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Journal articles on the topic 'Informal sector (Economics) - Ghana'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 1 February 2022

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1

Abraham, Abena Yeboah, Fidelia Nana Akom Ohemeng, and Williams Ohemeng. "Female labour force participation: evidence from Ghana." International Journal of Social Economics 44, no. 11 (2017): 1489–505. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijse-06-2015-0159.

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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine female labour force participation (FLFP) and their employment choice between the formal and informal sectors after several institutional and social reforms such as Millennium Development Goal 3 aimed at promoting gender equality and empowerment of women by 2015, using data from Ghana’s 2010 Population and Housing Census. Design/methodology/approach In this paper, logit regression and multinomial logit techniques were employed. Findings The results show that FLFP has declined marginally from the 2005 figures; education remains the important factor

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2

Mintah, S., and S. Darkwah. "Drivers of Informal Sector Participation of Small and Medium Enterprise in Ghana." Scientia Agriculturae Bohemica 49, no. 1 (2018): 60–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/sab-2018-0010.

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Abstract The informal sector of Ghana has been growing amidst the recent economic development in this country. The study investigated the drivers of informal sector participation by SMEs in Ghana and made use of a Chi-square statistical methodology to analyze the drivers of SME participation in the informal sector of Ghana. Analyses from the study showed that gender can be deemed as a driver for SME participation in the informal sector of Ghana. Gender was significant at 0.012 with registration of business enterprise and 0.055 with tax obligation of respondents. The educational level of SME op

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3

Addai, Bismark, Adjei Gyamfi Gyimah, and Wendy Kumah Boadi Owusu. "Savings Habit Among Individuals in the Informal Sector: A Case Study of Gbegbeyishie Fishing Community in Ghana." International Journal of Economics and Finance 9, no. 4 (2017): 262. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijef.v9n4p262.

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Savings among individuals in the informal sector is imperatively expedient if they are to have any decent and comfortable living conditions at retirement as savings in the informal sector become the obvious substitute for formal pensions. However, much is not known regarding the savings habits of informal sector, particularly, the fishing communities in Ghana. Apparently, this study investigates into the determinants of savings habit of the informal sector in Ghana, using the case of the Gbegbeyishie Fishing community. The data for the study was obtained through administering questionnaires an

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Dziwornu, Raymond K., Kingsley K. Anagba, and Ampem D. Aniapam. "Emergence of Mobile Financial Services in Ghana: Concerns for Use among Informal Sector Women Entrepreneurs." Journal of Emerging Market Finance 17, no. 3_suppl (2018): S415—S432. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0972652718798191.

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Mobile financial services (MFS) have emerged in recent years as an indispensable tool to promote financial inclusion in emerging economies like Ghana. This article investigated the factors affecting MFS use among 300 women entrepreneurs in the informal sector in Ghana, using multinomial logit model. Knowledge of MFS, trust of services provided, nearness to agents and privacy of information are more likely to drive MFS use. In addition to embarking on aggressive radio and television advertisement, service operators should deploy more agents and invest in reliable infrastructure to build users’

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Turkson, Danny, and Emmanuel A. Codjoe. "The Household Enterprise Sector in Ghana: Overview and Challenges." International Journal of Business and Management 15, no. 8 (2020): 140. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v15n8p140.

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Household Enterprises (HEs) have not received much consideration in the enterprise literature even though they are crucial for the development of an economy. These enterprises have been the main source of livelihood for most families in the informal sector and their contribution to reduction in unemployment is pivotal to growth of developing economies. This paper explores the nature of HE sector in Ghana and the challenges they face in their daily operations. The study employed an informal enterprise survey of 729 household enterprises conducted in 2013 by the World Bank in Ghana. With the use

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6

Avenyo, Elvis Korku, John Nana Francois, and Tatenda P. Zinyemba. "On gender and spatial gaps in Africa’s informal sector: Evidence from urban Ghana." Economics Letters 199 (February 2021): 109732. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2021.109732.

