретическим аспектам изучения активности в отечественной психологической науке, обозначены подходы к активности субъекта жизнедеятельности. Анализируется вклад психологов Пермской психологической школы в развитие представлений об активности. Исследование активности человека осуществляется во взаимосвязи с проблематикой интегральной индивидуальности и индивидуального стиля. Представителями Пермской психологической школы проведены теоретико-эмпирические исследования разных видов и стилей активности человека в условиях повседневной деятельности и в экстремальных условиях жизни: учебной, волевой, коммуника тивной, религиозной, информационно-манипулятивной, смыслообразующей, профессиональной. Научным продуктом сложившегося направления исследований в психологии активности Б. А. Вяткин называет представление о существовании в социальном мире Homo activus – человека активного. Обозначена актуальность изучения активности субъекта жизнедеятельности в условиях пандемии коронавируса (COVID-19), т. е. ситуации витальной угрозы. Данный цивилизационный феномен и обусловленная им эпидемиологическая обстановка внесли глобальные коррективы во все сферы жизнедеятельности человека, что обусловило необходимость адаптации к трансформирующимся условиям среды и пролонгированной ситуации неопределенности. Психологи отмечают не только негативные аспекты в сложившейся ситуации, но и позитивные, которые связывают с необходимостью активации всей психической жизни для преодоления пандемокризиса. В Пермской психологической школе для изучения активности субъекта жизнедеятельности в условиях витальной угрозы созданы теоретические предпосылки в виде концепции интегральной индивидуальности (В. С. Мерлин), теории метаиндивидуального мира (Л. Я. Дорфман), концептуальной динамической модели активности субъекта жизнедеятельности (А. А. Волочков), интегративного подхода к изучению коммуникативной активности (С. А. Васюра), разработан соответствующий диагностический инструментарий. The article notes that the problem of activity is one of the key problems of human knowledge, attention is paid to the theoretical aspects of the study of activity in domestic psychological science, approaches to the activity of a subject of vital activity are outlined. The contribution of psychologists of the Perm psychological school to the development of ideas about activity is analyzed. The study of activity is carried out in conjunction with the problems of integral individuality and individual style. Representatives of the Perm psychological school carried out theoretical and empirical studies of various types and styles of human activity in the conditions of daily activity and in extreme conditions of life: educational, volitional, communicative, religious, information-manipulative, meaningforming, professional. The scientific product of the current direction of research in the psychology of activity B. A. Vyatkin calls the idea of the existence in the social world of Homo activus – an active person. The article outlines the relevance of studying the activity of the subject of vital activity in the conditions of the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19), i.e., a situation accompanied by a vital threat, is indicated. This civilizational phenomenon and the resulting epidemiological situation have made global adjustments to all spheres of human life, which necessitated adaptation to the transforming environmental conditions and prolonged situation of uncertainty. Psychologists note not only negative aspects in the current situation, but also positive ones, which are associated with the need to activate all mental life to overcome the pandemocrisis. In the Perm psychological school for the study of the activity of the subject of vital activity in conditions of a vital threat, theoretical prerequisites have been created in the form of the concept of integral individuality (V.S. Merlin), the theory of the meta-individual world (L. Ya. Dorfman), a conceptual dynamic model of the activity of the subject of vital activity (A. A. Volochkov), an integrative approach to the study of communicative activity (S. A. Vasyura), a corresponding diagnostic toolkit has been developed.

The interwar period (1918–1939) on the Polish publishing market, was the time of mingling of the advice books presenting a conservative and progressive attitude to upbringing. Both in the publications recommending traditional educational methods, based mainly on strict discipline, and in the guide books promoting upbringing which takes into account the individuality and distinct character of child’s psyche – apart from guidelines, advice and information – one could find numerous words of criticism pointed at parents. Around a hundred of educational handbooks were published in the period of the Second Republic of Poland. A part of them were translations of books originating from foreign, mainly German pedagogical literature. Their authors were most often educationists and doctors; quite many books were written by clergymen. Advice literature for parents from the interwar period represented very different types. The majority of books were written in the form of advice or warnings directed straight to parents; large group were publications in the form of short stories, in which various problems and the means of solving them were offered; still others had a form of letters or memories, or they were collections of loose remarks concerning care and upbringing. There were also publications in which several of the mentioned forms appeared simultaneously. A frequently used technique was drawing upon personal experience or one’s own pedagogical or medical practice. That was presumably supposed to lend credibility towards the author and establish trust towards the methods of conduct he/she recommended. The scope of issues touched upon by the then advice books was incredibly broad. The advice was related to the matters connected with everyday hygiene and nourishment of children as well as moral, religious and patriotic upbringing. Some of the books were devoted completely to the selected aspects of care and upbringing, other, in turn, formed a collection of advice from many fields. A simple, understandable language of the majority of publications may attest to a broad audiences whom the authors of advice books from the interwar period tried to reach with their remarks and counsel. The far greater part of books was meant for both parents, and only few indicated mothers as their exclusive addressee. Those were primarily the publications devoted to hygiene and nourishment of children as well as formation of their religious attitudes. What is interesting, the reproaches concerning committed mistakes were always pointed at mothers as the persons who were directly involved in and responsible for the upbringing process.

The article is devoted to the analysis of modern Ukrainian researches about place and role of archetypes of Ukrainian mentality in genesis of national and cultural revival and development of the Ukrainian identity in the second half of the 19th century. Archetypes are studied as the source structure of collective unconscious national ideas, which are presented as common ideas, feelings, and stories, characters that determine social, cultural and religious traditions of ethnos. It has been found out, that within the framework of modern Ukrainian studies, integration of archetypical methodology with a research of social, cultural and spiritual aspects of development of Ukrainian society is rather slight but it considerably contrasts with the exceptional cognitive value of analysis on the domestic historical processes and events in terms of archetypes and mentality. It is shown that modern historians and social scientists identify the structural archetype components of Ukrainian mentality as factors and basis of national movement and Ukrainian revival. Modern historian G. Kasyanov determines a time frame for these events: the end of the 18th – 90s of the 20th century. At the same time, scientists pay attention to the fact that state, political and ideological conditions when Ukrainian lands were under Romanov and Habsburg Empires also influenced a structure of Ukrainian archetype. This fact caused some changes in Ukrainian identity, appearance of so called Little-Russians identity and syndrome of double loyalty (Y. Kalakura and others). Scientists consider that Ukrainian national peculiarities (agriculture, individualism, tolerance, democracy, love of freedom, peaceful nature, instability and inconsistency, lack of collective will and national solidarity) influenced the dynamics and character of state creative processes in different ways. These national peculiarities were driving force of changes and, at the same time, had destructive influence on state creative processes in imperial age. Historians believe that such fundamental principles of Ukrainian identity as archetype of motherland (agro-based production, social and historical, spiritual and cultural aspects) were formed exactly in the 19th century. In that period, such triad of Ukrainian mentality as House-Field-Temple, archetype of collegiality of ethnos and others has also emerged. The author comes to the conclusion that research of archetypes of Ukrainian mentality enables to find out the ideological source of those spiritual, national and social and cultural values and senses which became the basis for national and cultural revival in imperial age. Moreover, archetypical verification of modern public policy for the purpose its correlation to national, spiritual and cultural identity of the Ukrainians is of great importance for the progress and efficiency of modern state creative processes.

Šiame straipsnyje nagrinėjama tragedijos prigimtis ir tragiškojo herojaus istoriniai tipai. Tragedija suvokiama ne kaip literatūros žanras, o kaip mirtingojo egzistencinė laikysena visuotinybės ir jos ribinio varianto bei vienintelio jos duoties būdo – Kalbos atžvilgiu ir apibrėžiama kaip individo maištas prieš visuotinybę, kad ir kokiu pavidalu toji visuotinybė reikštųsi. Tvirtinama, kad autentiškiausia ir savaip vienintelė tragiškojo gesto forma yra įvykusi tik keliuose Graikijos poliuose ir iš dalies Romos respublikoje. Tik Graikija yra davusi gryniausių tragiškojo maišto pavyzdžių ir klasikinio tragiškojo herojaus archetipą – laisvą ir autonomišką individą. Nepralenkiamas tragiškojo mirtingojo pavyzdys yra Sokratas, kuriam gali prilygti tik tokios tragiškos figūros kaip Periklis, Aleksandras ir Cezaris. Krikščionybė ir vadinamoji modernybė sunaikina tragiškojo gesto galimybės sąlygas, autonomiško individo metafizinę paradigmą pakeisdama „asmens“, kaip Kalbos mašinos, taigi kaip Visuotinybės įgaliotinio, paradigma. Kalbėti apie tragediją religinio arba technologinio despotizmo sąlygomis beprasmiška. Antigraikiškieji Vakarai, lygiai kaip ir despotiškieji Rytai, neturi tragiškojo herojaus, tačiau forsuoja tragiškojo gesto ideologinį žargoną, egzistencines tragiškojo herojaus galimybės sąlygas pakeisdami kalbiniais tų sąlygų falsimuliakrais. Antrojoje straipsnio dalyje nagrinėjama Antano Maceinos, kaip religinio filosofo, figūra tragiškojo gesto kontekste. Prieinama išvada, kad Antano Maceinos figūra, nepaisant kai kurių su filosofine laikysena susijusių jo gyvenimo ir mąstymo elementų, geriausiu atveju laikytina melodramatiška. Lietuvių kultūra, palenkta religiniam despotizmui, kaip ir Vakarų Europa, neturi savo tragiškojo herojaus. Pagrindiniai žodžiai: tragiškasis herojus, visuotinybė, individualumas, maištas.A Tragic Hero and its Lithuanian Variety (A. Maceina’s Neolithic Apology with Paleolithic Prologue of Tragic Gesture)Arvydas Šliogeris SummaryThe paper deals with the origin of tragedy and with historical types of the tragic hero. Tragedy is treated not as a genre of literature but rather as an existential posture of a mortal vis-ą-vis the Universality and its marginal expression and the only way of presence, i.e. Language. Similarly, tragedy is defined as a revolt of an individual against the Universality in any possible ways of its manifestation. It is asserted that the tragic gesture, in its most authentic manifestation and to some extent a unique form, emerged only in several Greek poleis and partly in the Republic of Rome. Greeks gave the world the purest examples of tragic revolt and the archetipe of a tragic hero – a free and autonomous individual. Socrates can be Pericles, Alexander, and Cesar. Christianity and the so-called Modernity replace the metaphysical paradigm of the autonomous individual with that of a ‘person’ as a machine of Language and, consequently, as a representative of the Universality, thus destroying the very possibility of tragic gesture. It is futile to have any discussion about tragedy in the circumstances of religious and technological despotism. Though neither the anti-Greek West nor the despotic East can boast of a tragic hero, they still escalate the jargon of ideological gesture to replace the existential circumstances of the tragic hero with linguistic simulacres. In the focus of the second part of the article is Antanas Maceina as a figure of religious philosopher in the context of the tragic gesture. It is concluded that Antanas Maceina, despite some aspects of his life and thinking relatable to his philosophical posture, could be most treated only as a melodramatic figure. Like in the rest of Western Europe, in Lithuania culture is bounded by religious despotism and consequently does not possess a tragic hero of its own. Keywords: tragic hero, universality, individuality, revolt.

