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1

OBrien, Edward J., Anne E. Cook, and Jr Lorch, eds. Inferences during Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107279186.

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2

Freedle, Roy O. The prediction of TOEFL reading comprehension item difficulty for expository prose passages for three item types--main idea, inference, and supporting idea items. Princeton, N.J: Educational Testing Service, 1993.

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3

What just happened? Reading results and making inferences. New York: Crabtree Pub., 2010.

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4

Challen, Paul C. What just happened? Reading results and making inferences. New York: Crabtree Pub., 2010.

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5

Meutsch, Dietrich. Inferenz- und Elaborationstypen beim literarischen Verstehen von Texten: Zum Einfluss von Lese- und Äusserungssituation auf ästhetische und polyvalente Verstehenshandlungen. Siegen: Institut für Empirische Literatur- und Medienforschung, 1985.

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6

O'Brien, Edward J., Anne E. Cook, and Lorch Robert F. Jr. Inferences During Reading. Cambridge University Press, 2015.

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7

Inferences during Reading. Cambridge University Press, 2017.

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8

Inference (Reading Passages That Build Comprehensio). Teaching Resources, 2005.

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9

Reading Between the Lines: Understanding Inference. Routledge, 2011.

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10

VanInwagen, Patricia Y. Inference Is a Guess You Make. Zephyr Press, 1997.

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11

Barnes, Martha J. Contemporary's Reading and Critical Thinking: In the Content Areas. NTC/Contemporary Publishing Company, 1988.

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12

Smith, Sharon Dianthy. An investigation of elaborative and coherence inferences from an artificial knowledge base. 1995.

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13

Making Inferences (Reading Motivators). Monday Morning Books, 1989.

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14

Kraft. Comprehensive Skills: Intermediate, Making Inferences. NTC/Contemporary Publishing Company, 1993.

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15

Sjuberg, Gail. Meaning Matters: Inferences and Conclusions. Grass Roots Press, 2018.

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16

Making Inferences - High-Interest Reading Reproducible Worksheets. Remedia Publications, 2000.

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17

Beech, Linda. Inferences & Drawing Conclusions: 35 Reading Passages for Comprehension. Teaching Resources, 2006.

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18

Sharif, Shamshuritawati, Sharipah Soaad Syed Yahaya, and Azizan Saaban. Scientific investigation on univariate quantitative methods. UUM Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.32890/9789670876757.

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The aim of this book is to deliver the reader with a book where they can discover a brief research idea in statistics and mathematics including a wide range of topics such as t-test, ANOVA, L-moment, centrality measure, Quintic Bézier Triangular Patches, and abelianess in Group Theory.The book is advisable for the readers to have some basic foundation on statistical inference and mathematical formulation prior to reading the chapters in this book.It is also suitable for researchers who want to get up to speed quickly on modern statistical and mathematical approach.
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19

Sawada, Tadamasa, Yunfeng Li, and Zygmunt Pizlo. Shape Perception. Edited by Jerome R. Busemeyer, Zheng Wang, James T. Townsend, and Ami Eidels. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199957996.013.12.

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This chapter provides a review of topics and concepts that are necessary to study and understand 3D shape perception. This includes group theory and their invariants; model-based invariants; Euclidean, affine, and projective geometry; symmetry; inverse problems; simplicity principle; Fechnerian psychophysics; regularization theory; Bayesian inference; shape constancy and shape veridicality; shape recovery; perspective and orthographic projections; camera models; as well as definitions of shape. All concepts are defined and illustrated, and the reader is provided with references providing mathematical and computational details. Material presented here will be a good starting point for students and researchers who plan to study shape, as well as for those who simply want to get prepared for reading the contemporary literature on the subject.
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20

Lacewing, Michael. Could Psychoanalysis be a Science? Edited by K. W. M. Fulford, Martin Davies, Richard G. T. Gipps, George Graham, John Z. Sadler, Giovanni Stanghellini, and Tim Thornton. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199579563.013.0064.