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7

Stasik, Michael. "The Popular Niche Economy of a Ghanaian Bus Station: Departure from Informality." Africa Spectrum 53, no. 1 (2018): 37–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000203971805300103.

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This article combines the concept of a “popular economy” with that of a “niche economy” to analyse the workings of a central bus station in Accra, Ghana, and, by extension, of Ghana's public transport sector at large. In doing so it departs from generic models of the “informal sector” commonly used for describing road and roadside entrepreneurship in African contexts. At the same time, it challenges prevalent views of popular economies bent on emphasising mechanisms of reciprocity and solidarity over opportunity and profiteering. The focus on the station, it suggests, provides for a detailed r

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Oduro-Appiah, Kwaku, Abraham Afful, Victor Neequaye Kotey, and Nanne De Vries. "Working with the Informal Service Chain as a Locally Appropriate Strategy for Sustainable Modernization of Municipal Solid Waste Management Systems in Lower-Middle Income Cities: Lessons from Accra, Ghana." Resources 8, no. 1 (2019): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/resources8010012.

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Twenty years of formal private sector participation in solid waste management in Ghana has failed to deliver an increase in collection coverage and recycling rates. This article shares lessons and experiences from Accra, Ghana, a middle-income city where researchers and municipal solid waste managers have collaborated to modernize the municipal solid waste management system by working together to develop a locally appropriate response to the informal waste service sector. Stakeholders have used inclusive decision-making and participatory research methods to bring formal service providers to wo

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Osei Mensah, James, Kwasi Ohene-Yankyera, and Robert Aidoo. "Determinants of response of street food entrepreneurs in Ghana to business management training." Journal of Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies 8, no. 2 (2018): 391–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jadee-01-2016-0006.

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Purpose Considering the fact that business management training has the potential to improve performance of micro and small enterprises, it is surprising why participation rates in most freely offered management training courses remain low. The purpose of this paper is to explore factors that determine an invitee’s decision to participate in a capacity building management training for street food entrepreneurs in Ghana. Design/methodology/approach Using data from a baseline survey, the study invited 314 street food entrepreneurs, selected through a stratified random technique from a list of 516

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10

OTOO, MIRIAM, JOAN FULTON, GERMAINE IBRO, and JAMES LOWENBERG-DEBOER. "WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN WEST AFRICA: THE COWPEA STREET FOOD SECTOR IN NIGER AND GHANA." Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 16, no. 01 (2011): 37–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s1084946711001732.

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Women entrepreneurship in the informal sector, such as street food vending, is important for poverty alleviation in West Africa. The street food sector provides employment for women and inexpensive and nutritious food for the urban poor. In this paper, we determine the importance of the cowpea street food sector, evaluate the determinants of successful enterprises and ascertain the impact of economic, cultural, religious and geographic differentials between enterprises in Niamey, Niger and Kumasi, Ghana. Data were collected through in-person interviews with 114 and 122 women street food entrep

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11

WILLIAMS, COLIN C., KWAME ADOM, and IOANA ALEXANDRA HORODNIC. "DETERMINANTS OF THE LEVEL OF INFORMALIZATION OF ENTERPRISES: SOME EVIDENCE FROM ACCRA, GHANA." Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 25, no. 01 (2020): 2050004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s1084946720500041.

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Based on the recognition that enterprises operate at different levels of informality, this paper evaluates the determinants of their degree of informalization. To do so, a 2016 survey of the varying degrees of informalization of 171 entrepreneurs in Ghana is reported. The finding is that only 21% of enterprises were wholly informal and 16% wholly formal. Nearly two-thirds (63%) were neither wholly informal nor wholly formal. Higher levels of informalization are significantly associated with younger entrepreneurs, those with lower levels of educational attainment, lower household incomes and yo

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12

Ameyaw, Bismark, Amos Oppong, Lucille Aba Abruquah, and Eric Ashalley. "Informal Sector Tax Compliance Issues and the Causality Nexus between Taxation and Economic Growth: Empirical Evidence from Ghana." Modern Economy 07, no. 12 (2016): 1478–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/me.2016.712134.