Sayyid Qutb’s influence upon radical Islamic movements during the secondhalf of the twentieth century is undeniable and has long been recognized. Recentinterest in the rise of radical Islam has led to a number of publications onhim, including a biography by James Calvert and several pieces that analyzecertain aspects of his ideology and writings. James Toth’s new text, whichpresents a general biography of Qutb, seeks to combine these functions byemphasizing the trajectory of his literary career along with offering a topicalanalysis of the major themes found within his writings. At the same time, Tothprovides a fresh and comprehensive evaluation of the career and impact ofthis famous Islamist ideologue.The book is divided into two main sections, the first of which describesQutb’s life story from his childhood in Upper Egypt through his secular writingcareer, increasing radicalization, involvement with the Muslim Brotherhood,prison years, and eventual execution by the Egyptian government in1966. The second section, which provides a detailed analysis of his ideology,draws heavily from his writings and is arranged thematically. In it, Tothtouches on such important topics as Qutb’s interpretation of Islam, his viewof it as a revitalization movement, his vision for an Islamic society and economicsystem, and his understanding of the Islamic state and history. The bookalso includes a lengthy appendix, with special sections that provide short biographiesson prior Islamic writers who influenced Qutb’s thinking as wellas summaries of his views on women/family, dhimmīs (non-Muslims livingin a Muslim society), and apologetics. It concludes with a detailed collectionof notes as well as a comprehensive bibliography and index.Rather than presenting Qutb’s move toward radicalism as a sharp departurefrom his prior values and beliefs, Toth seeks to ground his convictionswithin the context of his childhood in a small Upper Egyptian village and toidentify consistent themes that reoccurred throughout his career. During hisapproximately fifteen years as a literary critic, Qutb focused on poetry andassociated himself with the Diwan school of literary criticism led by his mentorAbbas al-‘Aqqad. This school emphasized modernity, individualism, andsecularism, three principles that he would reject later on during the radicalphase of his career. Yet he was always a person of strong convictions, onewho had an abiding religious orientation, an interest in pedagogy, and a some ...

The paper presents a comparative legal and comparative historical analysis of one of the aspects of the institution of the arbitration, namely, the election of an arbitrator. The contractual, non-state nature of arbitration leaves the disputing parties with a wide freedom of expression, including in determining the personality of a mediator or intermediaries in resolving a dispute. The paper focuses on identifying the key features that the disputing parties should pay attention to when choosing an arbitrator (judges). The Roman jurists established comprehensive and justified set of personality traits that an arbitrator should possess in order to maintain the general idea of the conclusiveness of judicial decisions. According to the norms of Roman law, an arbitrator must be a free person, physically healthy, with a developed intellect, with life experience, not tainted by immoral acts, not involved in illegal activities, not interested in a certain outcome of the case. In the Middle Ages, the system of mandatory requirements for a mediator in a dispute was reduced due to the simplification of public relations regulated by customary law, which was reflected in legislative documents. Priority was given to the high social stratum, ethnic and religious conformity of the judge to the disputing persons. In modern times, the freedom of litigants to choose arbitrators is almost absolute, taking into account the tendency to individualize the interests of the parties to the conflict and the inability to take into account all the particular circumstances of various disputes that could affect the choice of an arbitrator. Only when resolving economic disputes, the parties were guided by the judge’s special knowledge, which makes it possible to understand the essence of the property dispute and make a fair decision. The analysis made it possible to identify the continuity of the provisions of Roman law and the requirements imposed on the arbitration intermediary in the Middle Ages and Modern times. Historical comparison revealed a tendency to reduce the number of mandatory features of the candidate for arbitration, which determined the growing importance of the freedom of the disputing parties as the most significant feature of the arbitration court.

“Education is the basic tool for the development of consciousness and the reconstitution of society” -Mahatma Gandhi. In Kerala formal and higher education started much earlier than rest of the Indian states. Educational initiatives made the state the most literate one and placed it as well ahead in gender and spatial equity. During the initial phase of educational expansion, education got its prominence for its intrinsic worthiness and played the role of enlightenment and empowerment. Kerala has occupied a prominent place on the educational map of the country from its ancient time. Though there is no clear picture of the educational system that prevailed in the early centuries of the Christian Era, the Tamil works of the Sangam age enable us to get interesting glimpses of the educational scene in Tamilakam including the present Kerala[i]. The standards of literacy and education seem to have been high. The universal education was the main feature of sangam period. 196-201 Evolution and Growth of Cyber Crimes: An Analys on the Kerala Scenario S S KARTHIK KUMAR Crime is a common word that we always hereof in this era of globalization. Crimes refer to any violation of law or the commission of an act forbidden by law. Crime and criminality have been associated with man since time immemorial. Cyber crime is a new type of crime that occurs in these years of Science and Technology. There are a lot of definitions for cyber crime. It is defined as crimes committed on the internet using the computer as either a tool or a targeted victim. In addition, cyber crime also includes traditional crimes that been conducted with the access of Internet. For example hate crimes, telemarketing Internet fraud, identity theft, and credit card account thefts. In simple word, cyber crime can be defined as any violence action that been conducted by using computer or other devices with the access of internet. 202-206 Myriad Aspects of Secular Thinking on Malayali Cuisine SAJITHA M Food is one of the main requirements of human being. It is flattering for the preservation of wellbeing and nourishment of the body. The food of a society exposes its custom, prosperity, status, habits as well as it help to develop a culture. Food is one of the most important social indicators of a society. History of food carries a dynamic character in the socio- economic, political, and cultural realm of a society. The food is one of the obligatory components in our daily life. It occupied an obvious atmosphere for the augmentation of healthy life and anticipation against the diseases. The food also shows a significant character in establishing cultural distinctiveness, and it reflects who we are. Food also reflected as the symbol of individuality, generosity, social status and religious believes etc in a civilized society. Food is not a discriminating aspect. It is the part of a culture, habits, addiction, and identity of a civilization.Food plays a symbolic role in the social activities the world over. It’s a universal sign of hospitality.[i] 207-212 Re-Appraising Taxation in Travancore and It's Caste Interference REVATHY V S Travancore , one of the Princely States in British India and later became the Model State in British India carried a significant role in history when analysing its system of taxation. Tax is one of the chief means for acquiring revenue and wealth. In the modern sense, tax means an amount of money imposed by a government on its citizens to run a state or government. But the system of taxation in the Native States of Travancore had an unequal character or discriminatory character and which was bound up with the caste system. In the case of Travancore and its society, the so called caste system brings artificial boundaries in the society.[i] 213-221 Second World War and Its Repercussions: Impetus on Poverty in Travancore SAFEED R In the first half of the twentieth century the world witnessed two deadliest wars and it directly or indirectly affected the countries all over the world. The First World War from 1914-1918 and the Second World War from 1939-1945 shooked the base of the socio-economic and political structure of the entire world. When compared to the Second World War, the First World War confined only within the boundaries of Europe and has a minimal effect on the other parts of the world. The Second World War was most destructive in nature and it changed the existing socio-economic and political setup of the world countries. 222-

Education is a human right and essential for realization of all other human rights. It is a basic right which helps the individual to live with human dignity the right to education is a fundamental human rights. Every individual, irrespective of race, gender, nationality, ethnic or social origin, religion or political preference, age or disability, is entitled to a free elementary education. Hence the present study has attempted to find out awareness of right to education among secondary school teachers. The sample of 200 secondary school teachers was taken. A self made questionnaire comprising 34 multiple choice items was used by the investigator. It was found that both Government and Private secondary teachers have equal information regarding RTE, whereas Male school teachers are more aware of RTE than Female secondary school teachers Education is the foundation stone of national development. No nation can develops without education. The function of education is to accelerate the progress and development of nation. Education is the only means which brings about national integration. Educational achievement of a nation is also an indicator of national pride. During the pre-british Indian the indigenous secondary education was imparted in Pathshalas, Gurukuls, Gurudwaras and other religious organization. Education was banned for women and for scheduled classes and poor people. After sometimes Christian missionaries and East Indian Company established a few schools with the purpose of spreading Christianity in India. The first organized step to established planned primary schools of four years duration in India was established when Macaulay presented his famous minutes in 1835 with a view to popularize English education. In 1854 Woods Dispatch laid stress on imparting education atleast upto the primary level to the Indians. Later many commissions and committees were set up like India Education Commission 1882, Government resolution on education policy 1904, Gopal Krishan Gokhales Resolution 1911,Hartog committee 1929, Wardha Scheme 1938 and Sargent report 1944. All of them laid stress on free & compulsory primary education. After independence India adopted Article-45 directive principle of state policy laid down in Indian Constitution. The Article says, The state shall endeavour to provide within a period of ten years from the commencement of the constitution free & compulsory education for all children untill they complete the age 6 to 14 years. Kothari Commission (1964-66) recommended qualitative improvement for the purpose of science education, work experience, vocalization of education and development of social, moral and spiritual values, improvement in methods of teaching curriculum, teacher training etc. were recommended. National Policy on Education (1986) emphasized on two aspects. One on the universal enrollment and universal retention of children upto 14 years of age and another on the substantial improvement in teaching quality of education. In order to improve the education of school, Operation, Blackboard was introduced by National Policy on Education. The programme of action (1986) was laid down, the purpose of Operation Blackboard is to ensure provision of minimum essential facilities in secondary schools, material facilities as learning equipment, use of blackboard implies that there is an urgency in this programme. In India, the desire for compulsory education figured in the writing and speeches of our leader before independence. But for national development and national integration, creation of good citizens, preparation for life, development of character, development of individuality, adaptation to environment and making man civilized. India just implemented the Right to Education on 27rd August (Thursday), 2009 by 86th Constitutional amendent. It says, the state shall provide free and compulsory education to all children the age of 6 to 14 years in such manner as the state may, by law, determine. Today education is considered an important public function and the state is seen as the chief provider of education through the allocation of substantial Budgetry resources and regulating the provision of education. The pre-eminent role of the state in fulfilling the Right To Education is enshrined in 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural rights. With regards to realizing the Right to Education the World Declaration on Education for All states that partnerships between government and non-government organizational, the private sector, local communities, religious groups, and families are necessary. The realization of Right to Education on a national level may be achieved through compulsory education or more specifically free and compulsory primary education as stated in both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. So as India is first to made education compulsory and free for all. Formal Education is given to everybody without any discrimination of sex, caste, creed and colour. Education is the powerful tool. which accelerates the process of national growth and development. Moreover, economically and socially marginalized adults and children can left themselves out of miseries of darkness and participate fully as variable assets for their nation only with the help of education. Thus, education is a key towards a successful life. Keeping in view the importance of education, the secondary education in India has been made compulsory through 86th constitutional amendment. Moreover Right to Education has declared as fundamental right by this amendment under Article-emerge as a global leader in achieving the millennium development goal of ensuring that all children complete their secondary education by 2015 as set by UNESCO. The secondary stake holders for providing education are the parents and social authorities and both these entities have to be active: parents, by sending education is supported, thus, it is important that teacher should be aware of Right to Education. If teacher are well aware of Right to Education then only he/she can make the students to enjoy its benefits and motivate them to enroll in education. Moreover, if the teacher is fully awakened about the Right Education only then he/she will not dare to exploit the child.

