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Relevant bibliographies by topics / Indus Civilization

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Academic literature on the topic 'Indus Civilization'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 31 July 2024

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Journal articles on the topic "Indus Civilization"

1

Kumar, Suneel, Muhammad Ali, and Pasand Ali Khoso. "Emergence and Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan." Global Sociological Review V, no. II (June 30, 2020): 9–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.31703/gsr.2020(v-ii).02.

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Indus Valley Civilization is one of the oldest civilizations in the world dating back to 7000BCE. The explored sites of the civilization span present day Pakistan and India. The following paper explore the Indus Valley Civilization through the sites in Pakistan. The paper highlights feature of various stages of the Indus Valley, for example, Early Food Producing Era (7000-4000 BCE), Regionalization Era – Early Harappan Era (4000-2600 BCE), Integration Era (Early Harappan Phase) (2600 – 1900), Localization Era (Late Harappan Phase) (1900 – 1300), and Indus Valley from 1300 BCE to Present. In doing so, the paper discusses the geography, environment, material culture, subsistence patterns, political and social organization of each era. Finally, it explores the various theories of decline of Indus Valley Civilization, drawing on various sources. In the conclusion, the paper provides recommendations for future focus on the archaeological sites in Pakistan enhance our understanding of the civilizations.

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Jun. "Historical Review of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappan Civilization in Pakistan." Pacific International Journal 5, no. 2 (June 30, 2022): 31–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.55014/pij.v5i2.185.

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The ancient Indus civilization, also known as Harappan civilization is famous for the ruins of two ancient cities, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, which remained unknown for thousands of years due to little written record in human history. It was not in the 1820s, when archaeologists excavated a large number of stone tools, bronzes, seals and agricultural remains in the two cities, that the world began to learn about the secret of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappan civilization. The total number of Harappan civilization sites may be as many as 2,000, but most of them are still buried underground, awaiting further excavation. Nearly 200 sites have been excavated or are being excavated, ranging from ancient couple tombs to ancient city ruins. Mohenjo-Daro, which means "hill of death" in the local language, is an ancient city of the civilization of the Indus valley located on the right bank of the Indus River, northern Sindh province, southern Pakistan. It was built around 2500 BC and was abandoned in 1900 BC. In the sites of both cities, archaeologists discovered the advanced scientific and technological achievements of the ancient Indus civilization, but they were puzzled by the loss of the civilization. This paper starts with the introduction of the ancient Indus civilization before moves to the discovery process of Harappa and Mohendaro. Literature review on the studies on Harappa and Mohenjodaro is presented with a brief analysis in the end. After giving an outline of the civilization, the paper tries to solve the mystery of the loss of civilization, but so far no agreed understanding of the cause has been reached. By reviewing the civilizations of Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, the paper presents to readers the ancient civilizations of Pakistan and enhance their understanding of human science, technology and culture in ancient times.

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Ahmad, Khalil. "GEOGRAPHIC, HISTORIC, POLITICAL, RIPARIAN, AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS THAT LEAD TO PAKISTAN AS A LAND OF PENTA MESOPOTAMIA." Pakistan Journal of Social Research 04, no. 01 (March 31, 2022): 330–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.52567/pjsr.v4i1.656.