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13

Ayentimi, Desmond Tutu, John Burgess, and Kerry Brown. "HRM development in post-colonial societies." International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 18, no. 2 (2018): 125–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1470595818765863.

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This article is based on a literature review that integrates history, institutions and culture to address the following research questions. First, how did human resource management (HRM) progress during post-colonial Ghana? Second, what factors are likely to undermine the advancement of HRM practices in Ghana? Finally, what are the implications for HRM practice and theory? This article identified several factors originating from the economic and socio-cultural system as driving forces underpinning the advancement of HRM practices in Ghana. Key issues are (i) Ghanaian cultural beliefs and assum

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14

Ameyaw, Bismark, Bismark Addai, Eric Ashalley, and Isaac Quaye. "The Effects of Personal Income Tax Evasion on Socio-economic Development in Ghana: A Case Study of the Informal Sector." British Journal of Economics, Management & Trade 10, no. 4 (2015): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/bjemt/2015/19267.

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Amoah, Padmore Adusei. "Examining Attitudes towards Welfare in an In/Security Regime: Evidence from Ghana." Social Policy and Society 19, no. 4 (2020): 661–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1474746420000172.

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This article examines the extent to which Gough and Woodʼs (2004) classification of most sub-Saharan African nations as insecurity regimes is still relevant by analysing public responses and attitudes towards general and specific (healthcare) welfare policies in Ghana, using a mixed-method design. Ghana presents a fascinating case study not only due to the changing socio-economic landscape but also because of the prevailing socio-political stability. The research findings demonstrate that most participants wanted more welfare spending (including on healthcare) but remained reluctant to rely on

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Zaami, Mariama. "Gendered Strategies among Northern Migrants in Ghana: The Role of Social Networks." Ghana Journal of Geography 12, no. 2 (2020): 1–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/gjg.v12i2.1.

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The migration trends from Northern to Southern Ghana is not a new phenomenon and it is rooted in historical antecedents. Migration scholars in Ghana have attributed these migration trends from an economic lens, arguing that migration has become a household strategy to diversify incomes. However, little research has focused on social networks serving as migration channels for migrants in the informal sector. In view of this, this paper explores the gendered strategies and social networks that the northern migrants use to gain access to the labour market. This study used a qualitative approach.

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17

Overå, Ragnhild. "When men do women's work: structural adjustment, unemployment and changing gender relations in the informal economy of Accra, Ghana." Journal of Modern African Studies 45, no. 4 (2007): 539–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022278x0700287x.

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ABSTRACTEconomic crisis and structural adjustment in Ghana have put large numbers of formal sector employees and civil servants out of work. This informalisation process has gendered consequences. Unemployed people, rural–urban migrants and school-leavers of both genders seek employment in the urban informal economy, and increasingly take up ‘female’ occupations – particularly in retail trade. Overcrowding in women's economic domains thus occurs. This study examines the livelihood strategies of informally employed men and women in Accra. It is argued that gender ideologies regarding appropriat

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18

Lampert, Ben, and Giles Mohan. "Sino-African Encounters in Ghana and Nigeria: From Conflict to Conviviality and Mutual Benefit." Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 43, no. 1 (2014): 9–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/186810261404300102.

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China's renewed engagement with Africa is often framed as a form of imperialism, with the growing number of Chinese migrants on the continent seen as an exploitative presence. Such claims have generally been based on little evidence, and where more detailed empirical studies have emerged, they tend to emphasise the tensions and conflicts that have arisen. Our research on Chinese migrants in Ghana and Nigeria suggests that while there are concerns about Chinese competition in the informal retail sector and the treatment of local labour in Chinese enterprises, narratives of apparent tension and

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19

Olomi, Donath, Goodluck Charles, and Norma Juma. "An inclusive approach to regulating the second economy." Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies 10, no. 3 (2018): 447–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jeee-08-2017-0056.