Background. The problem of self-determination of an artist who apprehends oneself as a representative of a certain nation, but is forced to selfactualize in the cultural space of a multinational empire, remained relevant for a long period for the majority of representatives of the Polish creative intelligentsia. Among them, it is appropriate to recall, in first, Karol Szymanowski, whose creative development took place in a multicultural environment. The outstanding musician was feeling his involvement not only in the European tradition in general, but also in the Antique, Eastern, Polish, Russian, and, especially, Ukrainian culture, because his life for 36 years was related with Ukraine. The temporal distance that has formed between the eras, the changes in cultural paradigms that have now taken place, encourage us to rethink the approaches to the various cultural-creating activities of artists in past eras, to evaluate them from modern positions. If we consider multiculturalism in a positive sense – as a phenomenon of social life characterized by coexistence and active interaction within one society of many cultures, then the analysis of Szymanowski’s creative evolution in this context looks relevant for modern cultural figures. At the same time, in Ukraine, there has not yet been a steady interest of scientists in the work by K. Szymanowski, although certain steps are being taken in this direction: PhD theses by Anatolii Kalynychenko, Hanna Seredenko, Oleksandr Serdiuk, Dmitriy Poliachok have appeared that explore some aspects of the Polish artist’s creativity, taking into account modern methodological tools. An important function of stimulating interest in the creative figure of Szymanowski is performed, in particular, by the “Kropyvnytskyi Museum of Musical Culture named after K. Szymanowski” (headed by Olexandr Polyachok) that initiates various projects related to the popularization of Shimanovsky’s creative heritage, including holding scientific conferences and publishing. A significant contribution to the study of various aspects of the K. Szymanowski’s creative activity was made by Polish scientists, in particular, Malgorzata Komorowska, Zofia Helman, Teresa Chili&#324;ska, but their works are in a greater degree focused on the analysis of the musician’s creativity in the Polish cultural context. Objectives of the study. This article is destined to examine the creative personality of the Polish artist in a new problematic field. The purpose of the study is to identify the features of the creative formation and growth of K. Szymanowski in the context of multiculturalism. The object of analysis is the creative activity of K. Szymanowski; the subject, on which the attention is focused, is the peculiarities of cultural and creative attitudes formation, the principles of artistic activity, the means of cultural communication of K. Szymanowski in the conditions of multiculturalism. Research results. The scientific novelty of the research consists in the identification of little-known facts of the creative biography of K. Szymanowski and their new interpretation, the formation of new ideas about the specifics of his creative approaches both in composing and literary work. The important role of self-education in his creative development, the ability for self-development, conscious cultural pluralism formed in the context of multicultural conditions, a tendency to innovate (for example, intense interest in new artistic and stylistic trends) are emphasized. Attention is drawn to the originality of Szymanowski’s relationships with various cultural environments, with which he was closely linked by fate. After all, his formation as a personality took place under the influence of several cultures, the features of which were intertwined, coexisting in the everyday life of his family estate in the Ukrainian village Timoshivka and Elisavetgrad, the city of his childhood and youth. The significant influence of regular visits to European cultural centers and travels to the countries of the Arab East on the formation of the cultural identity of the artist is also noted. The analysis of archival materials, in particular, comments in the margins of the pages of books from the family library, showed the enormous influence of literary texts on the composer’s cultural identity. Szymanowski carefully read, thought over and discussed with his close ones literary works, various works of philosophers and art historians. Szymanowski’s archives contain notes on the history of art of Ancient Greece in French, the history of the culture of Ancient Rome in German and Russian, extracts from the history of the origins of Christianity, the culture of Sicily and the life of King Roger II, notes from the letters by Seneca, Leonardo da Vinci, Machiavelli, works of Novalis, studies on oriental culture, etc. The composer was fascinated by the ideas of the synthesis of cultures (Ancient Greek, Ancient Roman, Byzantine, Arabic, Proto-Slavic), of religious syncretism in various forms (Christian modernism, paneroticism, etc.). Embodying his creative intentions, Szymanowski went through a fascination with a wide variety of aesthetic ideas. In the process of realizing artistic synthesis, along with the idea of cultural syncretism, signs of aesthetics of romanticism and impressionism, symbolism and modernism, expressionism and neo-folkloric trend often coexisted and intersected in his works. As a conclusion, we note: the creative formation and evolution of K. Szymanowski took place in multicultural conditions. Realizing himself a descendant of the Polish gentry family, he was at the same time a citizen of the Russian Empire and was formed as a person under the influence of many cultures, which were intricately intertwined in the space where the formation of his individuality took place, which, eventually, determined the multicultural profile of his artistic work. Szymanowski’s cultural positioning we propose to consider, to a certain extent, according to the formula: “one of our own among strangers, a stranger among our own”, because his creative searches, in which the polylogue of cultures acquired signs of multiculturalism, were not always perceived adequately by his contemporaries, especially in those cultural centers, where the traditional values of the national culture were considered priority. The artistic, aesthetic and cultural paradigms of the 21st century turn out to be largely consonant with those that determined the creative preferences of the Polish artist, which leads to the actualization of the creativity of the latter in the conditions of the dominance of the postmodern situation in the contemporary cultural space.

If screening had been a drug, it would have been withdrawn from the market. Thus, which country will be first to stop mammography screening? (Peter C. Gøtzsche) 1This issue of RBMFC addresses the subject of medical ethics, the backbone that should guide both the demands in health services and health technologies provision, as well as the practice of family and community physicians. As a stimulus for reflection, the Debate section tackles the “Preventive mandatory mammography” policy in Uruguay, while in the Section Essays, Jamoulle and Gomez discuss the concept of quaternary prevention: action that aims to offer ethically acceptable alternatives to patients in order to prevent the excess of medical interventions.2 Despite considerable technological and social transformations that directly affect people’s health, ethics in medicine continues to morally shape health problems and health policy decisions with implications for patients, physicians and health institutions.In a practical analytical and easy to understand guidance for health professionals, Gillon3 discusses the four principles and scope of medical ethics: autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice. The latter encompasses the distributive justice, individual right justice and legal justice. These four principles provide a baseline for dialogue across different cultures, religious beliefs and political positions, as these principles are considered to be prima facie: a duty which is compulsory on all occasions unless it is in conflict with equal or stronger duties.4 Thus, based on these four principles that underlie ethics in medicine and consequently the application of the quaternary prevention, cancer screening programme will be critically analysed as a preventative strategy.Screening programmes entails the use of an initial selective tool or a sieve phase (i.e. mammography) to separate asymptomatic persons within the target population, that will need to undergo a classificatory or diagnostic phase - which involves a ‘gold standard’ for defining a disease (i.e. anatomopathology) – to finally offer patients a definitive preventive treatment for the condition screened.5 Since this type of intervention is performed on healthy individuals, the ethical requirements in the cases of screening programmes are very high, because the risks of damage are not balanced against real suffering (a clinically manifested disease), but are anchored in a potential future of illness and death. In this case, the principle of non-maleficence (do not harm) prevails over the principle of beneficence (the desire to promote the patients’ wellbeing), since asymptomatic persons, who perceive themselves as healthy, may have their health perception shaken indefinitely due to a biomedical intervention. The most often cited damages in the literature are psychological (due to the uncertainties of false positives, false assurance of false negatives, and borderline conditions that require a closer monitoring such as Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia - CIN I, II, III), as well as the physical consequences resulting from treatment itself, such as impotence or urinary incontinence, in the case of screening and treatment of prostate cancer.Since in the screening and/or health check ups the intervention is usually a ‘mirage-guided’ or ‘probability-guided’, it can result in ‘damage without the potential benefits’,6 as in the case of invasive procedures (to clarify ‘images’ or ‘positive’ exam results produced in the selective or sieving phase) which can result in complications, but the biopsy turnout to be normal. For instance, colonoscopy, laparoscopy, biopsies (liver, kidney, prostate), in which those procedures may end up producing complications (intestinal perforation, anaesthesia complications, major artery perforation, sepsis) with the potential to scale up into hospital readmission, with stress for patients and families and/or an even worse scenario: patients’ death with a benign finding. Therefore, screening programmes intrinsically carry the potential to convert healthy people into sick individuals at the population level, and consequently are highly iatrogenic and could be summarized as follows: “For many are called, but few are chosen…,” but many will need to suffer for to very few be cured.This is particularly true in the case of breast cancer screening with mammography, which renders physiopathologically insignificant cancers (overdiagnosis) exposing previously healthy women to significant damages due to radiotherapy. Gotzsche et al.7 highlighted important risks of adverse effects as consequence of radiotherapy, such as heart failure (27%) from circulatory cardiac damage and/or induction of lung cancer (78%). Furthermore, a recently published systematic review in the British Medical Journal8 on the adverse effects of cancer screening, found that only a third of randomized controlled clinical trials was concerned in measuring and controlling for potential harms of screening intervention. This article is very important because it has a direct effect upon the practice of health professionals, who cannot address security parameters on cancer screening interventions with their patients, since there is an information selection bias that emphasizes only the positive aspects of screening, for lack of controlling and monitoring of potential harms in most screening clinical trials.From an ethical stance, this context of uncertainty undermines the patients’ autonomy, creating false empowerment, since women do not have a more complete view on the potential harms and benefits of breast cancer screening programmes.9 To truly empower women and strengthen their autonomy for deciding upon interventions that directly affect their health, there is a need for information to be more transparent and also to reveal potential harms of the interventions. Moreover, the language used for the dissemination of information should be neutral, of simple understanding, culturally accessible, so that the users of the health system can better decide about their own health.3From the perspective of public health, distributive ethic justice, and limited healthcare budget - that any health system faces - screening programmes diverts financial resources - which should primarily be allocated to the treatment and care of sick individuals - towards healthy people, with the potential to produce new real patients, due to the damage of the interventions on healthy bodies, generating more costs to the health system and society in general.Fortunately, screening programmes are increasingly losing their strength, especially in Europe. For instance, the Swiss Medical Board10 found no scientific rational for the maintenance of breast screening programmes in light of current available scientific evidence. In Denmark, the rate of mortality attributable to breast cancer have not reduced due to the implementation of systematic breast cancer screening programme with mammography over 17 years follow up,11 however, it has produced an overdiagnosis rate of 33%.12 Similar trends in mortality over the last 30 years were also observed in the United States,13 as well as in Canada, the accumulated 25 years monitoring of the effects of breast cancer screening, did not render reduction in mortality from breast cancer, but resulted in 22% of overdiagnosis.14 Thus, to Peter C. Gotzsche,1 one of the world ‘s leading authorities on the subject, the best method we have to reduce the occurrence of breast cancer is to stop screening with mammography.From an ethical and scientific point of view,10 screening programmes should be discontinued or restricted to high-risk groups or very specific situations, and the focus of prevention should be redirected towards interventions on early-symptomatic patients, since breast cancer treatment has improved considerably in recent decades, and this is likely to be the responsible for improving the quality of life of affected women.1 The Canadian Task Force15 on preventive health care in their last update (2011) regarded as weak recommendation the breast cancer screening with mammography every 2-3 years in age group 50-69 years-old, because they considered the evidence for screening only of moderate quality. The Brazilian Ministry of Health16 also acted correctly in limiting the financial incentives for breast cancer screening for the age group 50-69 years.Therefore, ‘there is nothing wrong saying no to mammography’,9 because when acting upon asymptomatic healthy people, the principle of non-maleficence should override the principle of beneficence. Thus, the challenge left for family and community doctors is to individualize each case in this ‘sea of uncertainty’, sharing with their patients the often hidden potential harms attributed to cancer screening in order to operationalize in daily practice the concept of quaternary prevention.

