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Journal articles on the topic 'Infancy'
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1
Schoendorf, Kenneth C., and John L. Kiely. "Relationship of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome to Maternal Smoking During and After Pregnancy." Pediatrics 90, no. 6 (December 1, 1992): 905–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.90.6.905.
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Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is associated with maternal smoking during pregnancy. However, the relationship between tobacco exposure during infancy and SIDS is unknown. The examination of infants whose mothers smoked only after pregnancy will help determine the relationship between passive cigarette exposure during infancy and SIDS risk. This case-control analysis used data on normal birth weight (≥2500 g) infants included in the National Maternal and Infant Health Survey, a nationally representative sample of approximately 10 000 births and 6000 infant deaths. Infants were assigned to one of three exposure groups: maternal smoking during both pregnancy and infancy (combined exposure), maternal smoking only during infancy (passive exposure), and no maternal smoking. SIDS death was determined from death certificate coding. Logistic regression was used to adjust for potentially confounding variables. Infants who died of SIDS were more likely to be exposed to maternal cigarette smoke than were surviving infants. Among black infants the odds ratio was 2.4 for passive exposure and 2.9 for combined exposure. Among white infants the odds ratio was 2.2 for passive exposure and 4.1 for combined exposure. After adjustment for demographic risk factors, the odds ratio for SIDS among normal birth weight infants was approximately 2 for passive exposure and 3 for combined exposure for both races. These data suggest that both intrauterine and passive tobacco exposure are associated with an increased risk of SIDS and are further inducement to encourage smoking cessation among pregnant women and families with children.
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Urquhart, Don S., and Hui-Leng Tan. "Sleep disordered breathing at the extremes of age: infancy." Breathe 12, no. 1 (March 2016): e1-e11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/20734735.001016.
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Educational aimsThe reader will be able to:Understand normal sleep patterns in infancyAppreciate disorders of breathing in infancyAppreciate disorders of respiratory controlNormal sleep in infancy is a time of change with alterations in sleep architecture, sleep duration, sleep patterns and respiratory control as an infant grows older. Interactions between sleep and respiration are key to the mechanisms by which infants are vulnerable to sleep disordered breathing.This review discusses normal sleep in infancy, as well as normal sleep breathing in infancy. Sleep disordered breathing (obstructive and central) as well as disorders of ventilatory control and infant causes of hypoventilation are all reviewed in detail.
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K. Koo, Winston, and Letitia Warren. "Calcium and Bone Health in Infants." Neonatal Network 22, no. 5 (January 2003): 23–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/0730-0832.22.5.23.
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Osteopenia, rickets, and fractures from nutrient deficiencies can occur during infancy, particularly in preterm infants. Bone mass accretion during the first year of life is equal to or greater than that achieved at any other stage of life, including adolescence. Optimizing calcium and bone status during infancy can have immediate benefits in maintaining calcium homeostasis and preventing disturbances in bone mineralization and can provide long-term benefits by helping infants to later reach their maximum genetic potential for peak bone mass, a prerequisite for the prevention of osteoporosis and its complications. Dietary calcium requirements during infancy generally reflect the need to achieve normal growth and bone mineralization because 99 percent of total body calcium is present in the skeleton. Knowledge of physiologic factors that determine infant calcium requirements and the bioavailability of calcium from various dietary sources is important to ensuring bone health during infancy. Also key are the practical issues related to optimizing calcium nutriture in infants born at term and prematurely.
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Moore, Amy M., Maya Vadiveloo, Alison Tovar, Karen McCurdy, Truls Østbye, and Sara E. Benjamin-Neelon. "Associations of Less Healthy Snack Food Consumption with Infant Weight-for-Length Z-Score Trajectories: Findings from the Nurture Cohort Study." Nutrients 11, no. 11 (November 13, 2019): 2752. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu11112752.
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Little is known about the impact of less healthy snack foods on weight trajectories during infancy. This secondary analysis of data from the Nurture cohort explored prospective associations of less healthy snack foods with infant weight trajectories. Pregnant women were recruited and, upon delivery of a single live infant, 666 mothers agreed to participate. Mothers completed sociodemographic and infant feeding questionnaires, and infant anthropometrics were collected during home visits at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months. Less healthy snack food consumption was assessed by asking how frequently baby snacks and sweets were consumed each day during the previous three months. Multilevel growth curve models explored associations of baby snacks and sweets with infant weight-for-length (WFL) z-scores. On average, mothers were 27 years old, 71.5% were non-Hispanic Black, and 55.4% had household incomes of ≤$20,000/year. Consumption of less healthy snack foods increased during infancy with a median intake of 3.0 baby snacks/day and 0.7 sweets/day between 10 and 12 months. Growth curve models showed that infants who consumed sweets >2 times/day had significantly higher WFL z-scores during the second half of infancy compared to infants who never consumed sweets. Less healthy snacks may contribute to the risk of obesity during infancy and promoting healthy snack food choices during this critical time is important.
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Leaver, Tama, and Bjorn Nansen. "Infancy Online: An Introduction." Social Media + Society 3, no. 2 (April 2017): 205630511770719. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2056305117707193.
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This article introduces a Special Issue on the topic of infancy online, addressing a range of issues, including representation, privacy, datafication, and children’s rights. The 7 articles included map important arenas of emerging research which highlight a range of increasingly urgent questions around the way infants are situated online, the longer term ramifications of infant online presences, and the ways in which infants and young children participate as users of online media.
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Vik (KV), Kari, Vickfarajaeli Zebedayo Daudi (VZD), Lusajo Joel Kajula (LJK), Rolf Rohde (RR), Omary Said Ubuguyu (OSU), and Joseph Ndukusi Saibulu (JNS). "Infancy and Caring." Psychology and Developing Societies 30, no. 1 (February 5, 2018): 105–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0971333617749141.
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Caregivers at an institution for motherless infants in rural Tanzania participated in focus group interviews and participant observations. This paper aims at describing how they perceive infancy, caring and sensitivity in their everyday context. It adds knowledge from Tanzania about institutional infant care and the concept of sensitivity in caregiving, based on an approach sensitive to culture and context. The main result is that the caregivers are most concerned with fulfilling the infants’ physical needs. They defined infants’ social and emotional needs in a variety of ways and gave accounts about what sensitivity in caring for infants meant in their context. They also described their workload, their burdens and their strengths, and demonstrated shortcomings in fulfilling the infants’ social and emotional needs. Interventions to promote emotional and social support in addition to fulfilling physical needs are crucial.
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Wright, Charlotte M., Katherine Marie Cox, and Ann Le Couteur. "How does infant behaviour relate to weight gain and adiposity?" Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 70, no. 4 (August 24, 2011): 485–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0029665111001649.
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An understanding of how infant eating behaviour relates to later obesity is required if interventions in infancy are to be attempted. The aim of this paper is to review findings from the Gateshead Millennium Study to describe (i) what we have already established about the relationship between infant feeding transitions, infancy weight gain and eating behaviour and (ii) describe new analyses that examine how infant eating behaviour and temperament relate to infancy weight gain and childhood adiposity. The Gateshead Millennium Study recruited 1029 infants at birth and parents completed questionnaires five times in the first year. We have already described how starting solids and ceasing breast-feeding seems to be a response to rapid early weight gain, rather than a cause, and that parents identify and respond to the individual appetite characteristics of their child. A number of questions about eating behaviour at 12 months were used to construct an infancy eating avidity score that was positively associated with height at age 7–8 years, but not with an adiposity index constructed using bioelectrical impedance, waist and skinfolds. Infancy eating avidity score was associated with greater fussiness and lower satiety responsivity on the Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire at age 6–8 years. Temperament measured at age 6 weeks and 8 months showed no consistent associations with either infancy weight gain or adiposity at 6–8 years. While infancy may seem a logical time to intervene with children at risk of future obesity, the collective findings from this substantial population-based study largely suggest otherwise.
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Montirosso, Rosario, Patrizia Cozzi, Samuel P. Putnam, Maria A. Gartstein, and Renato Borgatti. "Studying cross-cultural differences in temperament in the first year of life: United States and Italy." International Journal of Behavioral Development 35, no. 1 (August 16, 2010): 27–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0165025410368944.
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An Italian translation of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised (IBQ-R) was developed and evaluated with 110 infants, demonstrating satisfactory internal consistency, discriminant validity, and construct validity in the form of gender and age differences, as well as factorial integrity. Cross-cultural differences were subsequently evaluated for matched samples of Italian and United States (US) (N = 110) 3—12-month-olds. Across infancy, parents of US infants reported higher levels of activity, high and low intensity pleasure, and vocal reactivity, whereas Italian infants, particularly males, were rated higher on cuddliness. In early infancy only, US infants were viewed as higher on high intensity pleasure and perceptual sensitivity.
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Schoch, Sarah F., Reto Huber, Malcolm Kohler, and Salome Kurth. "Which Are the Central Aspects of Infant Sleep? The Dynamics of Sleep Composites across Infancy." Sensors 20, no. 24 (December 15, 2020): 7188. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20247188.