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PurposeThis study aims to examine the experiences and lessons from formalisation initiatives in four sub-Saharan African countries. Drawing upon the three main theories that explain the existence of business informality – the exclusion model, rational exit model and dual economy model – the study offers an alternative path to business formalisation.Design/methodology/approachThe researchers adopted a descriptive-qualitative method, and through the triangulation of data, identified emerging themes and patterns.FindingsThe findings suggest that the informal sector has a small layer that responds

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20

Kusi, Anthony, Ama Fenny, Daniel Kojo Arhinful, Felix Ankomah Asante, and Divya Parmar. "Determinants of enrolment in the NHIS for women in Ghana – a cross sectional study." International Journal of Social Economics 45, no. 9 (2018): 1318–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijse-10-2016-0291.

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Purpose The National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) was introduced in 2005 to provide equitable access to healthcare. Furthermore, concessions were made for pregnant women, yet inequities in access continue to exist. The purpose of this paper is to explore whether dimensions of social exclusion explain why some groups of women are not benefitting from the scheme. Design/methodology/approach Data were collected from 4,050 representative households in five districts. Logistic regression is used to examine the factors that determine enrolment of women under the NHIS. Findings The study sample con

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21

Agyemang, Felix SK, and Nicky Morrison. "Recognising the barriers to securing affordable housing through the land use planning system in Sub-Saharan Africa: A perspective from Ghana." Urban Studies 55, no. 12 (2017): 2640–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0042098017724092.

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Housing low-income households is a daunting task for policy makers across the Global South, and especially for those in Africa where past attempts to deliver State-funded affordable housing projects yielded minimal results. Presenting Ghana as a case study, the purpose of this article is to consider the rationale for and barriers to securing affordable housing through the planning system, situated within an African context. The key factors that would inhibit effective policy implementation include, on the one hand, a lack of central government commitment, weak enforcement of planning regulatio

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22

Obeng-Odoom, Franklin. "The Informal Sector in Ghana under Siege." Journal of Developing Societies 27, no. 3-4 (2011): 355–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0169796x1102700406.

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23

Decardi-Nelson, I., OR Asamoah, B. Solomon-Ayeh, and KA Nduro. "The Informal Sector and Mortgage Financing in Ghana." Ghana Journal of Development Studies 9, no. 2 (2014): 136. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/gjds.v9i2.8.

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24

Lopez-Martin, Bernabe. "INFORMAL SECTOR MISALLOCATION." Macroeconomic Dynamics 23, no. 8 (2018): 3065–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1365100517001055.

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A quantitative framework of firm dynamics is developed where the size of the informal sector is determined by financial constraints and the burden of taxation. Improving access to credit for formal sector firms increases aggregate total factor productivity and output while reducing the size of the informal sector. Introducing size-dependent taxes reduces the gains from financial development as they incentivize firms to produce at a relatively limited scale. The aggregate effects of eliminating formal sector registration costs are positive but modest relative to previous theoretical models and

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Dekutsey, Woeli A. "Bookselling in Ghana: Is the informal sector the key?" African Book Publishing Record 21, no. 2 (1995): 109–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/abpr.1995.21.2.109.

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26

Koto, Prosper Senyo. "An Empirical Analysis of the Informal Sector in Ghana." Journal of Developing Areas 49, no. 2 (2015): 93–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jda.2015.0038.

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Dobson, Stephen, Carlyn Ramlogan-Dobson, and Eric Strobl. "Savings and the informal sector." International Review of Applied Economics 34, no. 2 (2020): 217–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02692171.2019.1707783.

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28

Kar, Saibal, and Sugata Marjit. "Urban informal sector and poverty." International Review of Economics & Finance 18, no. 4 (2009): 631–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.iref.2008.06.009.