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Could psychoanalysis be a science? There are three ways of reading this question. First, is psychoanalysis the kind of investigation or activity that could, logically speaking, be "scientific"? If we can defend a positive answer here, then it makes sense to ask, second, is psychoanalysis, in the form in which it has traditionally been practiced, and continues to be practiced, a science? If there are good reasons to doubt its credentials, then we might ask, third, is psychoanalysis able to become a science? This is a question about what is needed for the necessary transformation. The chapter argues that psychoanalysis can be a science, but that the historical debate raised important challenges to its methodology, viz., confirmation bias, suggestion, and unsupportable causal inference. The chapter argues that recent developments meet these challenges, and concludes with some reflections on the interdisciplinary nature of psychoanalysis.
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21

Adami, Hans-Olov, David J. Hunter, Pagona Lagiou, and Lorelei Mucci, eds. Textbook of Cancer Epidemiology. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190676827.001.0001.

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This book offers an overview of the epidemiology and primary prevention for most forms of human cancer. It summarizes concepts and methods of epidemiology, the biology of cancer, cancer genetics, and the emerging potential of biomarkers. It also reviews specific cancer sites in a consistent way, providing clinical and pathological outlines, descriptive epidemiology, and a comprehensive account of traditional and molecular risk factors and their etiological importance. To facilitate reading and use of our Textbook as a reference, we have consistently addressed potential risk factors in the same order throughout all site-specific chapters. Acknowledging that any causal inference has an element of subjectivity, we have also attempted to classify the strength of existing evidence into distinct categories for each cancer site. An epilogue summarizes the major contributions that epidemiology has made in the last few decades to our understanding of the causes of cancer, and speculates about future developments.
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22

Williams, Wes. ‘Invisible Guests’. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198794776.003.0007.

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Poetry has long been concerned with truth grasped as a form of communicable proof. But poets know about failed communication, too: when Virgil’s Aeneas tries, three times, to embrace the shade of his dead father, he moves to a distinctive ternary rhythm; one that is repeated throughout human history. This chapter, centred on a close reading of ‘Album, V’, part of Seamus Heaney’s final collection, Human Chain, discusses the experiments in inference which poetry enacts as a sustained, reflexive inquiry into the conditions and limits of communicability. Exploring both intertextual relations between ancient and modern poets and the contextual implications of shared sights, sounds, memories, gestures, and words, Heaney’s work moves between languages, genres, and generations. In so doing, it exemplifies the enduring salience and force of what Sperber and Wilson term ‘poetic effects’: generating common knowledge, they prove to be links in the chain of human, embodied cognition.
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23

Building Comprehension: Crosswords, Mazes, Games, and More to Build Skills in Making Inferences, Using Context Clues, Comparing & Contrasting, Identifying ... Predictions (Best Practices in Action). Teaching Resources, 2006.

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24

Ghiglieri, Carol. 100 Task Cards : Making Inferences: Reproducible Mini-Passages with Key Questions to Boost Reading Comprehension Skills. Scholastic, Incorporated, 2020.

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25

Sosa, Ernest. Epistemology. Princeton University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691183268.001.0001.

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In this concise book, one of the world's leading epistemologists provides a sophisticated, revisionist introduction to the problem of knowledge in Western philosophy. Modern and contemporary accounts of epistemology tend to focus on limited questions of knowledge and skepticism, such as how we can know the external world, other minds, the past through memory, the future through induction, or the world's depth and structure through inference. The book steps back for a better view of the more general issues posed by the ancient Greek Pyrrhonists. Returning to and illuminating this older, broader epistemological tradition, the book develops an original account of the subject, giving it substance not with Cartesian theology but with science and common sense. Descartes is a part of this ancient tradition, but he goes beyond it by considering not just whether knowledge is possible at all but also how we can properly attain it. In Cartesian epistemology, the book finds a virtue-theoretic account, one that is extended beyond the Cartesian context. Once epistemology is viewed in this light, many of its problems can be solved or fall away. The result is an important reevaluation of epistemology that will be essential reading for students and teachers.
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26

Borne, Liz, Jessica Cox, Millicent Hartgering, and Emily Pratt. Making Inferences from Text: A Teacher Sourcebook for Enhancing Reading Comprehension in the Middle Grades (Wisdom of Educators series). The Project for School Innovation, 2005.

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27

Kolb, Laura. Fictions of Credit in the Age of Shakespeare. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198859697.001.0001.