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The research aims to investigate Pakistan’s geographic, historic, political, riparian, and socio-economic factors that lead to Pakistan as a Land of Penta Mesopotamia. Pakistan is situated in South Asia along the coast of Arabian Sea, bordering Afghanistan in west, China in north, Iran in southwest, Arabian Sea in South and Hindustan (India) lies in the east. Historically, the land of Pakistan has been the host of Neolithic period’s South Asian multi Indus valley civilization (IVC) that includes Gandhara, Harappan, Mehrgarh, Mohenjo-Daro, Takht-i-Bahi and Texila civilizations that emerged during 3,300 BCE to 1300 BCE. Muslim Civilizations emerged from 712 to 1857 and British colonial culture also developed from 1857-1947 in this area. The Indus valley civilization flourished parallel to the Mesopotamian civilizations. Mesopotamian civilization includes the Assyrian and Babylonian Civilization that emerged in Iraq in between the two rivers of Euphrates and Tigris from 3,100 B.C. to 332 B.C. and is referred to the “Cradle of Civilizations”. Since Mesopotamian civilization attracted all the ancient civilizations in West Asia to nourish because of its friendly ecological environments, fertile land and rich alluvium soils. Pakistan’s geography also attracted the Indus valley civilizations that emerged in the confluence of seven perennial rivers i.e. Sutlej, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers, credited as the “Cradle of South Asian Indus valley Civilizations”. Pakistan’s strategic location in the region, her favorable ecosystem for biodiversity, favorable multi seasons, fertile land, friendly ecological conditions, rich agricultural environment, rich alluvium soils, strategic multiple riparian potentials that originate from Himalayan, Karakorum, and Hindu-Kush mountain ranges, remained lucrative for South Asian Indus valley civilizations. Pakistan’s geography also remained very attractive to the sub regions of Asia i.e. Central, South and West Asia because it has provided and has been providing the Mesopotamians agrarian transit economy to landlocked countries of Afghanistan and Central Asian States from the shortest possible sea route of Arabian Sea and visa-vi to oil rich states of Middle East via China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). Mesopotamian’s cultural, ecological, geographic, historic, riparian, socio-economic, socio-political equilibrium and similar factors are founded in the Indus valley civilizations that erect the sufficient evidence to prove that “Pakistan is a Land of Penta Mesopotamia”. Keywords: Civilizations, Confluence, Fertile land, Mesopotamia, Riparian potentials.

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Khan, S., E. Dialynas, V. K. Kasaraneni, and A. N. Angelakis. "Similarities of Minoan and Indus Valley Hydro-Technologies." Sustainability 12, no. 12 (June 16, 2020): 4897. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12124897.

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This review evaluates Minoan and Indus Valley hydro-technologies in southeastern Greece and Indus Valley Pakistan, respectively. The Minoan civilization first inhabited Crete and several Aegean islands shortly after the Late Neolithic times and flourished during the Bronze Age (ca 3200–1100 BC). At that time, the Minoan civilization developed fundamental technologies and reached its pinnacle as the first and most important European culture. Concurrently, the Indus Valley civilization populated the eastern bank of the Indus River, its tributaries in Pakistan, and the Ganges plains in India and Nadia (Bangladesh), spreading over an area of about one million km2. Its total population was unknown; however, an estimated 43,000 people resided at Harappa. The urban hydro-technologies, characteristics of a civilization can be determined by two specific aspects, the natural and the social environment. These two aspects cover a variety of factors, such as climate and social conditions, type of terrain, water supply, agriculture, water logging, sanitation and sewerage, hygienic conditions of communities, and racial features of the population. Therefore, these factors were used to understand the water resources management practices in early civilizations (e.g., Minoan and Indus Valley) and similarities, despite the large geographic distance between places of origin. Also discussed are the basic principles and characteristics of water management sustainability in both civilizations and a comparison of basic water supply and sanitation practices through the long history of the two civilizations. Finally, sustainability issues and lessons learned are considered.

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Shinde, Vasant. "Padri and the Indus civilization." South Asian Studies 8, no. 1 (January 1992): 55–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02666030.1992.9628444.

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Singh, Abhijeet. "THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION: GLOBALIZATION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN THE ANCIENT WORLD." Journal of the Institute of Oriental Studies RAS, no. 4 (26) (2023): 11–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.31696/2618-7302-2023-4-011-019.