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Sleep during infancy is important for the well-being of both infant and parent. Therefore, there is large interest in characterizing infant sleep with reliable tools, for example by combining actigraphy with 24-h-diaries. However, it is critical to select the right variables to characterize sleep. In a longitudinal investigation, we collected sleep data of 152 infants at ages 3, 6, and 12 months. Using principal component analysis, we identified five underlying sleep composites from 48 commonly-used sleep variables: Sleep Night, Sleep Day, Sleep Activity, Sleep Timing, and Sleep Variability. These composites accurately reflect known sleep dynamics throughout infancy as Sleep Day (representing naps), Sleep Activity (representing sleep efficiency and consolidation), and Sleep Variability (representing day-to-day stability) decrease across infancy, while Sleep Night (representing nighttime sleep) slightly increases, and Sleep Timing becomes earlier as one ages. We uncover interesting dynamics between the sleep composites and demonstrate that infant sleep is not only highly variable between infants but also dynamic within infants across time. Interestingly, Sleep Day is associated with behavioral development and therefore a potential marker for maturation. We recommend either the use of sleep composites or the core representative variables within each sleep composite for more reliable research.
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Usemann, Jakob, Binbin Xu, Edgar Delgado-Eckert, Insa Korten, Pinelopi Anagnostopoulou, Olga Gorlanova, Claudia Kuehni, Martin Röösli, Philipp Latzin, and Urs Frey. "Dynamics of respiratory symptoms during infancy and associations with wheezing at school age." ERJ Open Research 4, no. 4 (October 2018): 00037–2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/23120541.00037-2018.
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Children with frequent respiratory symptoms in infancy have an increased risk for later wheezing, but the association with symptom dynamics is unknown. We developed an observer-independent method to characterise symptom dynamics and tested their association with subsequent respiratory morbidity.In this birth-cohort of healthy neonates, we prospectively assessed weekly respiratory symptoms during infancy, resulting in a time series of 52 symptom scores. For each infant, we calculated the transition probability between two consecutive symptom scores. We used these transition probabilities to construct a Markov matrix, which characterised symptom dynamics quantitatively using an entropy parameter. Using this parameter, we determined phenotypes by hierarchical clustering. We then studied the association between phenotypes and wheezing at 6 years.In 322 children with complete data for symptom scores during infancy (16 864 observations), we identified three dynamic phenotypes. Compared to the low-risk phenotype, the high-risk phenotype, defined by the highest entropy parameter, was associated with an increased risk of wheezing (odds ratio (OR) 3.01, 95% CI 1.15–7.88) at 6 years. In this phenotype, infants were more often male (64%) and had been exposed to environmental tobacco smoke (31%). In addition, more infants had siblings (67%) and attended childcare (38%).We describe a novel method to objectively characterise dynamics of respiratory symptoms in infancy, which helps identify abnormal clinical susceptibility and recovery patterns of infant airways associated with persistent wheezing.
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Huang, Rong, Yu Dong, Anne Monique Nuyt, Emile Levy, Shu-Qin Wei, Pierre Julien, William D. Fraser, and Zhong-Cheng Luo. "Large birth size, infancy growth pattern, insulin resistance and β-cell function." European Journal of Endocrinology 185, no. 1 (July 1, 2021): 77–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/eje-20-1332.
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Objective Large birth size programs an elevated risk of type 2 diabetes in adulthood, but data are absent concerning glucose metabolic health impact in infancy. We sought to determine whether the large birth size is associated with insulin resistance and β-cell function in infancy and evaluate the determinants. Design and participants In the Canadian 3D birth cohort, we conducted a nested matched (1:2) study of 70 large-for-gestational-age (LGA, birth weight >90th percentile) and 140 optimal-for-gestational-age (OGA, 25th–75th percentiles) control infants. The primary outcomes were homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and beta-cell function (HOMA-β) at age 2-years. Results HOMA-IR and HOMA-β were similar in LGA and OGA infants. Adjusting for maternal and infant characteristics, decelerated growth in length during early infancy (0–3 months) was associated with a 25.8% decrease (95% confidence intervals 6.7–41.0%) in HOMA-β. During mid-infancy (3–12 months), accelerated growth in weight was associated with a 25.5% (0.35–56.9%) increase in HOMA-IR, in length with a 69.3% increase (31.4–118.0%) in HOMA-IR and a 24.5% (0.52–54.3%) increase in HOMA-β. Decelerated growth in length during late infancy (1–2 years) was associated with a 28.4% (9.5–43.4%) decrease in HOMA-IR and a 21.2% (3.9–35.4%) decrease in HOMA-β. Female sex was associated with higher HOMA-β, Caucasian ethnicity with lower HOMA-IR, and maternal smoking with lower HOMA-β. Conclusions This study is the first to demonstrate that large birth size is not associated with insulin resistance and β-cell function in infancy but infancy growth pattern matters. Decelerated infancy growth may be detrimental to beta-cell function.
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Schlichting, Deborah, Ladan Hashemi, and Cameron Grant. "Infant Food Security in New Zealand: A Multidimensional Index Developed from Cohort Data." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 2 (January 21, 2019): 283. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16020283.
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Food security (FS) during infancy is associated with lifelong outcomes. New Zealand is a developed economy that reports poor childhood nutrition-related health statistics, particularly among minority children, yet has no measure of FS applicable to infancy. The objective was to develop an FS index for New Zealand infants and examine its association with demographic covariates and health outcomes. Within a large (n = 6853) nationally representative cohort, variables describing infant food consumption, breastfeeding, and maternal food-related coping methods were collected from mothers during late infancy. An FS index was derived using confirmatory factor analysis. Associations were assessed by logistic regressions and described using odds ratios (OR) and ≥95% confidence intervals (CI). Fifteen percent of the cohort was highly FS, 43% tenuously food insecure (FIS), and 16% highly food insecure (FIS). Infants from minority ethnic groups had lower odds of being food secure, as did those born to the youngest mothers, mothers who smoked, or those who lived in low-income households. FIS infants had higher odds of morbidity. Interventions to improve infant FS should focus on improving dietary quality, and should give particular consideration to minority infants. We identified that FIS shows wide ethnic and socioeconomic inequity, and is associated with poorer health. The most important driving factors of FIS included poor quality weaning diets, as well as poverty and its proxies. Any interventions to improve infant FS should focus on increasing fruit and vegetable consumption to recommended intake levels, and should give particular consideration to minority infants.
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Oren, Joseph, Dorothy H. Kelly, and Daniel C. Shannon. "Pneumogram Recordings in Infants Resuscitated for Apnea of Infancy." Pediatrics 83, no. 3 (March 1, 1989): 364–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.83.3.364.
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Infants who sustained a spell of apnea of infancy during which they were resuscitated have been shown to be at increased risk for sudden infant death syndrome. To determine the value of the pneumogram as a predictor of outcome in this population, the first pneumogram obtained of 51 such infants was analyzed. The infants were grouped on the basis of subsequent outcome during a course of monitoring: group 1—infants who died during a subsequent event; group 2—infants who received resuscitation or vigorous stimulation to terminate a subsequent spell; group 3—infants who survived and did not have a significant subsequent episode. The results for these infants were compared with those of a control group matched for age and sex. A detailed, blinded computer analysis revealed no significant difference in the results of the pneumogram analysis between the three groups. It did not identify the infants in whom apneic spells necessitating resuscitation subsequently developed or those who died. However, when compared with the control group, infants with apnea of infancy had significantly higher mean respiratory rates, heart rates, and tachycardia indexes. It is concluded that, although the first pneumogram does not predict the risk of an adverse outcome in a population of infants with severe apnea of infancy, it does reveal subtle cardiorespiratory differences between study and control infants.
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Quinn, Paul C., Kang Lee, and Olivier Pascalis. "Face Processing in Infancy and Beyond: The Case of Social Categories." Annual Review of Psychology 70, no. 1 (January 4, 2019): 165–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-102753.
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Prior reviews of infant face processing have emphasized how infants respond to faces in general. This review highlights how infants come to respond differentially to social categories of faces based on differential experience, with a focus on race and gender. We examine six different behaviors: preference, recognition, scanning, category formation, association with emotion, and selective learning. Although some aspects of infant responding to face race and gender may be accounted for by traditional models of perceptual development, other aspects suggest the need for a broader model that links perceptual development with social and emotional development. We also consider how responding to face race and gender in infancy may presage responding to these categories beyond infancy and discuss how social biases favoring own-race and female faces are formed.
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Bangun, Parmiana. "PENGARUH SPA BAYI TERHADAP PENINGKATAN BERAT BADAN BAYI USIA 4-6 BULAN DI WILAYAH KERJA PUSKESMAS TAPIAN DOLOK KABUPATEN SIMALUNGUN." Jurnal Ilmiah PANNMED (Pharmacist, Analyst, Nurse, Nutrition, Midwivery, Environment, Dentist) 16, no. 3 (December 31, 2021): 549–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.36911/pannmed.v16i3.1191.