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In Shakespeare’s England, credit was synonymous with reputation, and reputation developed in the interplay of language, conduct, and social interpretation. As a consequence, artful language and social hermeneutics became practical, profitable skills. Since most people both used credit and extended it, the dual strategies of implication and inference—of producing and reading evidence—were everywhere. Like poetry or drama, credit was constructed: fashioned out of the interplay of artifice and interpretation. The rhetorical dimension of economic relations produced social fictions on a range of scales: from transitory performances facilitating local transactions to the long-term project of maintaining creditworthiness to the generalized social indeterminacy that arose from the interplay of performance and interpretation. Fictions of Credit in the Age of Shakespeare examines how Shakespeare and his contemporaries represented credit-driven artifice and interpretation on the early modern stage. It also analyses a range of practical texts—including commercial arithmetics, letter-writing manuals, legal formularies, and tables of interest—which offered strategies for generating credit and managing debt. Looking at plays and practical texts together, Fictions of Credit argues that both types of writing constitute “equipment for living”: practical texts by offering concrete strategies for navigating England’s culture of credit, and plays by exploring the limits of credit’s dangers and possibilities. In their representations of a world rewritten by debt relations, dramatic texts in particular articulate a phenomenology of economic life, telling us what it feels like to live in credit culture: to live, that is, inside a fiction.
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28

Champollion, Lucas. Collectivity and cumulativity. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198755128.003.0010.

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This chapter accounts for differences within the class of collective predicates, as exemplified by the contrast between all the students gathered and *all the students were numerous (Dowty 1987, Winter 2001), for the limited ability of all to take part in cumulative readings, and for its ability to license dependent plurals (Zweig 2009). Stratified reference is used to formulate meaning postulates that capture the fact that predicates like gather that give rise to distributive inferences to subgroups, and to formulate the semantics of all in terms of a subgroup distributivity requirement.
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29

Kockelman, Paul. Algorithms, Agents, and Ontologies. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190636531.003.0007.

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This chapter details the inner workings of spam filters, algorithmic devices that separate desirable messages from undesirable messages. It argues that such filters are a particularly important kind of sieve insofar as they readily exhibit key features of sieving devices in general, and algorithmic sieving in particular. More broadly, it describes the relation between ontology (assumptions that drive interpretations) and inference (interpretations that alter assumptions) as it plays out in the classification and transformation of identities, types, or kinds. Focusing on the unstable processes whereby identifying algorithms, identified types, and evasive transformations are dynamically coupled over time, it also theorizes various kinds of ontological inertia and highlights various kinds of algorithmic ineffability. Finally, it shows how similar issues underlie a much wider range of processes, such as the Turing Test, Bayesian reasoning, and machine learning more generally.
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30

Withington, Phil. Honestas. Edited by Henry S. Turner. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199641352.013.27.

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This chapter examines the emergence of a specifically theatrical notion of personhood in the mid-seventeenth century, one that had its roots in earlier humanist notions ofhonestas, decorum, and civility but that had been modified by antitheatrical discourse and by new attempts to imagine a performative public sphere. It begins by tracing the long genealogy of quotidian theatricality embedded in the idea ofhonestas, which characterized Renaissance and early Enlightenment notions of normative sociability. It then explores the predominant meanings and inferences of ‘theatrical’ over the course of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, along with some of the ways and genres by whichhonestaswas recommended to the wider reading public. The chapter concludes with a close analysis of William Shakespeare’sOthello, which captures in the figure of Iago the many and conflicting meanings of honesty (includinghonestas) and dramatizes the profound social dangers of an accomplished ‘Theatrical personality’ that could manipulate conversations and interactions at will.
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31

Keane, Adrian, and Paul McKeown. The Modern Law of Evidence. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198811855.001.0001.