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The South Asian civilization or the Indus Valley civilization, as it is more commonly known, is as old as antiquity itself. The permanent character of settlements is one of the defining features of this civilization. The maritime trade during the Indus Valley civilization was developed and it was well connected to Egypt, Mesopotamia (present day Iraq) and China. The Indus Valley сivilization was the first foray of the South Asian region into the international maritime trade and cultural diffusion with other parts of the world having a civilization. The amount of cultural, economic and social exchange and interaction can be ascertained from the archeological finds and it shows the intermingling and cross cultural influence among the then known and developed world.

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Akhter, Dr Naseem. "Analytical Study of the Socio- Religious Condition of Early Ancient Egyptian Civilization." Al-Aijaz Research Journal of Islamic Studies & Humanities 5, no. 3 (September 30, 2021): 47–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.53575/arjish.v5.3(21)e5.47-54.

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This paper is primarily deals and highlights the main characteristics of the Egyptian civilization which is considered the mother civilizations of the world. The world has been making progress for thousands of years and the people became gradually civilized. We found few major civilizations of the world. Among them Egyptian Civilization is one of them which considered the most historic and early civilization as compared to its contemporary civilizations i.e. Mesopotamian, Indus and Chinese civilizations of the world. Although it’s a common perception about the people of ancient time that they were savages and had no sense of life. But when we observe them they looked very elegant people who introduced the different socio-political concepts regarding way of life, education, living, philosophy, socio-cultural norms along with religious traditions and political thoughts. In this context we look the ancient Egyptian civilization as cradle of civilizations of the world which consequently given a birth to other civilizations. It was the influence of this civilization which created the opportunities of trade, harmony and mutual cooperation among the people. This research paper is an attempt to explore the prominent feature of the ancient Egyptian civilization and how this civilization nourished.

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Sergiev, V. P., and V. V. Kutyrev. "Cholera and the Death of the Ancient Indus Civilization." Problems of Particularly Dangerous Infections, no. 2 (July 12, 2023): 95–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.21055/0370-1069-2023-2-95-100.

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The paper presents a hypothesis that the most probable cause of death of the ancient world Indus (Harappa) civilization was the epidemic of Asiatic cholera. A brief description of the Indus civilization that existed for two millennia (3300–1300 BC) is given. It is shown that the previously described factors for the decline of the thriving Indus civilization (climate change, shallowing of the Indus river and reduction in floods, catastrophic floods, drought, economic crisis, etc.) do not provide a consistent and comprehensive explanation of the causes of its death. Meanwhile, the natural environment and peculiarities of agriculture of the Indus civilization (annual floods affecting not only fields, but also sewage systems) created ideal conditions for the spread of water-borne cholera. The evolution of the Asiatic cholera agent is discussed. The results of paleogenomics study of this pathogen and their significance for the reconstruction of evolutionary events are briefly reviewed. The stages of evolution of Vibrio cholerae of the classical biovar are described, and possible mechanisms for the preservation of the pathogen during inter-epidemic period are considered. It is demonstrated that aside from cholera, other catastrophic, destructive epidemics are recorded in the history of mankind.

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Robinson, Andrew. "Ancient civilization: Cracking the Indus script." Nature 526, no. 7574 (October 2015): 499–501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/526499a.

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Possehl, Gregory L. "The transformation of the Indus Civilization." Journal of World Prehistory 11, no. 4 (December 1997): 425–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02220556.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Indus Civilization"

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Fioccoprile, Emily Ann. "Gender in the Indus Valley Civilization." Thesis, The University of Arizona, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/146215.

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Lancelotti, Carla. "Fuelling Harappan hearths : human-environment interactions as revealed by fuel exploitation and use." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2010. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.608968.

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Green, Adam. "The State in the Indus River Valley." Digital Archive @ GSU, 2006. http://digitalarchive.gsu.edu/anthro_hontheses/1.