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Infan is the period as well as the time of Christ's development. It is said to be a critical period because this period is very short for the environment and it is said to be a development period because infancy is not very short and can be repeated again. The most important period of child development is infancy and toddlerhood. In infancy / toddler there is a basic growth that will determine the next child's development. Infancy is the first month of life, the baby will adapt to the environment, changes in blood circulation, and begin to work the organs of the body, and in post-neonatal the baby will experience very fast growth. One way to stimulate growth and development in children is to use the baby solus per aqua (SPA) technique. Babies who are given SPA Babies will certainly grow and develop differently from the growth and development of babies who are not given SPA Babies. This is because the Baby SPA series aims to awaken the baby's sensory and motor nerves early with certain stimuli so that babies can grow actively and be more optimal both physically and mentally. This study aims to obtain an overview of the effect of Infant SPA on weight gain aged 4 to 6 months, Measuring the weight gain of infants aged 4 to 6 months who receive and Infant SPA and those who do not receive massage and Infant SPA at the Tapian Dolok Health Center, Simalungun Regency. The hypothesis in this study is that the increase in the weight of the babies who received the Baby Spa was greater than the standard deviation of the weight gain of 36.9 with a mean difference of 48.7 grams between the two groups. The sample size obtained is 12 respondents so that the number of samples will be increased to 30 according to the minimum sample that can be analyzed statistically. So the intervention group was 30 babies and the control group was 30 babies. The results showed that there was an effect of SPA for infants on weight gain of infants at the age of 4 to 6 months. This study is expected to provide knowledge to mothers who have babies aged 4 6 months the importance of SPA for babies to the baby's weight gain.
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Frazier, Christina, Jigna Dharod, Jeffrey Labban, Marlen Hernandez, Isa Ramos-Casillo, and Nichole Raynor. "Racial and Ethnic Differences in Infant Feeding Practices and Growth Trajectories Among Low-Income Households." Current Developments in Nutrition 6, Supplement_1 (June 2022): 646. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cdn/nzac061.030.
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Abstract Objectives (1) To examine duration and intensity of breastfeeding, age of introduction to solids/other liquids, and complementary feeding choices among racial/ethnic minority infants living in low-income households. (2) To determine the association between feeding choices and model growth trajectory from early to late infancy in the study population. Methods Mother-infant dyads were recruited from a pediatric clinic mainly serving low-income and/or Medicaid-recipient families. Mothers were interviewed in English or Spanish to collect sociodemographic, food security status, and feeding practices when the infant was 2, 4, 6, 9, and 12 months of age (n = 249). From 6-months onwards, 24-hour feeding recalls were conducted to estimate daily nutrient intake. Infant height and weight were retrieved from the electronic medical record to estimate growth trajectories from early to late infancy. Results By race/ethnicity, the majority of the participants were African American (46%) or Hispanic (35%). The prevalence of low to very low food insecurity was 10%. Exclusive breastfeeding was not common among dyads at 2 (26%), 4 (17%), and 6 months (4%). Partial breastfeeding was significantly higher among Hispanic mothers (P < .05). For instance, at 4 months 72% of Hispanic mothers partially breastfed compared to 34% African American and 31% of non-Hispanic White mothers (p < .001). Early introduction to solids/other liquids was more common within African American dyads (p < .05). Preliminary growth trajectory modeling indicated some racial/ethnic differences, especially the weight of Hispanic infants was marginally higher compared to non-Hispanic white infants (p = .072) in late infancy. Conclusions Significant differences in infant feeding practices, including breastfeeding and introduction to solids/liquids, exist by race/ethnicity. Examination of these differences in feeding practices will be critical to understanding how they affect growth trajectory from early to late infancy. Funding Sources National Institute of Health NICHD.
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E. Trehub, Sandra. "Musicality in Infancy." Psihologijske teme 32, no. 1 (April 21, 2023): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.31820/pt.32.1.1.
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The present review summarizes the available evidence on musicality, or music-related abilities, in infants (birth to 3 years). In the early months of life, infants are responsive to the pitch and temporal patterns of music. Their perceptual skills are similar, in many respects, to those of adults, presumably because of the nature of the human auditory system. Adult-infant differences, where evident, are attributable to infants’ unfamiliarity with the musical conventions of their culture. Musical enculturation proceeds more rapidly for temporal than for pitch processing. Musical exposure, especially the singing of caregivers, is prevalent in infancy. Caregivers’ music-making for infants has consequences for their emotional and social regulation and for their subsequent self-regulation abilities. By the end of their first year, most infants have become music-makers as well as music listeners. They move spontaneously to music, and their patterns of “dancing” undergo considerable change in the subsequent months and years. Early dancing is influenced by the familiarity of the music, and later dancing may include aspects of caregivers’ dance movements. Although the onset of singing occurs considerably later than the onset of dance, early singing is remarkably accurate in terms of its pitch range, pitch contours, rhythmic patterning, and fluency, especially when infants sing in their familiar home environment.
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Roy, Sani M., Alessandra Chesi, Frank Mentch, Rui Xiao, Rosetta Chiavacci, Jonathan A. Mitchell, Andrea Kelly, et al. "Body Mass Index (BMI) Trajectories in Infancy Differ by Population Ancestry and May Presage Disparities in Early Childhood Obesity." Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 100, no. 4 (April 1, 2015): 1551–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2014-4028.
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Context: No consensus definition exists for excess adiposity during infancy. After age 2 years, high body mass index (BMI) is related to adverse cardiometabolic outcomes. Before age 2 years, the utility of BMI as a metric of excess adiposity is unknown. Objectives: The objective of the study was to characterize infant BMI trajectories in a diverse, longitudinal cohort and investigate the relationship between the infancy BMI trajectory and childhood obesity. Subjects: Healthy, nonpreterm infants (n = 2114) in the Genetic Causes for Complex Pediatric Disorders study (The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia) with six or more BMI measurements in the first 13.5 months participated in the study. Design: For each infant, the BMI trajectory was modeled using polynomial regression. Independent effects of clinical factors on magnitude and timing of peak BMI were assessed. The relationship between infancy BMI and early childhood BMI (age 4 y) was examined (n = 1075). Results: The cohort was 53% male and 61% African-American. Peak BMI was 18.6 ± 1.7 kg/m2 and occurred at 8.6 ± 1.4 months. In multivariate analysis, boys had a higher (0.50 kg/m2, P < .001) peak BMI than girls. The peak was higher (0.53 kg/m2, P ≤ .001) and occurred earlier (by 12 d, P < .001) in African-American vs white children. The odds of obesity at age 4 years increased among children with higher (odds ratio 2.02; P < .001) and later (odds ratio 1.26; P = .02) infancy peak BMI. Conclusions: We demonstrate sex- and ancestry-specific differences in infancy BMI and an association of infancy peak BMI with childhood BMI. These findings support the potential utility of infancy BMI to identify children younger than age 2 years with increased risk for later obesity.
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Abdel Salam, Seham H., Esaad M. Menazie, Marwa Elhady, and Shahinaz El Attar. "The effect of brain-derived neurotrophic factor on motor development and its relation to the pattern of feeding in early infancy." Scientific Journal of Al-Azhar Medical Faculty, Girls 5, no. 1 (2021): 223–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/sjamf.sjamf_135_20.
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Background Infant feeding is a modifiable health behavior that has long-term effect on various aspects of infant's neurodevelopmental achievement. Neurotrophins are a family of proteins, especially nerve growth factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), that play a major role in the development, nutrition, growth, and maintenance of the neurons. Moreover, BDNF has a major role in axonal guidance, promoting growth of dendrites and dendritic spines, and in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative, cardiometabolic, and autoimmune diseases. Aim This study aimed to evaluate the effect of feeding pattern in the first 6 months of life on BDNF serum level and motor development in early infancy. Patients and methods This cross-sectional study included 60 clinically healthy infants aged 6–12 months who were categorized according to their feeding pattern in the first 6 months of life into 30 breastfed and 30 formula-fed infants. BDNF serum levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and Denver developmental screening tests were assessed in relation to the feeding pattern. Results Infants with delayed achievement of motor milestones had significant lower level of BDNF than those with appropriate development. Breastfed infants had higher BDNF level (3.45±1.6 ng/ml) than formula-fed infants (1.98±1.30 ng/ml) (P<0.0001). Achievement of motor developmental milestone was significantly delayed in artificially fed than breastfed infant (43.3 vs. 16.7%) (P=0.02). Regression analysis demonstrated that BDNF is an independent predictor of motor development in early infancy. Conclusion BDNF is an important regulator of motor development in early infancy. Serum level of BDNF was higher; achievement of motor milestones was earlier in breastfed than formula-fed infants. Health programs encouraging exclusive breastfeeding in the first 6 months of life should be established. Efforts should be done to follow-up the motor development of artificially fed infant for early detection of any delay.
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Easwar, Vijayalakshmi, Susan Scollie, Michael Lasarev, Matthew Urichuk, Steven J. Aiken, and David W. Purcell. "Characteristics of Speech-Evoked Envelope Following Responses in Infancy." Trends in Hearing 25 (January 2021): 233121652110043. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/23312165211004331.