The phenomenon of online bullying, which causes the victims a great deal of suffering, does not take place in a void, but rather it is related to the culture in which the bully and the victim were educated and to the context that gave rise to the bullying event. The current study constitutes an initial exploratory research that examined ethnocultural-religious aspects of online bullying in Israeli society. In particular, the researchers examined the influence of two variables on the rate of online bullying: participants’ ethnocultural-religious descent (Jewish, Muslim, and Christian citizens of Israeli) and the degree to which they believed in collectivist versus individualist principles. A total of 301 adolescents between the ages of 12 and 18 completed the following: an online questionnaire about cyberbullying, a questionnaire on individualism versus collectivism, and a questionnaire regarding demographic details. Findings indicated that the more participants’ cultural attitudes favored individualism, the less likely they were to be either witnesses to or victims of online bullying. These interesting findings will serve as a point of departure for discussing the online bullying phenomenon in the cultural and religious contexts of a multicultural society.

Despite the popularity of distributed leadership theory, the investigation of the micro-political aspects of such models have scarcely been explored, and insights on the cultural variety of distributed practices in schools are limited. The present study aimed to explore what micro-political aspects emerge in participative decision making in collectivist and individualist cultures. To this end, a multiple case study method was adopted, focusing on four Israeli public high schools. Schools were chosen to represent an ‘extreme’ case selection rationale: two non-religious urban schools representing individualist cases, and two communal schools in religious kibbutzim representing communal schools. The analysis shed light on three micro-political points of comparison between the prototypes of participative decision making in collectivist and individualist cultures related to control, actors, and stage crafting. The findings and implications are discussed.

It has been proved that after the Middle Ages a new philosophical and legal worldview started to shape, which ensured a significant development of the philosophy of law that enabled emerging individualism. In the philosophy of the Renaissance, the problem of individualism changed its vector from the objective world to all spheres of social life that led to a rise of individual consciousness, causing human’s discovery of itself as a subject of activity. It has been established that the changes also occurred in the type of thinking that moved from collectivist to new thinking focused on defending dignity, the value of an individual, showing interest to interpersonal relationships, respect to individual sense of being, increasing attention to the process of self-knowledge, awareness of individual notion of oneself. It has been proved that the Renaissance relieved a human from external authorities and gave him a space of freedom, in which new notions of human’s place in the world appeared: the role of the state in organizing public life, the importance of social and individual values in taking significant decisions. It has been found out that the reasons that contributed to the emergence of a new individualism in the Renaissance era, in our opinion, include: the replacement of Christian theocentrism with humanistic anthropocentrism; integration of aesthetic and moral ideas taken from the ancient world order; the exit of individual freedom of the subjective «I» from the category of universal, denying the fundamental foundations of the latter; growth of intellectual movement; formation of new economic relations based on the freedom of economic entities; growth of free market economy, raising the prestige of educated people; proclamation of the right to individual initiative, self-awareness; the rise of individual religious consciousness; affirmation of the priority of human nature over the immanent reality; human’s discovery of itself as a subject of activity and law; fast growth of interest to self-knowledge, awareness of individual notion of oneself, transformation of a view of human nature and its relationship with the social and legal aspects of life, significance if internal motifs of individual actions as part of social and legal evaluation of an individual, focusing on humanism. Keywords: individualism, individualization, individuality, personality, individual, Renaissance, freedom.

It has been proved that after the Middle Ages a new philosophical and legal worldview started to shape, which ensured a significant development of the philosophy of law that enabled emerging individualism. In the philosophy of the Renaissance, the problem of individualism changed its vector from the objective world to all spheres of social life that led to a rise of individual consciousness, causing human’s discovery of itself as a subject of activity. It has been established that the changes also occurred in the type of thinking that moved from collectivist to new thinking focused on defending dignity, the value of an individual, showing interest to interpersonal relationships, respect to individual sense of being, increasing attention to the process of self-knowledge, awareness of individual notion of oneself. It has been proved that the Renaissance relieved a human from external authorities and gave him a space of freedom, in which new notions of human’s place in the world appeared: the role of the state in organizing public life, the importance of social and individual values in taking significant decisions. It has been found out that the reasons that contributed to the emergence of a new individualism in the Renaissance era, in our opinion, include: the replacement of Christian theocentrism with humanistic anthropocentrism; integration of aesthetic and moral ideas taken from the ancient world order; the exit of individual freedom of the subjective «I» from the category of universal, denying the fundamental foundations of the latter; growth of intellectual movement; formation of new economic relations based on the freedom of economic entities; growth of free market economy, raising the prestige of educated people; proclamation of the right to individual initiative, self-awareness; the rise of individual religious consciousness; affirmation of the priority of human nature over the immanent reality; human’s discovery of itself as a subject of activity and law; fast growth of interest to self-knowledge, awareness of individual notion of oneself, transformation of a view of human nature and its relationship with the social and legal aspects of life, significance if internal motifs of individual actions as part of social and legal evaluation of an individual, focusing on humanism. Keywords: individualism, individualization, individuality, personality, individual, Renaissance, freedom.

This research focused on the strategic aspect to cultural acculturation in the art<br />of selawatan gembrung wich existed in the community and formed a cultural<br />system of moral values. As a valuable art, the existence of selawatan gembrung<br />is still needed in Ponorogo, Madiun, Ngawi, Magetan, Pacitan, and Trenggalek<br />Regency to counter the individualism as the influence of globalization. This<br />identification will formulize the socialization pattern of religious and good<br />character values in cultural acculturation within developing community and<br />will be useful for writing a module as a reference for better understanding,<br />comprehension, and implementation of religious and good character values.<br />This study is qualitative research based on sociology of religion approuch which <br />tries to reveal the harmonization between religion doctrine and tradition or <br />culture in community that is well known as acculturation in anthropology<br />and sociology. This study found the aspects of acculturation on text, costume,<br />gamelan instruments, and stage ritual of selawatan gembrung. Those aspects<br />have reformed this traditional kind of art into the well-being existence of

Abstrak: Melalui film, kita dapat melihat banyak aspek dari suatu negara dan zamannya: budaya, moralitas dan agama, dan itulah dinamika agama dalam kehidupan dan kematian. Film-film terbaik dapat menghibur penonton dan memberikan kesempatan kepada pemirsa untuk memikirkan masalah mendasar manusia. Dalam artikel ini, saya menggunakan okuribito untuk menganalisis dinamika keagamaan masyarakat Jepang kontemporer tentang makna hidup dan mati. Segala macam kehidupan yang menyertai kematian dan kematian itu sendiri diilustrasikan dalam film. Tentu saja, setiap adegan dalam film tersebut mengandung bahasa sinematik yang kaya akan contoh nilai-nilai agama. Jadi, saya menggunakan semiotika sebagai kerangka teoretis untuk menganalisis film yang mengandung nilai-nilai agama. Pengumpulan data menggunakan metode dokumentasi. Setelah data diperoleh, dianalisis dengan sistematis dan cermat dijelaskan berdasarkan teori. Hasil yang diperoleh bahwa dinamika keagamaan masyarakat Jepang kontemporer tentang makna hidup dan mati dalam film okuribito adalah kebutuhan manusia untuk berpikir untuk menerima kelangsungan hidup dan mati, di mana tidak hanya jiwa tetapi juga individualitas pribadi terus berlanjut seperti itu ada dalam kehidupan.Kata kunci: Dinamika Keagamaan, Masyarakat Kontemporer Jepang, Film Okuribito, Semiotik Abstract: Through films, we can see many aspects of a country and its times: culture, morality and religion, and that is the religious dynamics on life and death. The best films can both entertain audiences and provide viewers with opportunities to think about fundamental human problems. In this article, I use okuribito to analyze the religious dynamics of contemporary Japanese society about the meaning of life and death. All sorts of life that accompany the death and death itself are illustrated in the film. Of course, every scene in the film contains a cinematic language is rich in examples of religious values. Thus, I use semiotics as the theoretical framework for analyzing films that containing religious values. The data collection using documentation method. After the data is obtained, it is analyzed by systematically and meticulously described on the basis of the theory. The results obtained that the religious dynamics of contemporary Japanese society about the meaning of life and death in the film okuribito is a human needs for thought to accept the continuity of life and death, wherein not only the soul but also personal individuality continues on as it existed in life.Keywords: Religious dynamics, Contemporary Japanese Society, Film Okuribito, Semiotics

In this article, some of the most common objections to Misesian thought will be assessed from a Catholic theological perspective. Beginning with an analysis of the most frequent criticisms advanced against his rationalism, it will proceed to examine those directed against Mises’ conception of liberty and individualism. Finally, a review and evaluation of some of the most relevant objections to his economic understanding will be presented. Dwelling into the, more o less conscious, depths of all the philosophical, cultural, psychological or, even, religious assumptions of Mises’ vast thought, in order to fully tease out his ontological or moral foundations, would probably be not only beyond the reach of the present article but of any one single article, and hence is not attempted. Its scope is much more modest. It pretends to analyze these objections from a praxeological perspective, limiting itself to bring into better focus the possible incompatibility or incongruity, if these indeed exists, of Mises’ thought with freedom and reason. Keywords: Mises, theology, objections, freedom, reason. JEL Classification: A13, B53, P16, P16, Z12, Z13. Resumen: Este artículo se propone examinar algunas de las objeciones más comunes al pensamiento miseano desde una perspectiva teológica católica. Se iniciará con un análisis de las críticas más frecuentes sobre su racionalismo, para, luego, analizar las dirigidas contra su concepción de la libertad y del individualismo, respectivamente. Se abordarán ulteriormente las críticas más relevantes que han sido dirigidas contra la moralidad de algunos aspectos de su visión económica. En las siguientes páginas, no se pretende descender hasta las profundidades, más o menos conscientes, de todos los presupuestos filosóficos, culturales, psicológicos o, incluso, religiosos del pensamiento miseano, tamizando, de esta manera, completamente sus fundamentos ontológicos o morales. Su alcance es mucho más modesto. Pretende un análisis de estas objeciones desde una perspectiva praxeológica, limitándose a señalar la posible incompatibilidad o incongruencia, si es que existen, del pensamiento miseano con la libertad y la razón. Palabras claves: Mises, teología, críticas, libertad, razón. Clasificación JEL: A13, B53, P16, P16, Z12, Z13.

The postmodern era has an impact on different dimensions of the contemporary young adult’s social functioning which incorporates perceptions regarding religion and formal structures. This contemporary young adult refers to an individual between the ages of 18 and 25 years. Therefore the goal of this article was to report on research results regarding the perceptions of young adults on religion and formal structures. Within a mixed methods research approach, the exploratory mixed methods research design was utilised. Qualitative data was collected from 47 young adults by means of focus group interviewing. Quantitative data was collected from 1019 respondents utilising a questionnaire. Both groups were selected through the utilisation of purposive sampling. Qualitative data were analysed through thematic analysis, whilst a range of descriptive and inferential statistical procedures was used to analyse quantitative data. The findings indicated that the postmodern young adult displays a tendency to value conventional religious norms and practices, but the element of choice is of importance, as young adults seem to choose the aspects of religion that suit them. An increased interest in and a need for spirituality or a form of transcendence was found. Guidance by formal structures was favoured, but did not necessarily refer to ‘church’ or religious structures. The results illustrated that the contemporary young adult explores and experiments in terms of identity and lifestyle. Views and values seem to be person-specific and based on emotions and experiences with a tendency towards ‘own authority’ and an emphasis on the self. The rise of individualism which characterises the postmodern era has led to the creation of meaning by drawing on personal resources and on own personal moral beliefs and values.