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29

Yuki, Kazuhiro. "Urbanization, informal sector, and development." Journal of Development Economics 84, no. 1 (2007): 76–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2006.09.004.

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30

Beltrán, Arlette. "Informal sector competition and firm productivity." Applied Economics Letters 27, no. 15 (2019): 1243–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2019.1676383.

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31

JOSHI, KAUSHAL, GLENITA AMORANTO, and RANA HASAN. "INFORMAL SECTOR ENTERPRISES: SOME MEASUREMENT ISSUES." Review of Income and Wealth 57 (May 2011): S143—S165. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.2011.00449.x.

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32

Amponsah, Fred, Jeff Turner, Margaret Grieco, Andrews Kwablah, and Paul Guitink. "Commercial Use of Nonmotorized Transport: Evidence from Accra, Ghana." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1563, no. 1 (1996): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361198196156300101.

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The traders of Accra, Ghana, continue to make use of hand-pushed and hand-pulled carts for moving their stock across the city. These non-motorized forms of transport play a key role in a low-income economy; developing economies, with their large informal sectors and plentiful supply of petty-trading enterprises, contain a preponderance of enterprises having restricted capital bases, a condition that requires the use of low-cost transportation. The bicycle, although well suited to the small-load requirements of much petty trading, is not regarded as a suitable mode of transport for women, who m

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33

Cuff, Katherine, Nicolas Marceau, Steeve Mongrain, and Joanne Roberts. "Optimal Policies with an Informal Sector." Journal of Public Economics 95, no. 11-12 (2011): 1280–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2010.10.010.

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34

Yuzon, Isagani F. "The Informal Labor Sector Amidst Globalization." Humanomics 21, no. 1 (2005): 21–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/eb018898.

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35

Straub, Stéphane. "Informal sector: The credit market channel." Journal of Development Economics 78, no. 2 (2005): 299–321. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2004.09.005.

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36

Joyce, Owusu A., and Liu Xinyan. "Pitfalls in the Implementation of District Assemblies’ Skills Training Program for the Informal Sector: A Case Study of Ghana." International Journal of Business and Management 12, no. 11 (2017): 242. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v12n11p242.

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The informal sector plays a very significant role in the economy of many developed and developing countries across the globe. Hence many African countries have, as part of their national development agenda, made conscious efforts aimed at training their nationals, who were unable to pursue formal sector employment through higher education, for the informal sector trade. Ghana has done this for some decades now but not at a success that it wants. Using descriptive statistics, this paper seeks to uncover the pitfalls in the implementation of skills training programs conducted by the district ass

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37

Adomako, Samuel, Albert Danso, and Ernest Ampadu. "Institutional outlook of the entrepreneurial climate in Ghana." International Journal of Social Economics 42, no. 6 (2015): 566–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijse-09-2013-0206.

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Purpose – Previous scholarly studies on institutions tend to create a sombre picture of institutions by ignoring to examine the antecedents of formal and informal institutions. The purpose of this paper is to overcome this limitation by proposing a conceptual framework of the antecedents of formal and informal institutions of entrepreneurial climate in a less developed market setting. Design/methodology/approach – This study builds on a comprehensive survey of the literature on institutions by using a synthesis thematic methodology to identified key scholarly studies which have been published

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38

Akorsu, Angela. "Labour standards application in the informal economy of Ghana: The patterns and pressures." Ekonomski anali 58, no. 196 (2013): 157–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/eka1396157a.

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In spite of the rapid growth and importance of informal employment in Ghana, few studies have investigated the extent of coverage of labour standards application, as a form of labour market regulation. This paper investigates the extent of labour standards application in shaping the employment relations and conditions within the informal economy. The study focuses on 30 manufacturing firms in Ghana?s informal economy. Data were obtained through interviews with 43 entrepreneurs and their workers, as well as with key informants from the social partners of industrial relations. The study shows th

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Mizrahi, Roberto. "Las condiciones fundacionales del sector informal urbano." Desarrollo Económico 28, no. 112 (1989): 601. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3467004.