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Envelope following responses (EFRs) may be a useful tool for evaluating the audibility of speech sounds in infants. The present study aimed to evaluate the characteristics of speech-evoked EFRs in infants with normal hearing, relative to adults, and identify age-dependent changes in EFR characteristics during infancy. In 42 infants and 21 young adults, EFRs were elicited by the first (F1) and the second and higher formants (F2+) of the vowels /u/, /a/, and /i/, dominant in low and mid frequencies, respectively, and by amplitude-modulated fricatives /s/ and /∫/, dominant in high frequencies. In a subset of 20 infants, the in-ear stimulus level was adjusted to match that of an average adult ear (65 dB sound pressure level [SPL]). We found that (a) adult–infant differences in EFR amplitude, signal-to-noise ratio, and intertrial phase coherence were larger and spread across the frequency range when in-ear stimulus level was adjusted in infants, (b) adult–infant differences in EFR characteristics were the largest for low-frequency stimuli, (c) infants demonstrated adult-like phase coherence when they received a higher (i.e., unadjusted) stimulus level, and (d) EFR phase coherence and signal-to-noise ratio changed with age in the first year of life for a few F2+ vowel stimuli in a level-specific manner. Together, our findings reveal that development-related changes in EFRs during infancy likely vary by stimulus frequency, with low-frequency stimuli demonstrating the largest adult–infant differences. Consistent with previous research, our findings emphasize the significant role of stimulus level calibration methods while investigating developmental trends in EFRs.
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Oren, Joseph, Dorothy H. Kelly, and Daniel C. Shannon. "Familial Occurrence of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome and Apnea of Infancy." Pediatrics 80, no. 3 (September 1, 1987): 355–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.80.3.355.
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We sought to determine the outcome of infants born to families with multiple victims of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and/or apnea of infancy. Seventy-three infants, born to families who had two or more previous siblings who had either died of SIDS or who were monitored at home for apnea of infancy or for abnormal results on polysomnogram and/or pneumogram recording, were prospectively monitored. The infants underwent polysomnogram and pneumogram recording and were subsequently monitored at home with a cardiorespiratory monitor. All episodes of apnea were immediately reviewed. Thirteen infants (18%) had subsequent severe episodes of apnea and five other infants (7%) died during a subsequent episode. All deaths occurred in families who had two or more SIDS victims. The outcome for the 17 infants who were half siblings was similar to the outcome for full siblings. Clinical data of the infants and results of evaluation were not predictive of outcome.
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Fink, Charles, Rachel Peters, Jennifer Koplin, Justin Brown, and Katrina Allen. "Factors Affecting Vitamin D Status in Infants." Children 6, no. 1 (January 8, 2019): 7. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/children6010007.
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Vitamin D is critical to children’s skeletal development and health. Despite this, the factors which determine vitamin D concentrations during infancy remain incompletely understood. This article reviews the literature assessing the factors which can affect vitamin D status in infancy, including antenatal and postnatal vitamin D supplementation. Observational data supports that dietary intake of vitamin D, UV exposure, and geographic factors contribute significantly to infants’ vitamin D status, but the relationship is unclear regarding genetic variation, ethnicity, and maternal vitamin D status. Randomised controlled trials have compared higher versus lower doses of infant vitamin D supplementation, but no studies have compared infant vitamin D supplementation to placebo and eliminated external sources of vitamin D to fully quantify its effect on vitamin D status. Knowledge gaps remain regarding the factors associated with optimal vitamin D concentrations in infants—including key factors such as ethnicity and genetic variation—and further studies are needed.
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Donovan, Brittney M., Andrew Abreo, Tan Ding, Tebeb Gebretsadik, Kedir N. Turi, Chang Yu, Juan Ding, et al. "Dose, Timing, and Type of Infant Antibiotic Use and the Risk of Childhood Asthma." Clinical Infectious Diseases 70, no. 8 (July 24, 2019): 1658–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciz448.
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Abstract Background Aspects of infant antibiotic exposure and its association with asthma development have been variably explored. We aimed to evaluate comprehensively and simultaneously the impact of dose, timing, and type of infant antibiotic use on the risk of childhood asthma. Methods Singleton, term-birth, non–low-birth-weight, and otherwise healthy children enrolled in the Tennessee Medicaid Program were included. Infant antibiotic use and childhood asthma diagnosis were ascertained from prescription fills and healthcare encounter claims. We examined the association using multivariable logistic regression models. Results Among 152 622 children, 79% had at least 1 antibiotic prescription fill during infancy. Infant antibiotic use was associated with increased odds of childhood asthma in a dose-dependent manner, with a 20% increase in odds (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.20 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.19–1.20]) for each additional antibiotic prescription filled. This significant dose-dependent relationship persisted after additionally controlling for timing and type of the antibiotics. Infants who had broad-spectrum-only antibiotic fills had increased odds of developing asthma compared with infants who had narrow-spectrum-only fills (aOR, 1.10 [95% CI, 1.05–1.19]). There was no significant association between timing, formulation, anaerobic coverage, and class of antibiotics and childhood asthma. Conclusions We found a consistent dose-dependent association between antibiotic prescription fills during infancy and subsequent development of childhood asthma. Our study adds important insights into specific aspects of infant antibiotic exposure. Clinical decision making regarding antibiotic stewardship and prevention of adverse effects should be critically assessed prior to use during infancy.
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Lamouse-Smith, Esi, Caleb Radens, and Michael Starnbach. "Antibiotic induced intestinal dysbiosis in infant mice impacts CD8+ T cell anti-viral immune function and control of infection (IRC8P.494)." Journal of Immunology 192, no. 1_Supplement (May 1, 2014): 190.22. http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.192.supp.190.22.
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Abstract Infancy and childhood is a critical period for the development of long-term immune function. Normal acquisition of the gastrointestinal (GIT) flora during this period is now appreciated in its role on immune system development and function. Antibiotics cause GIT flora dysbiosis and may alter normal GIT colonization during infancy. Subsequently, immune development and function may also be affected. In this infant mouse model of antibiotic mediated GIT flora dysbiosis, perinatal antibiotic treatment (AT) alters the composition of the GIT flora in mothers and their infants. CD8+ T cells from AT infant mice activated in vitro with cytokines, proliferate, express activation markers, and produce IFN-γ. However, unlike non-antibiotic treated (CTRL) infant mice, AT mice succumb to vaccinia virus infection. AT infant mice survive sub-lethal infection indicating effective primary immune responses to control infection. Interestingly, the expansion of Teff, Tem, and Tcm subsets differs between CTRL and AT sub-lethally infected infant mice. Transfer of OT-I T cells into AT infant mice prior to lethal infection rescues these mice from death. However, expansion of OT-I T cells is limited in AT infant mice and the differential expression of effector and memory cell markers is also recapitulated. These results suggest that dysbiosis during infancy negatively impacts effective adaptive primary immune responses and has potential consequences on memory T cell development.
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Oluwole, Esther O., Titilope A. Adeyemo, Gbemisola E. Osanyin, Oluwakemi O. Odukoya, Phyllis J. Kanki, and Bosede B. Afolabi. "Feasibility and acceptability of early infant screening for sickle cell disease in Lagos, Nigeria—A pilot study." PLOS ONE 15, no. 12 (December 3, 2020): e0242861. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242861.
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In Nigeria, about 150000 babies are born annually with sickle cell disease (SCD), and this figure has been estimated to increase by 100% by the year 2050 without effective and sustainable control strategies. Despite the high prevalence, newborn screening for SCD which allows for early prophylactic treatment, education of parents/guardians and comprehensive management is not yet available. This study explored a strategy for screening in early infancy during the first and second immunization visits, determined the prevalence, feasibility and acceptability of early infant screening for SCD and the evaluation of the HemoTypeSC diagnostic test as compared to the high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) gold standard. A cross-sectional study was conducted in two selected primary health care centres in Somolu local government area (LGA) in Lagos, Nigeria. Two hundred and ninety-one mother-infant pairs who presented for the first or second immunization visit were consecutively enrolled in the study following written informed consent. The haemoglobin genotype of mother-infant pairs was determined using the HemoTypeSC rapid test kit. Confirmation of the infants’ Hb genotype was done with HPLC. Data were analysed with SPSS version 22. Validity and Predictive value of HemotypeSC rapid screening test were also calculated. Infant screening for SCD was acceptable to 86% of mothers presenting to the immunization clinics. The prevalence of SCD among the infant cohort was 0.8%. The infants diagnosed with SCD were immediately enrolled in the paediatric SCD clinic for disease-specific care. The HemoTypeSC test had 100% sensitivity and specificity for sickle cell disease in early infancy compared to HPLC. This study affirms that it is feasible and acceptable for mothers to implement a SCD screening intervention program in early infancy in Lagos State. The study also demonstrates the utility of the HemotypeSC rapid testing for ease and reduced cost of screening infants for SCD.
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Snowdon, Charles, and A. Margaret Elowson. "'BABBLING' IN PYGMY MARMOSETS: DEVELOPMENT AFTER INFANCY." Behaviour 138, no. 10 (2001): 1235–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685390152822193.
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AbstractInfant pygmy marmosets (Cebuella pygmaea) are extremely vocal with much of their calling occurring in long sequences of mixed call-types that appears to have several parallels to the babbling of human infants (Elowson et al., 1998b). We refer to this vocal behaviour as Pygmy Marmoset Babbling (PMB) (Elowson et al., 1998a). We followed several of our original subjects beyond infancy to adulthood. Babbling bouts continued to appear through the age of puberty though at a reduced rate from that seen in infancy, but babbling was rarely observed in adults. With increasing age the vocal bouts contained a greater diversity of call types per bout and a decrease in call series duration. In addition, with increasing age there were decreasing proportions of calls that were Adult Variant and Infant calls and an increase in Adult calls. Structural analyses of trills, the most common call type found in vocal bouts, showed increased proportions of well-formed trills and decreased proportions of poorly formed trills with increased age, with different features reaching adult form at different ages. Babbling by juvenile marmosets was associated with increased social interactions with other group members as we had observed with infants. 'Babbling' in both infant and juvenile marmosets might provide vocal practice as well as attract attention from other group members.