In its preamble, The Western Australian Charter of Multiculturalism (WA) commits the state to becoming: “A society in which respect for mutual difference is accompanied by equality of opportunity within a framework of democratic citizenship”. One of the principles of multiculturalism, as enunciated in the Charter, is “equality of opportunity for all members of society to achieve their full potential in a free and democratic society where every individual is equal before and under the law”. An important element of this principle is the “equality of opportunity … to achieve … full potential”. The implication here is that those who start from a position of disadvantage when it comes to achieving that potential deserve more than ‘equal’ treatment. Implicitly, equality can be achieved only through the recognition of and response to differential needs and according to the likelihood of achieving full potential. This is encapsulated in Kymlicka’s argument that neutrality is “hopelessly inadequate once we look at the diversity of cultural membership which exists in contemporary liberal democracies” (903). Yet such a potential commitment to differential support might seem unequal to some, where equality is constructed as the same or equal treatment regardless of differing circumstances. Until the past half-century or more, this problematic has been a hotly-contested element of the struggle for Civil Rights for African-Americans in the United States, especially as these rights related to educational opportunity during the years of racial segregation. For some, providing resources to achieve equal outcomes (rather than be committed to equal inputs) may appear to undermine the very ethos of liberal democracy. In Australia, this perspective has been the central argument of Pauline Hanson and her supporters who denounce programs designed as measures to achieve equality for specific disadvantaged groups; including Indigenous Australians and humanitarian refugees. Nevertheless, equality for all on all grounds of legally-accepted difference: gender, race, age, family status, sexual orientation, political conviction, to name a few; is often held as the hallmark of progressive liberal societies such as Australia. In the matter of religious freedoms the situation seems much less complex. All that is required for religious equality, it seems, is to define religion as a private matter – carried out, as it were, between consenting parties away from the public sphere. This necessitates, effectively, the separation of state and religion. This separation of religious belief from the apparatus of the state is referred to as ‘secularism’ and it tends to be regarded as a cornerstone of a liberal democracy, given the general assumption that secularism is a necessary precursor to equal treatment of and respect for different religious beliefs, and the association of secularism with the Western project of the Enlightenment when liberty, equality and science replaced religion and superstition. By this token, western nations committed to equality are also committed to being liberal, democratic and secular in nature; and it is a matter of state indifference as to which religious faith a citizen embraces – Wiccan, Christian, Judaism, etc – if any. Historically, and arguably more so in the past decade, the terms ‘democratic’, ‘secular’, ‘liberal’ and ‘equal’ have all been used to inscribe characteristics of the collective ‘West’. Individuals and states whom the West ascribe as ‘other’ are therefore either or all of: not democratic; not liberal; or not secular – and failing any one of these characteristics (for any country other than Britain, with its parliamentary-established Church of England, headed by the Queen as Supreme Governor) means that that country certainly does not espouse equality. The West and the ‘Other’ in Popular Discourse The constructed polarisation between the free, secular and democratic West that values equality; and the oppressive ‘other’ that perpetuates theocracies, religious discrimination and – at the ultimate – human rights abuses, is a common theme in much of the West’s media and popular discourse on Islam. The same themes are also applied in some measure to Muslims in Australia, in particular to constructions of the rights of Muslim women in Australia. Typically, Muslim women’s dress is deemed by some secular Australians to be a symbol of religious subjugation, rather than of free choice. Arguably, this polemic has come to the fore since the terrorist attacks on the United States in September 2001. However, as Aly and Walker note, the comparisons between the West and the ‘other’ are historically constructed and inherited (Said) and have tended latterly to focus western attention on the role and status of Muslim women as evidence of the West’s progression comparative to its antithesis, Eastern oppression. An examination of studies of the United States media coverage of the September 11 attacks, and the ensuing ‘war on terror’, reveals some common media constructions around good versus evil. There is no equal status between these. Good must necessarily triumph. In the media coverage, the evil ‘other’ is Islamic terrorism, personified by Osama bin Laden. Part of the justification for the war on terror is a perception that the West, as a force for good in this world, must battle evil and protect freedom and democracy (Erjavec and Volcic): to do otherwise is to allow the terror of the ‘other’ to seep into western lives. The war on terror becomes the defence of the west, and hence the defence of equality and freedom. A commitment to equality entails a defeat of all things constructed as denying the rights of people to be equal. Hutcheson, Domke, Billeaudeaux and Garland analysed the range of discourses evident in Time and Newsweek magazines in the five weeks following September 11 and found that journalists replicated themes of national identity present in the communication strategies of US leaders and elites. The political and media response to the threat of the evil ‘other’ is to create a monolithic appeal to liberal values which are constructed as being a monopoly of the ‘free’ West. A brief look at just a few instances of public communication by US political leaders confirms Hutcheson et al.’s contention that the official construction of the 2001 attacks invoked discourses of good and evil reminiscent of the Cold War. In reference to the actions of the four teams of plane hijackers, US president George W Bush opened his Address to the Nation on the evening of September 11: “Today, our fellow citizens, our way of life, our very freedom came under attack in a series of deliberate and deadly terrorist acts” (“Statement by the President in His Address to the Nation”). After enjoining Americans to recite Psalm 23 in prayer for the victims and their families, President Bush ended his address with a clear message of national unity and a further reference to the battle between good and evil: “This is a day when all Americans from every walk of life unite in our resolve for justice and peace. America has stood down enemies before, and we will do so this time. None of us will ever forget this day. Yet, we go forward to defend freedom and all that is good and just in our world” (“Statement by the President in His Address to the Nation”). In his address to the joint houses of Congress shortly after September 11, President Bush implicated not just the United States in this fight against evil, but the entire international community stating: “This is the world’s fight. This is civilisation’s fight” (cited by Brown 295). Addressing the California Business Association a month later, in October 2001, Bush reiterated the notion of the United States as the leading nation in the moral fight against evil, and identified this as a possible reason for the attack: “This great state is known for its diversity – people of all races, all religions, and all nationalities. They’ve come here to live a better life, to find freedom, to live in peace and security, with tolerance and with justice. When the terrorists attacked America, this is what they attacked”. While the US media framed the events of September 11 as an attack on the values of democracy and liberalism as these are embodied in US democratic traditions, work by scholars analysing the Australian media’s representation of the attacks suggested that this perspective was echoed and internationalised for an Australian audience. Green asserts that global media coverage of the attacks positioned the global audience, including Australians, as ‘American’. The localisation of the discourses of patriotism and national identity for Australian audiences has mainly been attributed to the media’s use of the good versus evil frame that constructed the West as good, virtuous and moral and invited Australian audiences to subscribe to this argument as members of a shared Western democratic identity (Osuri and Banerjee). Further, where the ‘we’ are defenders of justice, equality and the rule of law; the opposing ‘others’ are necessarily barbaric. Secularism and the Muslim Diaspora Secularism is a historically laden term that has been harnessed to symbolise the emancipation of social life from the forced imposition of religious doctrine. The struggle between the essentially voluntary and private demands of religion, and the enjoyment of a public social life distinct from religious obligations, is historically entrenched in the cultural identities of many modern Western societies (Dallmayr). The concept of religious freedom in the West has evolved into a principle based on the bifurcation of life into the objective public sphere and the subjective private sphere within which individuals are free to practice their religion of choice (Yousif), or no religion at all. Secularism, then, is contingent on the maintenance of a separation between the public (religion-free) and the private or non- public (which may include religion). The debate regarding the feasibility or lack thereof of maintaining this separation has been a matter of concern for democratic theorists for some time, and has been made somewhat more complicated with the growing presence of religious diasporas in liberal democratic states (Charney). In fact, secularism is often cited as a precondition for the existence of religious pluralism. By removing religion from the public domain of the state, religious freedom, in so far as it constitutes the ability of an individual to freely choose which religion, if any, to practice, is deemed to be ensured. However, as Yousif notes, the Western conception of religious freedom is based on a narrow notion of religion as a personal matter, possibly a private emotional response to the idea of God, separate from the rational aspects of life which reside in the public domain. Arguably, religion is conceived of as recognising (or creating) a supernatural dimension to life that involves faith and belief, and the suspension of rational thought. This Western notion of religion as separate from the state, dividing the private from the public sphere, is constructed as a necessary basis for the liberal democratic commitment to secularism, and the notional equality of all religions, or none. Rawls questioned how people with conflicting political views and ideologies can freely endorse a common political regime in secular nations. The answer, he posits, lies in the conception of justice as a mechanism to regulate society independently of plural (and often opposing) religious or political conceptions. Thus, secularism can be constructed as an indicator of pluralism and justice; and political reason becomes the “common currency of debate in a pluralist society” (Charney 7). A corollary of this is that religious minorities must learn to use the language of political reason to represent and articulate their views and opinions in the public context, especially when talking with non-religious others. This imposes a need for religious minorities to support their views and opinions with political reason that appeals to the community at large as citizens, and not just to members of the minority religion concerned. The common ground becomes one of secularism, in which all speakers are deemed to be indifferent as to the (private) claims of religion upon believers. Minority religious groups, such as fundamentalist Mormons, invoke secular language of moral tolerance and civil rights to be acknowledged by the state, and to carry out their door-to-door ‘information’ evangelisation/campaigns. Right wing fundamentalist Christian groups and Catholics opposed to abortion couch their views in terms of an extension of the secular right to life, and in terms of the human rights and civil liberties of the yet-to-be-born. In doing this, these religious groups express an acceptance of the plurality of the liberal state and engage in debates in the public sphere through the language of political values and political principles of the liberal democratic state. The same principles do not apply within their own associations and communities where the language of the private religious realm prevails, and indeed is expected. This embracing of a political rhetoric for discussions of religion in the public sphere presents a dilemma for the Muslim diaspora in liberal democratic states. For many Muslims, religion is a complete way of life, incapable of compartmentalisation. The narrow Western concept of religious expression as a private matter is somewhat alien to Muslims who are either unable or unwilling to separate their religious needs from their needs as citizens of the nation state. Problems become apparent when religious needs challenge what seems to be publicly acceptable, and conflicts occur