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Leal Ordóñez, Julio César. "Tax collection, the informal sector, and productivity." Review of Economic Dynamics 17, no. 2 (2014): 262–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.red.2013.07.004.

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GIBSON, BILL, and BRUCE KELLEY. "A CLASSICAL THEORY OF THE INFORMAL SECTOR." Manchester School 62, no. 1 (1994): 81–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9957.1994.tb00647.x.

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BROOM, M., and CAROLYN JOYCE-CLARKE. "A Retail Perspective of the Informal Sector." South African Journal of Economics 58, no. 4 (1990): 290–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1813-6982.1990.tb00956.x.

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43

Arvin-Rad, Hassan, Arnab K. Basu, and Maria Willumsen. "Economic reform, informal–formal sector linkages and intervention in the informal sector in developing countries: A paradox." International Review of Economics & Finance 19, no. 4 (2010): 662–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.iref.2010.04.002.

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KAR, Saibal, Biswajit MANDAL, Sugata MARJIT, and Vivekananda MUKHERJEE. "SEEKING RENT IN THE INFORMAL SECTOR." Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics 91, no. 1 (2019): 151–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/apce.12253.

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45

Sekyi, Samuel, Paul Bata Domanban, and George Kwame Honya. "The impact of informal credit on rural agricultural productivity in the savannah ecological zone of Ghana." African Journal of Economic and Management Studies 11, no. 2 (2019): 301–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ajems-03-2019-0121.

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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of informal credit access on agricultural productivity in rural Ghana. Design/methodology/approach Data sets from the Ghana Feed the Future baseline survey involving a total sample of 2,437 rural farm households were used. In order to address the problem of endogeneity and sample selectivity bias, the endogenous switching regression (ESR) model was employed to examine whether rural farm households’ with access to informal credit and those without access differ in terms of their productivity levels and whether access to informal credit

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Assem, Patrick Boateng, and Kwaku Agyepong Pabbi. "Knowledge sharing among healthcare professionals in Ghana." VINE Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Systems 46, no. 4 (2016): 479–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/vjikms-08-2015-0048.

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Purpose Knowledge management is very useful to the most departments and sectors of the economy, and the healthcare sector is no exception. Thus, this paper aims to explore how healthcare professionals share knowledge in the Ghanaian healthcare sector. It also ascertains challenges faced by healthcare professionals in Ghana with regards to knowledge sharing. Design/methodology/approach The study used a case study research design. Data were collected from some healthcare professions working in the Ejisu-Juaben Municipality in Ghana using face-to-face interview. Data were analysed using thematic

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47

Theisen, Theis. "Tanzanian formal sector workers' participation in informal production." Applied Economics 37, no. 21 (2005): 2469–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00036840500366197.

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48

Dijkstra, Bouwe R. "Good and Bad Equilibria with the Informal Sector." Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 167, no. 4 (2011): 668. http://dx.doi.org/10.1628/jite-2011-0008.

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49

Boafo, James, Sebastian Paalo, and Senyo Dotsey. "Illicit Chinese Small-Scale Mining in Ghana: Beyond Institutional Weakness?" Sustainability 11, no. 21 (2019): 5943. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su11215943.

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While the engagement of Chinese migrants in small-scale mining in Ghana has gained traction in scholarship, the extant literature pays little attention to how the relationship between the so-called formal institutions (e.g., the Minerals Commission and Ministry of Land and Natural Resources) and informal institutions (e.g., the chieftaincy and customary land institutions) enables illegalities in the mining industry. This paper addresses this gap in the literature, focusing on the relationship between formal state and informal customary land institutions in the small-scale mining sector. Using

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Gupta, Manash Ranjan. "Informal sector and informal capital market in a small open less-developed economy." Journal of Development Economics 52, no. 2 (1997): 409–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0304-3878(96)00445-2.

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