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Sindhura Dk, Siri, and Vikas Jain. "INFANT’S SKIN AND CARE NEEDS WITH SPECIAL CONSIDERATION TO FORMULATION ADDITIVES." Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research 11, no. 12 (December 7, 2018): 75. http://dx.doi.org/10.22159/ajpcr.2018.v11i12.27384.
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Infancy is the time of adaptation from intrauterine life to the rather dry and cold, environment. Infant skin is more sensitive due to the immature immune system, hence, effortlessly prone to complications. Children from different age groups face diverse skin problems such as cradle cap, infant eczema, diaper rash, prickly heat, and many more. During early infancy, the products such as mild cleansers and lotions are used, and later, massage oils, creams, lotions, soaps, bubble bath, and other products are utilized for another few years, as a part of routine care. The preterm infants are more prone to skin damage and percutaneous toxicity from topically applied products. The ingredients incorporated in infant care products require special attention while choosing a product for them. Topical application of any such product requires thorough screening for potentially harmful ingredients before its exposure to the infant’s skin. Products used for infants should be safe and restricted of fragrance, coloring agents, parabens, plant oils, extracts, and other obnoxious ingredients. The literature is flooded with the list of safer excipients that can be utilized for the development of skin care products for infants and children.
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Hauck, Janet L., Isabella T. Felzer-Kim, and Kathryn L. Gwizdala. "Early Movement Matters: Interplay of Physical Activity and Motor Skill Development in Infants With Down Syndrome." Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 37, no. 2 (April 1, 2020): 160–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/apaq.2019-0012.
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This longitudinal study investigated monthly motor development and physical activity (PA) of infants with and without Down syndrome. Gross and fine motor skills (Bayley Scales of Infant Development-III) and PA (accelerometer) were assessed in 35 infants at eight time points during infancy. A multivariate mixed model identified time points when motor scores diverged between the groups. In infants with Down syndrome, bivariate correlations between monthly PA and motor changes were calculated, and multivariate analysis of variance probed the influence of early PA on motor-skill timing. Results indicate that differences in gross and fine motor skills first emerge at 2 and 4 months, respectively. In infants with Down syndrome, gross motor and PA changes between 4 and 6 months were positively correlated. Infants more active than the mean at 2 or 3 months achieved several prone and sitting skills earlier. These results highlight the adaptability of early infancy and the importance of early intervention.
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Dewey, Kathryn G., and Camila M. Chaparro. "Session 4: Mineral metabolism and body composition Iron status of breast-fed infants." Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 66, no. 3 (July 16, 2007): 412–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002966510700568x.
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Fe deficiency is a common nutritional disorder during infancy, particularly in low-income countries. The Fe status of a breast-fed infant is strongly influenced by the body Fe content at birth, which is determined by factors that operate before birth (maternal Fe status before and during pregnancy; infant gestational age and birth weight) and at the time of delivery (the timing of umbilical cord clamping). Delaying the clamping of the umbilical cord for 2 min can increase body Fe content by approximately 33% (75 mg), and results in greater Fe stores at 6 months of age. After birth, male gender and a rapid rate of weight gain are associated with lower Fe status. During the first half of infancy dietary Fe requirements depend on Fe stores at birth. For an exclusively-breast-fed full-term normal-birth-weight infant with delayed umbilical cord clamping, whose mother had adequate Fe status during pregnancy, the Fe provided from stores and breast milk is sufficient for ≥6 months, but before this time higher-risk infants may become Fe deficient. Fe supplementation can be beneficial for high-risk infants, but can have adverse effects on growth and morbidity of Fe-replete infants. After 6 months most breast-fed infants will require complementary foods that are rich in Fe.
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Webb, L., A. Phillips, and J. Roberts. "P133 Modelling REM-NREM activity cycling in infants." SLEEP Advances 3, Supplement_1 (October 1, 2022): A72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sleepadvances/zpac029.201.
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Abstract Sleep states in infancy differ from adult sleep states. Due to different cortical and physical manifestations, the REM and NREM equivalent sleep states in infants are often denoted as Active and Quiet sleep. Key differences in infant REM-NREM cycling include rapid cycling, and commencement of sleep in the REM state, instead of NREM. The physiological mechanisms underlying developmental changes in REM-NREM cycling in infancy are not well understood. We extended an existing, physiologically based model of sleep-wake behaviour to include a REM-on group and REM-off group, with mutual inhibition between these providing the basis for REM-NREM cycling. We model a REM pressure driving the REM-NREM cycling, similar to other proposed models and motivated by the known phenomenon of increased REM sleep following REM deprivation. We found parameter combinations that produce the REM-NREM cycling observed in infancy and early childhood. Through varying the parameters governing the dynamics of the REM pressure drive, the model is able to reproduce both newborn infant Wake-REM-NREM behaviours and the older Wake-NREM-REM pattern. Our results suggest that REM pressure clearance plays a dominant role in determining the initial sleep state, and increases in REM pressure from wake/NREM controls REM latency and duration. We have identified a plausible mechanism for the immature sleep state cycling observed in infants. In line with theories of REM sleep’s purpose in cortical synaptic remodelling, a process which evolves rapidly in infancy, we found that REM pressure clearance times likely vary along early development, triggering a switch from REM-first to NREM-first sleep.
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V R Selvaambigai. "A Study to Assess the Impact of Pathological Jaundice on Development during Early Childhood at Selected Hospitals, Puducherry, India." International Journal of Nursing Care 7, no. 1 (January 21, 2019): 93–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.37506/ijonc.v7i1.7667.
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Infants are important vulnerable groups in the segment of population and they are the determinants of health of nation. The future of the country depends on the care given to children. Jaundice is considered pathologic if it presents within the first 24 hours after birth, the total serum bilirubin level rises by more than 5 mg per dL (86 mol per L) per day or is higher than 17 mg per dL (290 mol per L), or an infant has signs and symptoms suggestive of serious illness. The present study aimed to assess the development among infants affected with pathological jaundice at selected hospital in puducherry. A descriptive research design was used and the study was carried out, 300 infants affected with pathological jaundice during newborn life were selected as the study sample using convenient sampling technique. The tools used for the data collection included newborn assessment tool, ages and stages questionnaire. Ages and stages questionnaire is a standardized questionnaire used worldwide to assess the development of children at all level of ages. Newborns with pathological jaundice were assessed for their growth. The newborns were followed during their regular visit to well-baby clinic, there development were assessed at 1 months (early infancy )and again at 12 months(late infancy) .On association between the early and late infants development, it was found that there was improvement in development between them which stated that there was impact of pathological jaundice on the development during early infancy whereas during late infancy they caught with the normal development showing improvement in overall domains. As per the statistical result, the calculated chisquare value was significant at 0.01 level (p<0.001).
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Tinghäll Nilsson, Ulrika, Bo Lönnerdal, Olle Hernell, Anne Staudt Kvistgaard, Lotte Neergaard Jacobsen, and Pia Karlsland Åkeson. "Low-Protein Infant Formula Enriched with Alpha-Lactalbumin during Early Infancy May Reduce Insulin Resistance at 12 Months: A Follow-Up of a Randomized Controlled Trial." Nutrients 16, no. 7 (April 1, 2024): 1026. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu16071026.
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High protein intake during infancy results in accelerated early weight gain and potentially later obesity. The aim of this follow-up study at 12 months was to evaluate if modified low-protein formulas fed during early infancy have long-term effects on growth and metabolism. In a double-blinded RCT, the ALFoNS study, 245 healthy-term infants received low-protein formulas with either alpha-lactalbumin-enriched whey (α-lac-EW; 1.75 g protein/100 kcal), casein glycomacropeptide-reduced whey (CGMP-RW; 1.76 g protein/100 kcal), or standard infant formula (SF; 2.2 g protein/100 kcal) between 2 and 6 months of age. Breastfed (BF) infants served as a reference. At 12 months, anthropometrics and dietary intake were assessed, and serum was analyzed for insulin, C-peptide, and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). Weight gain between 6 and 12 months and BMI at 12 months were higher in the SF than in the BF infants (p = 0.019; p < 0.001, respectively), but were not significantly different between the low-protein formula groups and the BF group. S-insulin and C-peptide were higher in the SF than in the BF group (p < 0.001; p = 0.003, respectively), but more alike in the low-protein formula groups and the BF group. Serum IGF-1 at 12 months was similar in all study groups. Conclusion: Feeding modified low-protein formula during early infancy seems to reduce insulin resistance, resulting in more similar growth, serum insulin, and C-peptide concentrations to BF infants at 6-months post intervention. Feeding modified low-protein formula during early infancy results in more similar growth, serum insulin, and C-peptide concentrations to BF infants 6-months post intervention, probably due to reduced insulin resistance in the low-protein groups.