between what the state perceives to be matters of rational state interest and what Muslims perceive to be matters of religious identity. Muslim women’s groups in Western Australia for example have for some years discussed the desirability of a Sharia divorce court which would enable Muslims to obtain divorces according to Islamic law. It should be noted here that not all Muslims agree with the need for such a court and many – probably a majority – are satisfied with the existing processes that allow Muslim men and women to obtain a divorce through the Australian family court. For some Muslims however, this secular process does not satisfy their religious needs and it is perceived as having an adverse impact on their ability to adhere to their faith. A similar situation pertains to divorced Catholics who, according to a strict interpretation of their doctrine, are unable to take the Eucharist if they form a subsequent relationship (even if married according to the state), unless their prior marriage has been annulled by the Catholic Church or their previous partner has died. Whereas divorce is considered by the state as a public and legal concern, for some Muslims and others it is undeniably a religious matter. The suggestion by the Anglican Communion’s Archbishop of Canterbury, Dr Rowan Williams, that the adoption of certain aspects of Sharia law regarding marital disputes or financial matters is ultimately unavoidable, sparked controversy in Britain and in Australia. Attempts by some Australian Muslim scholars to elaborate on Dr Williams’s suggestions, such as an article by Anisa Buckley in The Herald Sun (Buckley), drew responses that, typically, called for Muslims to ‘go home’. A common theme in these responses is that proponents of Sharia law (and Islam in general) do not share a commitment to the Australian values of freedom and equality. The following excerpts from the online pages of Herald Sun Readers’ Comments (Herald Sun) demonstrate this perception: “These people come to Australia for freedoms they have never experienced before and to escape repression which is generally brought about by such ‘laws’ as Sharia! How very dare they even think that this would be an option. Go home if you want such a regime. Such an insult to want to come over to this country on our very goodwill and our humanity and want to change our systems and ways. Simply, No!” Posted 1:58am February 12, 2008 “Under our English derived common law statutes, the law is supposed to protect an individual’s rights to life, liberty and property. That is the basis of democracy in Australia and most other western nations. Sharia law does not adequately share these philosophies and principles, thus it is incompatible with our system of law.” Posted 12:55am February 11, 2008 “Incorporating religious laws in the secular legal system is just plain wrong. No fundamentalist religion (Islam in particular) is compatible with a liberal-democracy.” Posted 2:23pm February 10, 2008 “It should not be allowed in Australia the Muslims come her for a better life and we give them that opportunity but they still believe in covering them selfs why do they even come to Australia for when they don’t follow owe [our] rules but if we went to there [their] country we have to cover owe selfs [sic]” Posted 11:28am February 10, 2008 Conflicts similar to this one – over any overt or non-private religious practice in Australia – may also be observed in public debates concerning the wearing of traditional Islamic dress; the slaughter of animals for consumption; Islamic burial rites, and other religious practices which cannot be confined to the private realm. Such conflicts highlight the inability of the rational liberal approach to solve all controversies arising from religious traditions that enjoin a broader world view than merely private spirituality. In order to adhere to the liberal reduction of religion to the private sphere, Muslims in the West must negotiate some religious practices that are constructed as being at odds with the rational state and practice a form of Islam that is consistent with secularism. At the extreme, this Western-acceptable form is what the Australian government has termed ‘moderate Islam’. The implication here is that, for the state, ‘non-moderate Islam’ – Islam that pervades the public realm – is just a descriptor away from ‘extreme’. The divide between Christianity and Islam has been historically played out in European Christendom as a refusal to recognise Islam as a world religion, preferring instead to classify it according to race or ethnicity: a Moorish tendency, perhaps. The secular state prefers to engage with Muslims as an ethnic, linguistic or cultural group or groups (Yousif). Thus, in order to engage with the state as political citizens, Muslims must find ways to present their needs that meet the expectations of the state – ways that do not use their religious identity as a frame of reference. They can do this by utilizing the language of political reason in the public domain or by framing their needs, views and opinions exclusively in terms of their ethnic or cultural identity with no reference to their shared faith. Neither option is ideal, or indeed even viable. This is partly because many Muslims find it difficult if not impossible to separate their religious needs from their needs as political citizens; and also because the prevailing perception of Muslims in the media and public arena is constructed on the basis of an understanding of Islam as a religion that conflicts with the values of liberal democracy. In the media and public arena, little consideration is given to the vast differences that exist among Muslims in Australia, not only in terms of ethnicity and culture, but also in terms of practice and doctrine (Shia or Sunni). The dominant construction of Muslims in the Australian popular media is of religious purists committed to annihilating liberal, secular governments and replacing them with anti-modernist theocratic regimes (Brasted). It becomes a talking point for some, for example, to realise that there are international campaigns to recognise Gay Muslims’ rights within their faith (ABC) (in the same way that there are campaigns to recognise Gay Christians as full members of their churches and denominations and equally able to hold high office, as followers of the Anglican Communion will appreciate). Secularism, Preference and Equality Modood asserts that the extent to which a minority religious community can fully participate in the public and political life of the secular nation state is contingent on the extent to which religion is the primary marker of identity. “It may well be the case therefore that if a faith is the primary identity of any community then that community cannot fully identify with and participate in a polity to the extent that it privileges a rival faith. Or privileges secularism” (60). Modood is not saying here that Islam has to be privileged in order for Muslims to participate fully in the polity; but that no other religion, nor secularism, should be so privileged. None should be first, or last, among equals. For such a situation to occur, Islam would have to be equally acceptable both with other religions and with secularism. Following a 2006 address by the former treasurer (and self-avowed Christian) Peter Costello to the Sydney Institute, in which Costello suggested that people who feel a dual claim from both Islamic law and Australian law should be stripped of their citizenship (Costello), the former Prime Minister, John Howard, affirmed what he considers to be Australia’s primary identity when he stated that ‘Australia’s core set of values flowed from its Anglo Saxon identity’ and that any one who did not embrace those values should not be allowed into the country (Humphries). The (then) Prime Minister’s statement is an unequivocal assertion of the privileged position of the Anglo Saxon tradition in Australia, a tradition with which many Muslims and others in Australia find it difficult to identify. Conclusion Religious identity is increasingly becoming the identity of choice for Muslims in Australia, partly because it is perceived that their faith is under attack and that it needs defending (Aly). They construct the defence of their faith as a choice and an obligation; but also as a right that they have under Australian law as equal citizens in a secular state (Aly and Green). Australian Muslims who have no difficulty in reconciling their core Australianness with their deep faith take it as a responsibility to live their lives in ways that model the reconciliation of each identity – civil and religious – with the other. In this respect, the political call to Australian Muslims to embrace a ‘moderate Islam’, where this is seen as an Islam without a public or political dimension, is constructed as treating their faith as less than equal. Religious identity is generally deemed to have no place in the liberal democratic model, particularly where that religion is constructed to be at odds with the principles and values of liberal democracy, namely tolerance and adherence to the rule of law. Indeed, it is as if the national commitment to secularism rules as out-of-bounds any identity that is grounded in religion, giving precedence instead to accepting and negotiating cultural and ethnic differences. Religion becomes a taboo topic in these terms, an affront against secularism and the values of the Enlightenment that include liberty and equality. In these circumstances, it is not the case that all religions are equally ignored in a secular framework. What is the case is that the secular framework has been constructed as a way of ‘privatising’ one religion, Christianity; leaving others – including Islam – as having nowhere to go. Islam thus becomes constructed as less than equal since it appears that, unlike Christians, Muslims are not willing to play the secular game. In fact, Muslims are puzzling over how they can play the secular game, and why they should play the secular game, given that – as is the case with Christians – they see no contradiction in performing ‘good Muslim’ and ‘good Australian’, if given an equal chance to embrace both. Acknowledgements This paper is based on the findings of an Australian Research Council Discovery Project, 2005-7, involving 10 focus groups and 60 in-depth interviews. The authors wish to acknowledge the participation and contributions of WA community members. References ABC. “A Jihad for Love.” Life Matters (Radio National), 21 Feb. 2008. 11 March 2008. < http://www.abc.net.au/rn/lifematters/stories/2008/2167874.htm >.Aly, Anne. “Australian Muslim Responses to the Discourse on Terrorism in the Australian Popular Media.” Australian Journal of Social Issues 42.1 (2007): 27-40.Aly, Anne, and Lelia Green. “‘Moderate Islam’: Defining the Good Citizen.” M/C Journal 10.6/11.1 (2008). 13 April 2008 < http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0804/08aly-green.php >.Aly, Anne, and David Walker. “Veiled Threats: Recurrent Anxieties in Australia.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 27.2 (2007): 203-14.Brasted, Howard.V. “Contested Representations in Historical Perspective: Images of Islam and the Australian Press 1950-2000.” Muslim Communities in Australia. Eds. Abdullah Saeed and Akbarzadeh, Shahram. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2001. 206-28.Brown, Chris. “Narratives of Religion, Civilization and Modernity.” Worlds in Collision: Terror and the Future of Global Order. Eds. Ken Booth and Tim Dunne. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. 293-324. Buckley, Anisa. “Should We Allow Sharia Law?” Sunday Herald Sun 10 Feb. 2008. 8 March 2008 < http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,231869735000117,00.html >.Bush, George. W. “President Outlines War Effort: Remarks by the President at the California Business Association Breakfast.” California Business Association 2001. 17 April 2007 < http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/10/20011017-15.html >.———. “Statement by the President in His Address to the Nation”. 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Bush’s Discourse.” Discourse and Society 18 (2007): 123- 37.Green, Lelia. “Did the World Really Change on 9/11?” Australian Journal of Communication 29.2 (2002): 1-14.Herald Sun. “Readers’ Comments: Should We Allow Sharia Law?” Herald Sun Online Feb. 2008. 8 March 2008. < http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/comments/0,22023,23186973-5000117,00.html >.Humphries, David. “Live Here, Be Australian.” The Sydney Morning Herald 25 Feb. 2006, 1 ed.Hutcheson, John S., David Domke, Andre Billeaudeaux, and Philip Garland. “U.S. National Identity, Political Elites, and Patriotic Press Following September 11.” Political Communication 21.1 (2004): 27-50.Kymlicka, Will. “Liberal Individualism and Liberal Neutrality.” Ethics 99.4 (1989): 883-905.Modood, Tariq. “Establishment, Multiculturalism and British Citizenship.” The Political Quarterly (1994): 53-74.Osuri, Goldie, and Subhabrata B. Banerjee. “White Diasporas: Media Representations of September 11 and the Unbearable Whiteness of Being in Australia.” Social Semiotics 14.2 (2004): 151- 71.Rawls, John. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1971.Said, Edward. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books 1978.Western Australian Charter of Multiculturalism. WA: Government of Western Australia, Nov. 2004. 11 March 2008 < http://www.equalopportunity.wa.gov.au/pdf/wa_charter_multiculturalism.pdf >.Yousif, Ahmad. “Islam, Minorities and Religious Freedom: A Challenge to Modern Theory of Pluralism.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 20.1 (2000): 30-43.