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The Modern Law of Evidence is a comprehensive analysis of the law of criminal and civil evidence and the theory behind the law. It identifies all the key issues, emphasizes recent developments and insights from the academic literature, and makes suggestions for further reading. The work begins with a definition of evidence and the law of evidence and an outline of its development to date. It then describes and analyses the key concepts, such as the facts open to proof, the forms that evidence can take, relevance, admissibility, weight and discretion, including the discretion to exclude evidence obtained by illegal or unfair means. It then proceeds to cover in a logical sequence all aspects of the subject: the burden and standard of proof, witnesses, examination-in-chief, cross-examination and re-examination, corroboration and care warnings, documentary and real evidence, identification evidence, hearsay, confessions, adverse inferences from an accused’s silence, evidence of good and bad character, opinion evidence, public policy, privilege, judgments as evidence of facts on which they were based, and the proof of facts without evidence.
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32

Keane, Adrian, and Paul McKeown. The Modern Law of Evidence. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198848486.001.0001.

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The Modern Law of Evidence is a comprehensive analysis of the law of criminal and civil evidence and the theory behind the law. It identifies all the key issues, emphasizes recent developments and insights from the academic literature, and makes suggestions for further reading. The work begins with a definition of evidence and the law of evidence and an outline of its development to date. It then describes and analyses the key concepts, such as the facts open to proof, the forms that evidence can take, relevance, admissibility, weight, and discretion. It then proceeds to cover in a logical sequence all aspects of the subject: the burden and standard of proof, proof of facts without evidence, witnesses, examination-in-chief, cross-examination and re-examination, corroboration and care warnings, visual and voice identification, documentary and real evidence, evidence obtained by illegal or unfair means, hearsay, confessions, adverse inferences from an accused’s silence, evidence of good and bad character, opinion evidence, public policy, privilege and judgments as evidence of facts on which they were based.
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33

Resnik, David B. Dual-Use Research and Inductive Risk. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190467715.003.0004.

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Dual-use research is research that can be readily employed for beneficial or harmful purposes. Using recent examples from biomedical science, this chapter argues that scientists who are assessing the risks and benefits of dual-use research face issues of practical inductive risk because they must consider the ethical and social implications of mistaken inferences concerning the acceptability of hypotheses pertaining to these risks and benefits. Attempting to avoid practical inductive risk by estimating the probabilities of hypotheses and deferring to policymakers and the public on the issue of accepting hypothesis for practical purposes would be an abdication of the scientist’s ethical and professional responsibility. Scientists have an obligation to play an active role in helping policymakers and the public make well-informed decisions concerning conducting, funding, and publishing dual-use research, including considering the values at stake in these decisions and the bearing they have on policy options.
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34

Väyrynen, Pekka. Doubts about Moral Perception. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198786054.003.0006.

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This chapter defends doubts about the existence of genuine moral perception, understood as the claim that at least some moral properties figure in the contents of perceptual experience. The doubts are local: even if perceptual experiences generally can be cognitively penetrable and rich, standard examples of moral perception are better explained as habitual implicit inferences or transitions in thought. The chapter sketches a model on which the relevant transitions in thought can be psychologically immediate depending on how readily and reliably non-evaluative perceptual inputs, jointly with the subject’s background moral beliefs, training, and habituation, trigger the kinds of phenomenological responses that moral agents are disposed to have when they represent things as being morally a certain way. It is then argued that this rival account of moral experience explains at least as much as the moral perception hypothesis but is simpler and (at least by one relevant measure) more unified.
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35

Tudsri, Pattarapas, and Angkanawadee Pinkaew. Third Party Beneficiaries in Thai Contract Law. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198808114.003.0020.

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This chapter examines the ability for third party beneficiaries to enforce contracts under section 374 of the Thai Civil and Commercial Code. The provision illustrates that the urgency for enactment of the Code came at the expense of depth and intricacy. Whereas the German Civil Code expressly provides that the third party’s entitlement to enforce the provisions of a contract may be inferred from the circumstances, such provision is absent in the Thai Code. While the intention of the parties should be capable of inference from the contract, Thai courts have demonstrated a reluctance to read section 374 broadly; compelling evidence is required before the third party is found to acquire rights. Apart from the four categories of contracts where the courts more readily find third party rights—insurance, compromise, a contract to discharge a debt owed by third party, and a contract to confer an option on a third party—parties are likely to find it difficult to invoke section 374. Underlying the judicial attitude is the strong grip of the privity rule, or to use the German-inspired term, the ‘relativity of contract’. This restrictive approach also applies to the interpretation of ‘performance’ which does not include conferment of benefits.
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