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BLAIR, CLANCY. "Early intervention for low birth weight, preterm infants: The role of negative emotionality in the specification of effects." Development and Psychopathology 14, no. 2 (May 15, 2002): 311–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579402002079.
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This study examined the relation of negative emotionality in infancy to child social and cognitive developmental outcomes among low birth weight (LBW) preterm infants participating in the Infant Health and Development Program (IHDP), a comprehensive compensatory education intervention beginning in infancy and lasting through age 3 years. In this analysis, intervention effects at age 36 months on maternal report of child behavior as assessed by the Child Behavior Checklist externalizing and internalizing scales and on intelligence as measured by the Stanford–Binet scale were largest among children characterized by higher levels of negative emotionality in infancy. Findings indicate that for LBW preterm infants characterized by negative emotionality at age 12 months the intervention was associated with a twofold decrease in the occurrence of clinically meaningful levels of behavior problems at age 3 years and a fourfold decrease in the occurrence of a high-risk profile in which both internalizing and externalizing scores are in the clinically meaningful range. The intervention was also associated with a fivefold decrease in the occurrence of IQ ≤ 75 at age 3 years among children with higher levels of negative emotionality and heavier LBW (2001–2500 g). However, specific aspects of temperamental difficulty such as fearfulness and anger were related to internalizing and externalizing, respectively, in both the intervention and control groups. Findings are consistent with research linking negative emotionality in infancy with social and cognitive developmental outcomes in early childhood among normal birth weight infants. Results suggest the need for further attention to child temperament in early intervention research.
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Fox, Katelyn, Maya Vadiveloo, Karen McCurdy, Sara E. Benjamin-Neelon, Truls Østbye, and Alison Tovar. "Maternal Stress and Excessive Weight Gain in Infancy." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 9 (May 9, 2022): 5743. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095743.
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Rapid weight gain in infancy increases the risk of developing obesity early in life and contributes significantly to racial and ethnic disparities in childhood obesity. While maternal perceived stress is associated with childhood obesity, little is known about the impact it has on infant weight gain. Therefore, this study explores the impact of maternal perceived stress on change in weight-for-length (WFL) z-scores and the risk of rapid weight gain in infancy. We conducted a secondary data analysis of the longitudinal Nurture birth cohort (n = 666). Most mothers in the cohort were non-Hispanic/Latinx Black (71.6%). About one-half of mothers had a body mass index (BMI) greater than 25 prior to pregnancy, were unemployed, and had a low income. Most infants in the cohort were born full-term and were of normal weight. Data were collected at 3-, 6-, 9-, and 12-months postpartum. At each assessment, mothers completed the Cohen’s Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), and research assistants weighed and measured each infant. Tertiles were used to compare mothers with high and low perceived stress. A mixed model analysis of repeated measures assessed the associations between baseline perceived stress and the change in infant WFL z-scores over time. Log-binomial models assessed the association between baseline perceived stress and rapid weight gain, defined as a change in WFL z-score > 0.67 standard deviations from three to twelve months. Just under one-half of the infants (47%) experienced rapid weight gain between three and twelve months of age. Birthweight for gestational age (RR = 1.18, 95% CI = 1.08–1.29, p-value = 0.004), gestational age at birth (RR = 1.07, 95% CI = 1.01–1.14, p-value = 0.031), and weeks breastfed (0.99, 95% CI 0.99–1.00, p-value 0.044) were associated with risk of rapid weight gain in unadjusted analyses. WFL z-scores increased significantly over time, with no effect of perceived stress on change in WFL z-score or risk of rapid weight gain. Rapid weight gain in infancy was prevalent in this sample of predominately Black infants in the Southeastern US. We did not find evidence to support the hypothesis that maternal perceived stress influenced the risk of rapid weight gain. More work is needed to identify and assess the risk factors for rapid weight gain in infancy and to understand the role that maternal stress plays in the risk of childhood obesity so that prevention efforts can be targeted.
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Quadri, Marika, Caroline Baudouin, Roberta Lotti, Elisabetta Palazzo, Letizia Campanini, François-Xavier Bernard, Gaëlle Bellemere, Carlo Pincelli, and Alessandra Marconi. "Characterization of Skin Interfollicular Stem Cells and Early Transit Amplifying Cells during the Transition from Infants to Young Children." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 25, no. 11 (May 22, 2024): 5635. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms25115635.
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In the interfollicular epidermis, keratinocyte stem cells (KSC) generate a short-lived population of transit amplifying (TA) cells that undergo terminal differentiation after several cell divisions. Recently, we isolated and characterized a highly proliferative keratinocyte cell population, named “early” TA (ETA) cell, representing the first KSC progenitor with exclusive features. This work aims to evaluate epidermis, with a focus on KSC and ETA cells, during transition from infancy to childhood. Reconstructed human epidermis (RHE) generated from infant keratinocytes is more damaged by UV irradiation, as compared to RHE from young children. Moreover, the expression of several differentiation and barrier genes increases with age, while the expression of genes related to stemness is reduced from infancy to childhood. The proliferation rate of KSC and ETA cells is higher in cells derived from infants’ skin samples than of those derived from young children, as well as the capacity of forming colonies is more pronounced in KSC derived from infants than from young children’s skin samples. Finally, infants-KSC show the greatest regenerative capacity in skin equivalents, while young children ETA cells express higher levels of differentiation markers, as compared to infants-ETA. KSC and ETA cells undergo substantial changes during transition from infancy to childhood. The study presents a novel insight into pediatric skin, and sheds light on the correlation between age and structural maturation of the skin.
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Zens, Kyra D., Jun Kui Chen, Rebecca S. Guyer, Felix L. Wu, Filip Cvetkovski, Michelle Miron, and Donna L. Farber. "Reduced generation of lung tissue–resident memory T cells during infancy." Journal of Experimental Medicine 214, no. 10 (August 30, 2017): 2915–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1084/jem.20170521.
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Infants suffer disproportionately from respiratory infections and generate reduced vaccine responses compared with adults, although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In adult mice, lung-localized, tissue-resident memory T cells (TRMs) mediate optimal protection to respiratory pathogens, and we hypothesized that reduced protection in infancy could be due to impaired establishment of lung TRM. Using an infant mouse model, we demonstrate generation of lung-homing, virus-specific T effectors after influenza infection or live-attenuated vaccination, similar to adults. However, infection during infancy generated markedly fewer lung TRMs, and heterosubtypic protection was reduced compared with adults. Impaired TRM establishment was infant–T cell intrinsic, and infant effectors displayed distinct transcriptional profiles enriched for T-bet–regulated genes. Notably, mouse and human infant T cells exhibited increased T-bet expression after activation, and reduction of T-bet levels in infant mice enhanced lung TRM establishment. Our findings reveal that infant T cells are intrinsically programmed for short-term responses, and targeting key regulators could promote long-term, tissue-targeted protection at this critical life stage.
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Kumar, Prawin, Aparna Mukherjee, Shivani Randev, Guruprasad R. Medigeshi, Kana Ram Jat, Arti Kapil, Rakesh Lodha, and Sushil Kumar Kabra. "Effect of acute respiratory infections in infancy on pulmonary function test at 3 years of age: a prospective birth cohort study." BMJ Open Respiratory Research 7, no. 1 (February 2020): e000436. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjresp-2019-000436.
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IntroductionAcute respiratory infections (ARIs) in infancy may have a long-term impact on the developing respiratory system. We planned a prospective cohort study to determine the impact of ARI during infancy on the pulmonary function test indices at 3 years of age.MethodsA cohort of normal, full-term newborns were followed up 6 monthly and during ARI episodes. Infant pulmonary function tests (IPFTs) were performed at baseline and each follow-up visit using tidal breathing flow-volume loop, rapid thoracoabdominal compression (RTC) and raised volume RTC manoeuvres. During each ARI episode, nasopharyngeal aspirates were tested for respiratory pathogens by real-time PCR.ResultsWe screened 3421 neonates; 310 were enrolled; IPFT was performed in 225 (boys: 125 (55.6%)) at 3 years. During infancy, 470 ARI episodes were documented in 173 infants. At 3 years, children with history of any ARI episode during infancy had lower forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1.0), forced expiratory volume in 0.75 s (FEV0.75), forced expiratory volume in 0.5 s (FEV0.5), forced expiratory flow between 25% and 75% of FVC (FEF25–75), and maximal expiratory flow at 25% of FVC (MEF25) as compared with those without any ARI episode during infancy. The ratio of tidal expiratory flow (TEF) at 25% or 50% of tidal expiratory volume to peak TEF (TEF50 or TEF25/peak TEF) at 3 years was significantly increased in children who had ARI in infancy.ConclusionsARI during infancy is associated with impaired pulmonary function indices such as increased resistance and decreased forced expiratory flow and volume at 3 years of age.
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Rahat, Farhana, MF Abiduzzaman, and Ahmed Murtaza Choudhury. "Clinical Characteristics of Measles in Infancy: A Hospital Based Study." Dhaka Shishu (Children) Hospital Journal 36, no. 1 (March 26, 2021): 20–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/dshj.v36i1.52632.