Introduction The decline of marriage in the West has been extensively researched over the last three decades (Carmichael and Whittaker; de Vaus; Coontz; Beck-Gernshein). Indeed, it was fears that the institution would be further eroded by the legalisation of same sex unions internationally that provided the impetus for the Australian government to amend the Marriage Act (1961). These amendments in 2004 sought to strengthen marriage by explicitly defining, for the first time, marriage as a legal partnership between one man and one woman. The subsequent heated debates over the discriminatory nature of this definition have been illuminating, particularly in the way they have highlighted the ongoing social significance of marriage, even at a time it is seen to be in decline. Demographic research about partnering practices (Carmichael and Whittaker; Simons; Parker; Penman) indicates that contemporary marriages are more temporary, fragile and uncertain than in previous generations. Modern marriages are now less about a permanent and “inescapable” union between a dominant man and a submissive female for the purposes of authorised sex, legal progeny and financial security, and more about a commitment between two social equals for the mutual exchange of affection and companionship (Croome). Less research is available, however, about how couples themselves reconcile the inherited constructions of romantic love as selfless and unending, with trends that clearly indicate that romantic love is not forever, ideal or exclusive. Civil marriage ceremonies provide one source of data about representations of love. Civil unions constituted almost 70 per cent of all marriages in Australia in 2010, according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics. The civil marriage ceremony has both a legal and symbolic role. It is a legal contract insofar as it prescribes a legal arrangement with certain rights and responsibilities between two consenting adults and outlines an expectation that marriage is voluntarily entered into for life. The ceremony is also a public ritual that requires couples to take what are usually private feelings for each other and turn them into a public performance as a way of legitimating their relationship. Consistent with the conventions of performance, couples generally customise the rest of the ceremony by telling the story of their courtship, and in so doing they often draw upon the language and imagery of the Western Romantic tradition to convey the personal meaning and social significance of their decision. This paper explores how couples construct the idea of love in their relationship, first by examining the western history of romantic love and then by looking at how this discourse is invoked by Australians in the course of developing civil marriage ceremonies in collaboration with the author. A History of Romantic Love There are many definitions of romantic love, but all share similar elements including an intense emotional and physical attraction, an idealisation of each other, and a desire for an enduring and unending commitment that can overcome all obstacles (Gottschall and Nordlund; Janowiak and Fischer). Romantic love has historically been associated with heightened passions and intense almost irrational or adolescent feelings. Charles Lindholm’s list of clichés that accompany the idea of romantic love include: “love is blind, love overwhelms, a life without love is not worth living, marriage should be for love alone and anything less is worthless and a sham” (5). These elements, which invoke love as sacred, unending and unique, perpetuate past cultural associations of the term. Romantic love was first documented in Ancient Rome where intense feelings were seen as highly suspect and a threat to the stability of the family, which was the primary economic, social and political unit. Roman historian Plutarch viewed romantic love based upon strong personal attraction as disruptive to the family, and he expressed a fear that romantic love would become the norm for Romans (Lantz 352). During the Middle Ages romantic love emerged as courtly love and, once again, the conventions that shaped its expression grew out of an effort to control excessive emotions and sublimate sexual desire, which were seen as threats to social stability. Courtly love, according to Marilyn Yalom, was seen as an “irresistible and inexhaustible passion; a fatal love that overcomes suffering and even death” (66). Feudal social structures had grounded marriage in property, while the Catholic Church had declared marriage a sacrament and a ceremony through which God’s grace could be obtained. In this context courtly love emerged as a way of dealing with the conflict between the individual and family choices over the martial partner. Courtly love is about a pure ideal of love in which the knight serves his unattainable lady, and, by carrying out feats in her honour, reaches spiritual perfection. The focus on the aesthetic ideal was a way to fulfil male and female emotional needs outside of marriage, while avoiding adultery. Romantic love re-appeared again in the mid-eighteenth century, but this time it was associated with marriage. Intellectuals and writers led the trend normalising romantic love in marriage as a reaction to the Enlightenment’s valorisation of reason, science and materialism over emotion. Romantics objected to the pragmatism and functionality induced by industrialisation, which they felt destroyed the idea of the mysterious and transcendental nature of love, which could operate as a form of secular salvation. Love could not be bought or sold, argued the Romantics, “it is mysterious, true and deep, spontaneous and compelling” (Lindholm 5). Romantic love also emerged as an expression of the personal autonomy and individualisation that accompanied the rise of industrial society. As Lanz suggests, romantic love was part of the critical reflexivity of the Enlightenment and a growing belief that individuals could find self actualisation through the expression and expansion of their “emotional and intellectual capacities in union with another” (354). Thus it was romantic love, which privileges the feelings and wishes of an individual in mate selection, that came to be seen as a bid for freedom by the offspring of the growing middle classes coerced into marriage for financial or property reasons. Throughout the 19th century romantic love was seen as a solution to the dehumanising forces of industrialisation and urbanisation. The growth of the competitive workplace—which required men to operate in a restrained and rational manner—saw an increase in the search for emotional support and intimacy within the domestic domain. It has been argued that “love was the central preoccupation of middle class men from the 1830s until the end of the 19th century” (Stearns and Knapp 771). However, the idealisation of the aesthetic and purity of love impacted marriage relations by casting the wife as pure and marital sex as a duty. As a result, husbands pursued sexual and romantic relationships outside marriage. It should be noted that even though love became cemented as the basis for marriage in the 19th century, romantic love was still viewed suspiciously by religious groups who saw strong affection between couples as an erosion of the fundamental role of the husband in disciplining his wife. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries romantic love was further impacted by urbanisation and migration, which undermined the emotional support provided by extended families. According to Stephanie Coontz, it was the growing independence and mobility of couples that saw romantic love in marriage consolidated as the place in which an individual’s emotional and social needs could be fully satisfied. Coontz says that the idea that women could only be fulfilled through marriage, and that men needed women to organise their social life, reached its heights in the 1950s (25-30). Changes occurred to the structure of marriage in the 1960s when control over fertility meant that sex was available outside of marriage. Education, equality and feminism also saw women reject marriage as their only option for fulfilment. Changes to Family Law Acts in western jurisdictions in the 1970s provided for no-fault divorce, and as divorce lost its stigma it became acceptable for women to leave failing marriages. These social shifts removed institutional controls on marriage and uncoupled the original sexual, emotional and financial benefits packaged into marriage. The resulting individualisation of personal lifestyle choices for men and women disrupted romantic conventions, and according to James Dowd romantic love came to be seen as an “investment” in the “future” that must be “approached carefully and rationally” (552). It therefore became increasingly difficult to sustain the idea of love as a powerful, mysterious and divine force beyond reason. Methodology In seeking to understand how contemporary partnering practices are reconstituting romantic love, I draw upon anecdotal data gathered over a nine-year period from my experiences as a marriage celebrant. In the course of personalising marriage ceremonies, I pose a series of questions designed to assist couples to explain the significance of their relationship. I generally ask brides and grooms why they love their fiancé, why they want to legalise their relationship, what they most treasure about their partner, and how their lives have been changed by their relationship. These questions help couples to reflexively interrogate their own relationship, and by talking about their commitment in concrete terms, they produce the images and descriptions that can be used to describe for guests the internal motivations and sentiments that have led to their decision to marry. I have had couples, when prompted to explain how they know the other person loves them say, in effect: “I know that he loves me because he brings me a cup of coffee every morning” or “I know that she loves me because she takes care of me so well.” These responses are grounded in a realism that helps to convey a sense of sincerity and authenticity about the relationship to the couple’s guests. This realism also helps to address the cynicism about the plausibility of enduring love. The brides and grooms in this sample of 300 couples were a socially, culturally and economically diverse group, and they provided a wide variety of responses ranging from deeply nuanced insights into the nature of their relationship, to admissions that their feelings were so private and deeply felt that words were insufficient to convey their significance. Reoccurring themes, however, emerged across the cases, and it is evident that even as marriage partnerships may be entered into for a variety of reasons, romantic love remains the mechanism by which couples talk of their feelings for each other. Australian Love and Marriage Australians' attitudes to romantic love and marriage have, understandably, been shaped by western understandings of romantic love. It is evident, however, that the demands of late modern capitalist society, with its increased literacy, economic independence and sexual equality between men and women, have produced marriage as a negotiable contract between social equals. For some, like Carol Pateman, this sense of equality within marriage may be illusory. Nonetheless, the drive for individual self-fulfilment by both the bride and groom produces a raft of challenges to traditional ideas of marriage as couples struggle to find a balance between independence and intimacy; between family and career; and between pursuing personal goals and the goals of their partners. This shift in the nature of marriage has implications for the “quest for undying romantic love,” which according to Anthony Giddens has been replaced by other forms of relationship, "each entered into for its own sake, for what can be derived by each person from a sustained association with another; and which is continued only in so far as it is thought by both parties to deliver enough satisfactions for each individual to stay within it” (qtd. in Lindholm 6). The impact of these social changes on the nature of romantic love in marriage is evident in how couples talk about their relationship in the course of preparing a ceremony. Many couples describe the person they are marrying as their best friend, and friendship is central to their commitment. This description supports research by V.K. Oppenheimer which indicates that many contemporary couples have a more “egalitarian collaborative approach to marriage” (qtd. in Carmichael and Whittaker 25). It is also standard for couples to note in ceremonies that they make each other happy and contented, with many commenting upon how their partners have helped to bring focus and perspective to their work-oriented lives. These comments tend to invoke marriage as a refuge from the isolation, competition, and dehumanising elements of workplaces. Since emotional support is central to the marriage contract, it is not surprising that care for each other is another reoccurring theme in ceremonies. Many brides and grooms not only explicitly say they are well taken care of by their partner, but also express admiration for their partner’s treatment of their families and friends. This behaviour appears to be seen as an indicator of the individual’s capacity for support and commitment to family values. Many couples admire partner’s kindness, generosity and level of personal self-sacrifice in maintaining the relationship. It is also not uncommon for brides and grooms to say they have been changed by their love: become kinder, more considerate and more tolerant. Honesty, communication skills and persistence are also attributes that are valued. Brides and grooms who have strong communication skills are also praised. This may refer to interpersonal competency and the willingness to acquire the skills necessary to negotiate the endless compromises in contemporary marriage now that individualisation has undermined established rules, rituals and roles. Persistence and the ability not to be discouraged by setbacks is also a reoccurring theme, and this connects with the idea that marriage is work. Many couples promise to grow together in their marriage and to both take responsibility for the health of their relationship. This promise implies awareness that marriage is not the fantasy of happily ever after produced in romantic popular culture, but rather an arrangement that requires hard work and conscious commitment, particularly in building a union amidst many competing options and distractions. Many couples talk about their relationship in terms of companionship and shared interests, values and goals. It is also not uncommon for couples to say that they admire their partner for supporting them to achieve their life goals or for exposing them to a wider array of lifestyle choices and options like travel or study. These examples of interdependence appear to make explicit that couples still see marriage as a vehicle for personal freedom and self-realisation. The death of love is also alluded to in marriage ceremonies. Couples talk of failed past relationships, but these are produced positively as a mechanism that enables the couple to know that they have now found an enduring relationship. It is also evident that for many couples the decision to marry is seen as the formalisation of a preexisting commitment rather than the gateway to a new life. This is consistent with figures that show that 72 per cent of Australian couples chose to cohabit before marriage (Simons 48), and that cohabitation has become the “normative pathway to marriage” (Penman 26). References to children also feature in marriage ceremonies, and for the couples I have worked with marriage is generally seen as the pre-requisite for children. Couples also often talk about “being ready” for marriage. This seems to refer to being financially prepared. Robyn Parker citing the research of