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This thesis examines the concept of the state in the context of the Indus River Valley, located in northwest India and Pakistan. In the first section, I synthesize several popular trends in state discussion from both inside and outside of archaeological theory. I then apply my synthesized approach to state definition to the archaeological record from the Indus River Valley. The resulting work visits both the concept of the state and the rich cultural history of the Indus Civilization. I determine that there was a state in the Indus River Valley, but that the Indus state was very different from others scholars have identified in the archaeological record.

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Neogi, Sayantani. "Geoarchaeological investigations of Indus settlements in the plains of Northwestern India." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2014. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.648751.

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LeBlanc, Paul D. "Indus Epigraphic Perspectives: Exploring Past Decipherment Attempts & Possible New Approaches." Thèse, Université d'Ottawa / University of Ottawa, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/26166.

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First appearing on potsherds around 3300 BC, the Indus script was primarily in use during the Mature Harappan period (ca. 2600-1900 BC) in the Indus Valley region, centred in the north-western region of the Indian Subcontinent. It is one of the last remaining undeciphered scripts of the ancient world. A great number of Indus inscriptions, however, have been uncovered at many archaeological sites in the Persian Gulf, discoveries that corroborate the inclusion of the Indus civilization as an active participant in the Mesopotamian-dominated Gulf trade of the 3rd millennium. In addition to exploring the current state of research surrounding the Indus decipherment attempts, the thesis will examine new perspectives on ancient history, arguing in favour of various possibilities of Mesopotamian, Elamite, and/or pre-dynastic Egyptian (North East African) cultural presences or influences in the ancient Indus River basin.

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Rogersdotter, Elke. "The Forgotten : an Approach on Harappan Toy Artefacts." Licentiate thesis, Umeå University, Archaeology and Sami Studies, 2006. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-733.

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This thesis proposes an alternative perspective to the general neglect of toy materials from deeper analysis in archaeology. Based on a study of selected toy artefacts from the Classical Harappan settlement at Bagasra, Gujarat, it suggests a viable way of approaching the objects when considering them within a theoretical framework highlighting their social aspects. The study agrees with objections in e.g. parts of gender archaeology and research on children in archaeology to the extrapolating from the marginalized child of the West onto past social structures. Departing from revised toy definitions formulated in disciplines outside archaeology, it proceeds with the objects’ toy identifications while rejecting a ‘transforming’ of these into other interpretations. Thus entering a quite unexplored research field, grounded theory is used as working method. As the items indicate a regulated pattern, the opinion on toy artefacts as randomly scattered around becomes questioned. Using among others the capital concept by Bourdieu, the notion of micropower by Foucault and parts of the newly developed ideas of microarchaeology, the toy-role of the artefacts is emphasized as crucial, enabling the items to express diverse social uses in addition to their possible function as children’s (play)things. With this, the notion of the limiting connection of toys to playing children becomes unravelled, opening for a discussion on enlarged dimensions of the toys and a possible re-naming of them as the materialities of next generation. While suggesting the items to indicate various social strategies and structurating practices, the need for traditional boundaries and separated entities successively becomes eliminated. The traditionally stated toy obstacles with cultural loading and elusive distinctions can with this be proposed as constructions, possible to avoid. The toy concept simultaneously emerges as particularly useful in highlighting the notion of change and continuity within the social structure and children’s roles in this.

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"Infectious disease in the Sumerian and Indus Valley Civilisations and 18th Dynasty Egypt : an alternative medical history perspective of ancient history." Thesis, 2021. http://hdl.handle.net/1959.7/uws:68391.