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Background: There is a global resurgence of measles among children in recent years and a number of infants are being affected.
Objectives: The aim of the study was to determine the frequency of measles in infancy and to describe their clinical characteristics in a tertiary care children hospital.
Methods: A prospective observational study was conducted in Dr. MR Khan Shishu Hospital and Institute of Child Health from March, 2019 to February, 2020. The children who came with signs and symptoms of measles, like fever with maculopapular rash associated with cough, runny nose and conjunctivitis were recorded and frequency of measles in infants among hospitalized measles patients was noted. Infants with measles were enrolled for the study and their clinical characteristics, complications and outcome were determined. Data were analyzed by SPSS version 23.
Results: A total of 64 infants were studied. The frequency of measles in infants among hospitalized measles patients was 43%. Forty seven percent infants were between 9 to 10 months. Clinical features were typical and all had fever and maculopapular rash. Pneumonia was the main complication and occurred in 50(78%) cases which was followed by oral ulcer 42(66%), diarrhea 26(41%), febrile seizure 9(14%) and croup 5(8%). Thirty four (53%) infant had normal nutritional status. Only 19.51% infant received first dose of measles vaccine. The mortality rate was 2(3%).
Conclusion: A number of children are being affected by measles before completing first year of life and they develop complications which are related to morbidity and mortality. So, control and prevention of measles in infancy should give more importance.
DS (Child) H J 2020; 36(1) : 20-24
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Riddell, R. Pillai, and Nicole Racine. "Assessing Pain in Infancy: The Caregiver Context." Pain Research and Management 14, no. 1 (2009): 27–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2009/410725.
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BACKGROUND: Pain is largely accepted as being influenced by social context. Unlike most other developmental stages throughout the lifespan, infancy is marked by complete dependence on the caregiver. The present paper discusses the primary importance of understanding the caregiver context when assessing infant pain expression.OBJECTIVES: Based on a review of research from both the infant pain and infant mental health fields, three lines of evidence are presented. First, pain assessment is as subjective as the pain experience itself. Second, assessors must be cognizant of the relationship between infant pain expression, and caregiver sensitivity and emotional displays. Finally, larger systemic factors of the infant (such as caregiver relationship styles, caregiver psychological distress or caregiver acculturative stress) directly impact on infant expression.CONCLUSIONS: As a result of infants’ inability to give a self-report of their pain experience, caregivers play a crucial role in assessing the pain and taking appropriate action to manage it. Caregiver behaviours and predispositions have been shown to have a significant impact on infant pain reactivity and, accordingly, should not be ignored when assessing the infant in pain.
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Tsao, Jennie C. I., Subhadra Evans, Marcia Meldrum, Tamara Altman, and Lonnie K. Zeltzer. "A Review of CAM for Procedural Pain in Infancy: Part I. Sucrose and Non-Nutritive Sucking." Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5, no. 4 (2008): 371–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem084.
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There is increasing concern regarding the number of painful medical procedures that infants must undergo and the potential risks of alleviating infant pain with conventional pharmacologic agents. This article is Part I of a two-part series that aims to provide an overview of the literature on complementary and alternative (CAM) approaches for pain and distress related to medical procedures among infants up to six weeks of age. The focus of this article is a review of the empirical literature on sucrose with or without non-nutritive sucking (NNS) for procedural pain in infancy. Computerized databases were searched for relevant studies including prior reviews and primary trials. The most robust evidence was found for the analgesic effects of sucrose with or without NNS on minor procedural pain in healthy full-term infants. Despite some methodological weaknesses, the literature to date supports the use of sucrose, NNS and other sweetened solutions for the management of procedural pain in infancy.
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FRIEDEN, ILONA J., and NANCY B. ESTERLY. "Pyogenic Granulomas of Infancy Masquerading as Strawberry Hemangiomas." Pediatrics 90, no. 6 (December 1, 1992): 989–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.90.6.989.
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Pyogenic granuloma (lobular capillary hemangioma) is a neovascular proliferation which is relatively common in children. The development of pyogenic granuloma may follow minor trauma or may occur on undamaged skin. We present five cases of pyogenic granulomas in young infants which were confused with strawberry hemangiomas, and we discuss the differences between these two vascular growths and implications for therapy during early infancy. CASE REPORTS Patient 1 A 5-month-old male infant was seen in the Pediatric Dermatology Clinic of the Children's Hospital of Wisconsin for an expanding lesion on the left cheek. The lesion had developed shortly after birth and had enlarged rapidly during the 2 to 3 months before the visit that resulted in a diagnosis of hemangioma of infancy.
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Kang Sim, D. E., M. Cappiello, M. Castillo, B. Lozoff, S. Martinez, E. Blanco, and S. Gahagan. "Postnatal Growth Patterns in a Chilean Cohort: The Role of SES and Family Environment." International Journal of Pediatrics 2012 (2012): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/354060.
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Objective. This study examined how family environmental characteristics served as mediators in the relationship between socioeconomic conditions and infant growth in a cohort of Chilean infants.Methods. We studied 999 infants, born between 1991 and 1996, from a longitudinal cohort which began as an iron deficiency anemia preventive trial. SES (Graffar Index), the Life Experiences Survey, and the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) were assessed in infancy. Using path analysis, we assessed the relationships between the social factors, home environment, and infant growth.Results. During the first year, weight and length gain averaged 540 grams/month and 6.5 cm/month, respectively. In the path analysis model for weight gain, higher SES and a better physical environment were positively related to higher maternal warmth, which in turn was associated with higher average weight gain. Higher SES was directly related to higher average length gain.Conclusions. In our cohort, a direct relationship between SES and length gain developed during infancy. Higher SES was indirectly related to infant weight gain through the home environment and maternal warmth. As the fastest growing infants are at risk for later obesity, new strategies are needed to encourage optimal rather than maximal growth.
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Walker-Short, Elizabeth, Teresa Buckner, Timothy Vigers, Patrick Carry, Lauren A. Vanderlinden, Fran Dong, Randi K. Johnson, et al. "Epigenome-Wide Association Study of Infant Feeding and DNA Methylation in Infancy and Childhood in a Population at Increased Risk for Type 1 Diabetes." Nutrients 13, no. 11 (November 13, 2021): 4057. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu13114057.
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We assessed associations between infant diet (e.g., breastfeeding and introduction to solid foods) and DNA methylation in infancy and childhood. We measured DNA methylation in peripheral blood collected in infancy (9–15 months of age) in 243 children; and in a subset of 50 children, we also measured methylation in childhood (6–9 years of age) to examine persistence, and at birth (in cord blood) to examine temporality. We performed multivariable linear regression of infant diet on the outcome of methylation using epigenome-wide and candidate site approaches. We identified six novel CpG sites associated with breastfeeding duration using an EWAS approach. One differentially methylated site presented directionally consistent associations with breastfeeding (cg00574958, CPT1A) in infancy and childhood but not at birth. Two differentially methylated sites in infancy (cg19693031, TXNIP; cg23307264, KHSRP) were associated with breastfeeding and were not present at birth; however, these associations did not persist into childhood. Associations between infant diet and methylation in infancy at three sites (cg22369607, AP001525.1; cg2409200, TBCD; cg27173510, PGBD5) were also present at birth, suggesting the influence of exposures other than infant diet. Infant diet exposures are associated with persistent methylation differences in CPT1A, which may be one mechanism behind infant diet’s long-term health effects.
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Mayerl, C. J., K. E. Steer, A. M. Chava, L. E. Bond, C. E. Edmonds, F. D. H. Gould, B. M. Stricklen, T. L. Hieronymous, and R. Z. German. "The contractile patterns, anatomy and physiology of the hyoid musculature change longitudinally through infancy." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 288, no. 1946 (March 10, 2021): 20210052. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.0052.
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All mammalian infants suckle, a fundamentally different process than drinking in adults. Infant mammal oropharyngeal anatomy is also anteroposteriorly compressed and becomes more elongate postnatally. While suckling and drinking require different patterns of muscle use and kinematics, little insight exists into how the neuromotor and anatomical systems change through the time that infants suckle. We measured the orientation, activity and contractile patterns of five muscles active during infant feeding from early infancy until weaning using a pig model. Muscles not aligned with the long axis of the body became less mediolaterally orientated with age. However, the timing of activation and the contractile patterns of those muscles exhibited little change, although variation was larger in younger infants than older infants. At both ages, there were differences in contractile patterns within muscles active during both sucking and swallowing, as well as variation among muscles during swallowing. The changes in anatomy, coupled with less variation closer to weaning and little change in muscle firing and shortening patterns suggest that the neuromotor system may be optimized to transition to solid foods. The lesser consequences of aspiration during feeding on an all-liquid diet may not necessitate the evolution of variation in neuromotor function through infancy.
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Person, Tiffany L. A., Wendy A. Lavezzi, and Barbara C. Wolf. "Cosleeping and Sudden Unexpected Death in Infancy." Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine 126, no. 3 (March 1, 2002): 343–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.5858/2002-126-0343-casudi.