K. Edin concludes that for many modern couples “rushing into marriage before being ‘set’ is irresponsible—marrying well (in the sense of being well prepared) is the way to avoid divorce” (qtd. in Parker 81). From this overview of reoccurring themes in the production of Australian ceremonies it is clear that romantic love continues to be associated with marriage. However, couples describe a more grounded and companionable attachment. These more practical and personalised sentiments serve to meet both the public expectation that romantic love is a precondition for marriage, while also avoiding the production of romantic love in the ceremony as an empty cliché. Grounded descriptions of love reveal that attraction does not have to be overwhelming and unconquerable. Indeed, couples who have lived together and are intimately acquainted with each other’s habits and disposition, appear to be most comfortable expressing their commitment to each other in more temperate, but no less deeply felt, terms. Conclusion This paper has considered how brides and grooms constitute romantic love within the shifting partnering practices of contemporary Australia. It is evident “in the midst of significant social and economic change and at a time when individual rights and freedom of choice are important cultural values” marriage remains socially significant (Simons 50). This significance is partially conveyed through the language of romantic love, which, while freighted with an array of cultural and historical associations, remains the lingua franca of marriage, perhaps because as Roberto Unger observes, romantic love is “the most influential mode of moral vision in our culture” (qtd. in Lindholm 5). It is thus possible to conclude, that while marriage may be declining and becoming more fragile and impermanent, the institution remains important to couples in contemporary Australia. Moreover, the language and imagery of romantic love, which publicly conveys this importance, remains the primary mode of expressing care, affection and hope for a partnership, even though the changed partnering practices of late modern capitalist society have exposed the utopian quality of romantic love and produced a cynicism about the viability of its longevity. It is evident in the marriage ceremonies prepared by the author that while the language of romantic love has come to signify a broader range of more practical associations consistent with the individualised nature of modern marriage and demystification of romantic love, it also remains the best way to express what Dowd and Pallotta describe as a fundamental human “yearning for communion with and acceptance by another human being” (571). 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Pallotta. “The End of Romance: The Demystification of Love in the Postmodern Age.” Sociological Perspectives 43.4 (2000): 549–80. Gottschall, Jonathan, and Marcus Nordlund. “Romantic Love: A Literary Universal?” Philosophy and Literature 30 (2006): 450–70. Jankowiak, William, and Ted Fischer, “A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Romantic Love,” Ethnology 31 (1992): 149–55. Lantz, Herman R. “Romantic Love in the Pre-Modern Period: A Sociological Commentary.” Journal of Social History 15.3 (1982): 349–70. Lindholm, Charles. “Romantic Love and Anthropology.” Etnofoor 19:1 Romantic Love (2006): 5–21. Parker, Robyn. “Perspectives on the Future of Marriage.” Australian Institute of Family Studies 72 Summer (2005): 78–82.Pateman, Carole. “Women and Consent.” Political Theory (1980): 149–68. Penman, Robyn. “Current Approaches to Marriage and Relationship Research in the United States and Australia.” Family Matters 70 Autumn (2005): 26–35. 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This article examines the concept of self from the perspective of the self as manifest and reflected in consumption decisions. Within the consumer behaviour literature there is general acceptance for a high degree of autonomy in individuals' self-related consumption decisions. The assumption is that we can choose the type of person we want to be, and purchase, within income limits, the appropriate "props" to assist in achieving our goal. I argue that this view is simplistic and fails to appreciate the extent to which culture influences individuals' perceptions of the desirability of different "ways to be" and the objects that are considered appropriate to communicate specific personal attributes. The self-concept and consumption According to psychologists, individuals understand their self-concepts on the basis of observations of their own behaviours, as well as the reactions of others to these behaviours. If the self is viewed in terms of what actions are performed by the individual, consumption behaviours in modern consumer economies should be instrumental in the development and expression of the self-concept (Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton). In the discipline of consumer behaviour, people are thought to derive their sense of self at least partially from the goods and services they consume. Through the consumption of the symbols contained in products, consumers attempt to enhance their self-concepts by using products to communicate particular personal characteristics to themselves and others. Consumption is thus argued to operate as an effective means of communicating identity and positioning oneself relative to others. Not just single products but constellations of products are required to effectively communicate this information to others (Solomon and Englis). Anthropologists recognise that every culture-member is both a source and a subject of judgements made according to object ownership. They also note the fracturing of social systems that have traditionally been considered suppliers of self-definition. These systems include family, religious, and community relationships, and their loss of influence allows greater individual control over self-concept formation and communication. As societies come to operate on a larger scale, the growing anonymity and diversification of duties result in identities being increasingly inferred from the ownership of symbolic possessions, rather than reliance on personal familiarity. In such an environment, stereotyping according to consumption is the norm. Stereotyping can be seen as a mechanism by which we can select between symbolic options to construct desirable versions of our selves. Advertising exists to inform us of the range of products and associated "selves" available, and thus provides a valuable service in our ongoing efforts to develop appropriate or desirable selves. In this sense the use of objects in the construction and maintenance of the self-concept is seen as a conscious, controllable process in which consumers engage to maximise their satisfaction (Ger). Consumers shop for a self-identity just as they would shop for a consumer good, and there is an assumed intentionality in their actions that stems from a conscious thought process. Another way of interpreting the relationship between the self and consumption is that communication of the self via consumption is not an optional activity, but one that is necessary for social survival. And not just one self, but multiple selves must be constructed and maintained for each of the different roles we play in life (Firat 1995). Some have suggested that an outcome of this need to exhibit multiple selves may be individuals who are alienated from themselves due to the discomfort of being unable to identify their own core selves (Havel; Ogilvy). Awareness of the stereotyping activities of others forces consumers into defensive modes of consumption that are designed to protect them from unwanted judgements. Self-representation via consumption thus requires planning and organisation, as opposed to being an optional pastime in which consumers can participate if they so desire. According to some analysts, this concern with presenting a desired image via consumption is actively encouraged as it is a source of ongoing consumption (Droge, Calantone, Agrawal, and Mackoy; Kilbourne, McDonagh, and Prothero). The close relationship between the self and consumption is seen as a necessary by-product of the need for high levels of consumption in capitalist markets (Murphy and Miller; Miller). Compelled into consumption designed to manage their images to others, consumers are not free to consume any products in any combinations, as such behaviour is unlikely to achieve the image outcomes they have been conditioned to desire. In order to communicate the appropriate self in a given situation, consumers must acquire specific products and consume them in specific ways. The power of choice of the individual in this scenario is more perceived than real, and this may leave consumers more susceptible to advertising and other forms of marketing communications than is currently acknowledged. The media can widely disseminate versions of social reality that consumers absorb as part of their understanding of their world (Davis 1997). For example, appropriate consumption patterns for individuals from different age, gender, and social class categories are specifically communicated in advertising messages (Holbrook and Hirschman). The role of culture The self as reflected in individuals' consumption decisions is culturally influenced in that different cultures and subcultures incorporate different objects into their sense of self (Belk). The relationship between the self and culture is reflected in the term "cultural anchoring", a term that describes the process by which certain products become part of an individual's self-concept (LaTour and Roberts). The self develops to operate within a culture, and in doing so reinforces that culture (Cushman). Consumers are conditioned to develop self-concepts that are appropriate to their age, gender, and social groupings (Levy). They feel compelled to fulfil the requirements of these classifications, usually accepting the role assigned to them by their culture (Firat 1991). Roles are culturally connected to a range of consumer goods that are considered crucial to the "correct" performance of the role, and culture is the force that specifically provides the associations between objects and social roles (Solomon). As described by Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton: "Thus, by a process whose beautiful inevitability recalls that of a cell duplicating and differentiating itself into a complex organism, the self through its own seemingly autonomous choices replicates the order of its culture and so becomes a part of that order and a means for its further replication." (105) The inherent nature of this drive to conform to societal expectations remains unapparent to consumers, allowing them the perception of free choice rather than coercion. In fact, the perception of free choice is of critical importance to the continuation of the prevailing system. But how is it that individuals do not appreciate the extent to which their efforts at self-development through consumption are culturally driven? Consumer researchers argue that people wish to feel unique in consumption, thus supposedly selecting objects that are somehow special or unique. Paradoxically, the objects selected are often mass-produced products and are thus common to many other consumers. The argument is that these products in their sameness can perform the valued function of communicating social integration, while permitting some degree of individuality in their combination. Fiske, Hodge, and Turner give the case of the ubiquitous T-shirt, explaining how this product simultaneously provides a mechanism for communicating group membership and individual difference. The generic form of the T-shirt symbolises conformity, while the vast range of T-shirt designs allows personal differentiation. To some, consumers' beliefs in their individuality are legitimate as small differences in product combinations are considered to be adequate to claim uniqueness. Another interpretation, however, is that such beliefs are a form of self-delusion, as small differences only camouflage the over-riding similarity between the consumption patterns of individuals. To conclude, consumption is used extensively in self-concept construction and maintenance in modern consumer economies. What is not always recognised is that the nature of the self-concept that is desired and the parameters for product usage to achieve the desired self-concept are highly specified by the cultural environment. The implication of this is that individuals are highly dependent on consumption for communication of their selves, to the point that the concept of the autonomous consumer who is free to choose between a multitude of product options can be viewed as a modern myth. References Belk, R. W. "Extended Self and Extending Paradigmatic Perspective" Journal of Consumer Research 16 (1989): 129-132. Csikszentmihalyi, M. and E. Rochberg-Halton. The Meaning of Things, Domestic Symbols and the Self. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Cushman, P. "Why the Self Is Empty" American Psychologist 45.5 (1990): 599-611. Davis, M. Gangland: Cultural Elites and the New Generationalism. Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1997. Droge, C., R. Calantone, M. Agrawal, and R. Mackoy. "The Strong Consumption Culture and its Critiques: A Framework for Analysis" Journal of Macromarketing 13.2 (1993): 32-45. Firat, A. F. "The Consumer in Postmodernity" Advances in Consumer Research 18 (1991): 70-75. ---. "Consumer Culture or Culture Consumed?" In Marketing in a Multicultural World J. A. Costa and G. J. Bamossy eds. California: Sage Publications (1995): 105-125. Fiske, J., B. Hodge, G. Turner. Myths of Oz. Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1987. Ger, G. "Human Development and Humane Consumption: Well-Being Beyond the "Good Life"" Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 16.1 (1997): 110-125. Havel, V. "The Need for Tanscendence in the Post-Modern World" Journal for Quality and Participation 18.5 (1995): 26-29. Holbrook, M. B. and E. C. Hirschman. "The Experiential Aspects of Consumption: Consumer Fantasies, Feelings, and Fun" Journal of Consumer Research 9 (1982): 132-140. Kilbourne, W., P. McDonagh, and A. Prothero. "Sustainable Consumption and the Quality of Life: A Macromarketing Challenge to the Dominant Social Paradigm" Journal of Macromarketing 17.1 (1997): 4-24. LaTour, M. S. and S. D. Roberts. "Cultural Anchoring and Product Diffusion" The Journal of Consumer Marketing 9.4 (1992): 29-34. Levy, S. J. Meanings in Advertising Stimuli. Advertising and Consumer Psychology. J. Olson and K. Sentis eds. New York: Praeger. 3, 1986. Miller, D. Consumption and its Consequences. Consumption and Everyday Life. H. Mackay ed. London: Sage Publications, 1997. Murphy, P. L. and C. T. Miller. "Postdecisional Dissonance and the Commodified Self-Concept: A Cross-Cultural Examination" Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23.1 (1997): 50-62. Ogilvy, J. "This Postmodern Business" Marketing and Research Today (February 1990). Solomon, M., R. and B. G. Englis. "Observations: The Big Picture: Product Complementarity and Integrated Communications" Journal of Advertising Research 34.1 (1994): 57-63. Citation reference for this article Substitute your date of access for Dn Month Year etc... MLA Style Pettigrew, Simone. "Consumption and the Self-Concept" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5.5 (2002). [your date of access] < http://www.media-culture.org.au/mc/0210/Pettigrew.html &gt. Chicago Style Pettigrew, Simone, "Consumption and the Self-Concept" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5, no. 5 (2002), < http://www.media-culture.org.au/mc/0210/Pettigrew.html &gt ([your date of access]). APA Style Pettigrew, Simone. (2002) Consumption and the Self-Concept. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 5(5). < http://www.media-culture.org.au/mc/0210/Pettigrew.html &gt ([your date of access]).