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One of the great mysteries of ancient history is why the Indus Valley Civilisation, the largest of the five original ancient civilisation regions declined. The aim of this thesis is to document the role of infectious disease on the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation c. 1900 – 1300 BCE. This is the first time this has been done. There have been many theories about possible causes for the end of the Indus Valley Civilisation such as climate change, shift of the monsoon eastwards from the Indus River basin to the Ganges River basin, tectonic forces changing the course of the Indus River to variously cause drought or flooding and finally Aryan invasion. The hypothesis of this thesis is that infectious diseases may have contributed to the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation. This thesis will also show that an infectious disease epidemic, most likely pneumonic plague, may have helped in the decline of the Sumerian Civilisation c.2000 BCE. This epidemic could have come from what is today Russia or China via the Zagros Mountains or from the Indus Valley Civilisation onboard boats used in their mutual sea trade. Conversely the Sumerian epidemic could also have gone in the opposite direction and infected the Indus Valley Civilisation instead. Both the Sumerian and Indus Valley Civilisations did not end abruptly but instead slowly declined with, most importantly, their ideas, beliefs, language, writing methods, mathematics and moral values being absorbed into subsequent civilisations. This thesis will use mainly an historiographic approach to propose that up to twelve different infectious diseases which existed in ancient times were possible major causes or co-factors in the decline of the Sumerian and Indus Valley Civilisations. These diseases include five that are so lethal that they have been used as biological warfare agents, namely smallpox, plague, tularemia, shigella dysentery and anthrax. The other seven diseases are leprosy, poliomyelitis, tuberculosis, malaria, measles, haemorrhagic fevers and influenza.

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Brisset, Isabelle. "La spécialisation du travail artisanal dans la civilisation de l'Indus." Thèse, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/1866/11454.

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La civilisation de l’Indus marque les esprits par une apparente uniformité de la culture matérielle sur la totalité de son territoire (environ 1 million de km carré) durant sa période d’apogée (2600-1900 av. J.-C.). Cette étude cherche à tester deux hypothèses qui pourraient expliquer cette homogénéité : 1) Un pouvoir centralisateur contrôlant la production artisanale; et 2) Un vaste réseau d’échanges et de distribution de la production. Dans ce but, la grande majorité des publications accessibles portant sur la production artisanale d’objets en céramique, en pierres semi-précieuses, en coquillage et en métal ont été inventoriées et analysées. Axée sur la spécialisation du travail artisanal, l’étude a identifié quelques objets dits de prestige (perles classiques harappéennes, bracelets en grès cérame) très probablement liés à une élite. La nature de cette élite est ensuite examinée et un nouveau modèle d’organisation sociopolitique de cette civilisation est proposé.
The Indus civilization puzzles archaeologists in that it shows a seeming uniformity in its material culture during the period from 2600 to 1900 BC and over its huge geographical extent (approximately 1 million square km). In this study two hypotheses are tested: 1) This uniformity in material culture is due to a central political force monitoring craft production; or 2) This uniformity results from an extensive trade and distribution network of craft production. In order to assess these, all available data concerning the craft production of ceramic, lapidary, shell-working and metal artefacts were inventoried and analyzed. A study of craft specialization identified a few wealth items (long carnelian beads, stoneware bangles), which were most probably related to an elite. After reassessing the nature of this elite, a new model of sociopolitical organization for this civilization is proposed.

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Books on the topic "Indus Civilization"

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Datta, Rama D. The Indus Valley civilization. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH, 1996.

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Nagasawa, Tomomi. Indus: The unvoiced civilization. Princeton, NJ: Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 2003.

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Possehl, Gregory L. Harappan civilization and Rojdi. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., 1989.

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Possehl, Gregory L. Harappan civilization and Rojdi. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1989.

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Ganeri, Anita. Indus Valley. London: Franklin Watts, 2014.

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Chakrabarti, Dilip K. The external trade of Indus civilization. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1990.

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Kumud. Handicrafts in the Indus Valley civilization. Patna: Janaki Prakashan, 1995.

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Project, Indus, and Sōgō Chikyū Kankyōgaku Kenkyūjo, eds. Current studies on the Indus civilization. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors, 2010.

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Madhuri, Sharma, ed. Panorama of Harappan civilization. New Delhi: Kaveri Books, 2003.

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R, Rao S. Dawn and devolution of the Indus civilization. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, 1991.