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Abstract Context.—The practice of infants cosleeping with adults has long been the subject of controversy. Autopsy findings in cases of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) are usually indistinguishable from those found with unintentional or intentional suffocation, and the determination of the cause of death in cases of sudden unexpected death in infancy is often based on investigative findings and the exclusion of natural or traumatic causes. Objective.—To further elucidate the risk of cosleeping. Methods.—We reviewed 58 cases of sudden unexpected infant deaths. Cases were excluded if there was any significant medical history or evidence of trauma or abuse. Results.—Twenty-seven of the infants were cosleeping. Eleven of these cases had been previously diagnosed as SIDS, and in 7 cases parental intoxication was documented. Conclusion.—Our findings support recent studies that suggest that cosleeping or placing an infant in an adult bed is a potentially dangerous practice. The frequency of cosleeping among cases diagnosed as SIDS in our study suggests that some of these deaths may actually be caused by mechanical asphyxia due to unintentional suffocation by the cosleeping adult and/or compressible bedding materials.
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Schim van der Loeff, Ina, Christo Tsilifis, Khalid Abdelhafiz, and Eleri J. Williams. "Recurrent group B stretococcus infection in an extremely premature infant: as a preterm neonate, infant and toddler." BMJ Case Reports 16, no. 7 (July 2023): e255216. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2023-255216.
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We report five discrete episodes of group B streptococcus (GBS) bacteraemia in an extremely premature infant, extending into early childhood. The first four episodes occurred during infancy despite appropriate treatment. Breastmilk was positive for group B streptococcal 16S DNA by polymerase chain reaction. The fifth episode occurred at 17 months of age, shortly after stopping antimicrobial prophylaxis.Radiological investigations did not identify a focus for recurrence of GBS bacteraemia, and immunological investigations and targeted whole genome sequencing yielded only transient hypogammaglobulinaemia of infancy, which resolved.This case highlights invasive GBS infection as a cause of infant morbidity. Premature infants are at particular risk of invasive as well as recurrent disease. GBS is typically a sensitive organism and each episode of GBS in our patient was effectively treated with penicillin. The role of breastmilk in recurrent GBS is controversial; in this case infant and mother isolated identical GBS serotypes and were concurrently treated with rifampicin.
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Ho, Peter S. Y., Maria A. Quigley, David F. Tucker, and Jennifer J. Kurinczuk. "Risk factors for hospitalisation in Welsh infants with a congenital anomaly." BMJ Paediatrics Open 6, no. 1 (February 2022): e001238. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjpo-2021-001238.
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ObjectivesTo investigate risk factor associated with hospitalisation of infants with a congenital anomaly in Wales, UK.DesignA population-based cohort study.SettingData from the Welsh Congenital Anomaly Register and Information Service linked to the Patient Episode Database for Wales and livebirths and deaths from the Office for National Statistics.PatientsAll livebirths between 1999 and 2015 with a diagnosis of a congenital anomaly, which was defined as a structural, metabolic, endocrine or genetic defect, as well as rare diseases of hereditary origin.Main outcome measuresAdjusted OR (aOR) associated with 1 or 2+ hospital admissions in infancy versus no admissions were estimated for sociodemographic, maternal and infant factors using multinomial logistic regression for the subgroups of all, isolated, multiple and cardiovascular anomalies.Results25 523 infants affected by congenital anomalies experienced a total of 50 705 admissions in infancy. Risk factors for ≥2 admissions were younger maternal age ≤24 years (aOR: 1.17; 95% CI 1.06 to 1.30), maternal smoking (aOR: 1.20; 1.10 to 1.31), preterm birth (aOR: 2.52; 2.25 to 2.83) and moderately severe congenital heart defects (aOR: 6.25; 4.47 to 8.74). Girls had an overall decreased risk of 2+ admissions (aOR: 0.84; 0.78 to 0.91). Preterm birth was a significant risk factor for admissions in all anomaly subgroups but the effect of the other characteristics varied according to anomaly subgroup.ConclusionsOver two-thirds of infants with an anomaly are admitted to hospital during infancy. Our findings identified sociodemographic and clinical characteristics contributing to an increased risk of hospitalisation of infants with congenital anomalies.
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Baker, Erika, Eugenia Baibazarova, Georgia Ktistaki, Katherine H. Shelton, and Stephanie H. M. van Goozen. "Development of fear and guilt in young children: Stability over time and relations with psychopathology." Development and Psychopathology 24, no. 3 (July 4, 2012): 833–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579412000399.
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AbstractExtremes in fearful temperament have long been associated with later psychopathology and risk pathways. Whereas fearful children are inhibited and anxious and avoid novel events, fearless individuals are disinhibited and more likely to engage in aggressive behavior. However, very few studies have examined fear in infants from a multimethod and prospective longitudinal perspective. This study had the following objectives: to examine behavioral, maternal reported, and physiological indices of fearful temperament in infancy, together with their relations and stability over time; and to establish whether early indices of fear predict fear later in toddlerhood. We also examined the association between behavioral and physiological measures of fear and guilt and whether fear in infancy predicts guilt in toddlers. Finally, we investigated infant risk factors for later psychopathology. We recorded skin conductance level (SCL) and heart rate (HR) and observed children's responses during a Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery fear paradigm across the first 3 years of life and during a guilt induction procedure at age 3 (N = 70). The results indicate that different measures of infant fear were associated across time. Observed fearlessness in infancy predicted observed fearlessness and low levels of SCL arousal to fear and guilt in toddlers. Low levels of HR and SCL to fear in infancy predicted low levels of physiological arousal to the same situation and to guilt 2 years later. Fear and guilt were significantly associated across measures. Finally, toddlers with clinically significant internalizing problems at age 3 were already notably more fearful in Year 1 as reflected by their significantly higher HR levels. The results indicated that assessments of children in infancy are predictive of how these children react 2 years later and therefore lend support to the idea that the emotional thermostat is set in the first 3 years of life. They also showed, for the first time, that infant fear is a predictor of guilt, which is an emotion that develops later. The implications of these findings for our understanding of developmental psychopathology are discussed.
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Embleton, Nicholas D., Murthy Korada, Claire L. Wood, Mark S. Pearce, Ravi Swamy, and Timothy D. Cheetham. "Catch-up growth and metabolic outcomes in adolescents born preterm." Archives of Disease in Childhood 101, no. 11 (June 10, 2016): 1026–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2015-310190.
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BackgroundAccelerated infant weight gain in individuals born full term is linked to cardiovascular risk in adulthood, but data in those born preterm are inconsistent.ObjectiveTo investigate the association between weight gain in infancy and childhood with later markers of the metabolic syndrome in adolescents who were born preterm.Study designLongitudinal cohort study.SettingChildren born preterm with regular assessments of infant growth had auxology, body composition (dual X-ray absorptiometry), blood pressure, insulin sensitivity and lipid profile determined in adolescence.ResultsWe reviewed 153 children (mean gestation 30.8 weeks, median birth weight 1365 g) of whom 102 consented to venepuncture at a median age of 11.5 years. Adolescent height and weight standard deviation scores (SDS) were similar to population averages (0.01±0.92 and 0.3±1.2, respectively) and did not differ between infants when grouped according to degree of catch-up in weight gain in the immediate postdischarge period to 12 weeks of age. There were no significant associations between infant weight gain (change in weight SDS adjusted for length) and later metabolic outcome. However, there were strong associations between more rapid childhood weight gain (after 1 year of age) and subsequent body composition (higher fat mass %, fat mass index and waist circumference) and metabolic markers (higher fasting insulin, blood pressure and lower insulin sensitivity).ConclusionsThe association of rapid weight gain on health is time critical in those born preterm; in early infancy, this does not impact on metabolic status in adolescence, in contrast to rapid weight gain in childhood, which should be discouraged. However, given the critical importance of brain growth in the neonatal period and infancy, further research is needed before strategies that discourage infant weight gain or catch-up can be recommended for infants born preterm.
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Bhat, Ganapathy K., Tony M. Plant, and David R. Mann. "Relationship between serum concentrations of leptin, soluble leptin receptor, testosterone and IGF-I, and growth during the first year of postnatal life in the male rhesus monkey, Macaca mulatta." European Journal of Endocrinology 153, no. 1 (July 2005): 153–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/eje.1.01939.
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Objectives: Subnormal leptin levels in low birth weight infants may allow for catch-up growth during infancy. Scant data are available that relate growth with circulating leptin during normal infancy in primates. The current study objective was to examine the association between serum leptin, its soluble receptor (sOB-R), testosterone and IGF-I concentrations, and body weight during infancy in male rhesus monkeys. Design: Hormone levels were assessed longitudinally in animals (n = 7) from birth until 1 year of age. Results: Body weight increased during the first 6 months of life and was strongly correlated with rising IGF-I levels and, as IGF-I plateaued and then declined during the second half of the year, body weight gain decelerated. In contrast, leptin levels declined gradually with age during the first year of life in conjunction with increasing body weight. There was no association between body weight gain and serum leptin levels or between serum testosterone and leptin values. Since sOB-R levels also declined with leptin values, it does not appear that levels of bioavailable leptin changed during infancy. Conclusions: The data do not support the contention that leptin regulates growth during infancy, but the close association between IGF-I levels and body weight suggested that this hormone may regulate growth in infant male monkeys. The failure to observe an association between serum testosterone and leptin concentrations suggested that leptin is not involved in the activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary –testicular axis during this developmental period.