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Book chapters on the topic "Indus Civilization"

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Biagi, Paolo, and Elisabetta Starnini. "Indus Civilization." In Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology, 1–26. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51726-1_3491-1.

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Rao, Nalini. "Indus Valley Civilization." In Hinduism and Tribal Religions, 1–5. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-1036-5_251-1.

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Rao, Nalini. "Indus Valley Civilization." In Hinduism and Tribal Religions, 677–81. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-1188-1_251.

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Danino, Michel. "Aryans and the Indus Civilization." In A Companion to South Asia in the Past, 205–24. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119055280.ch13.

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Lovell, Nancy C. "Bioarchaeology of the Indus Valley Civilization." In A Companion to South Asia in the Past, 169–86. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119055280.ch11.

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Gates, Charles, and Andrew Goldman. "Cities of the Indus valley civilization." In Ancient Cities, 74–84. 3rd ed. London: Routledge, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429278815-6.

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Robbins Schug, Gwen. "Ritual, Urbanism, and the Everyday: Mortuary Behavior in the Indus Civilization." In Bioarchaeology and Social Theory, 49–72. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53417-2_3.

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Hoffman, Brett C., and Heather M. L. Miller. "Production and Consumption of Copper-Base Metals in the Indus Civilization." In Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective, 697–727. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-9017-3_24.

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Lemmen, Carsten, and Aurangzeb Khan. "A Simulation of the Neolithic Transition in the Indus Valley." In Climates, Landscapes, and Civilizations, 107–14. Washington, D. C.: American Geophysical Union, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012gm001217.

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Krejčí, Jaroslav. "From Indus to Mekong: Between Brahma and Buddha." In The Civilizations of Asia and the Middle East, 156–214. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1990. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-11147-3_6.

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Conference papers on the topic "Indus Civilization"

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Kathayat, Gayatri, Hai Cheng, Ashish Sinha, and Hanying Li. "Role of Climate in the De-Urbanization of the Indus Valley Civilization." In Goldschmidt2020. Geochemical Society, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.46427/gold2020.1255.

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Sinha, Sitabhra, Raj Kumar Pan, Nisha Yadav, Mayank Vahia, and Iravatham Mahadevan. "Network analysis reveals structure indicative of syntax in the corpus of undeciphered Indus civilization inscriptions." In the 2009 Workshop. Morristown, NJ, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1708124.1708128.

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Shaikh, Javeria Manzoor, and JaeSeung Park. "The generation and effect of salt on brick masonry: An analysis of crumbling walls in DKG area and cultivation around Mohenjo-daro focused at indus valley civilization." In 2013 Digital Heritage International Congress (DigitalHeritage). IEEE, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/digitalheritage.2013.6743838.

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Golubev, A. P. "LATE BRONZE AGE COLLAPSE - UNKNOWN GLOBAL АNTROPOGENIC ECOLOGICAL CRISIS XIII - XII CENTURIES BC." In SAKHAROV READINGS 2021: ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF THE XXI CENTURY. International Sakharov Environmental Institute, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.46646/sakh-2021-1-7-11.

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The Late Bronze Age Collapse, or the Crisis of Producers, is the definition for the process of the gradual decline of agricultural production in the states of the Fertile Crescent and Indus Valley regions, which culminated at the end of XIII-XII centuries BC. It was caused not by individual private mistakes, but by fundamental and irreparable defects in the then dominant system of agriculture in region mentioned. First of all, they were the widespread deforestation, overgrazing and salinization of arable lands as a result of excessive irrigation. This led to a catastrophic decline in their fertility and food shortages. The crisis of producers became the main reason for the death of largest states of those epoch (the First Babylonian Kingdom, Ancient Egypt, Harappa, etc.), which were at the forefront of the world civilizational progress, which delayed the technological and cultural development of the peoples of the Eastern Mediterranean, the Middle East and South Asia, by at least for a millennium.

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