Journal articles: 'Innate fear behavior'

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Ishikawa, Akira, Marina Sakaguchi, Atsushi J. Nagano, and Sae Suzuki. "Genetic Architecture of Innate Fear Behavior in Chickens." Behavior Genetics 50, no. 6 (2020): 411–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10519-020-10012-0.

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Acharya, Sonu. "Behavior management in Pediatric Dentistry during and after Corona pandemic." Contemporary Pediatric Dentistry 1, no. 1 (2020): 13–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.51463/cpd.2020.17.

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Children are not miniature adults. They should be treated as different entity and not just as adults who are shortened. Children have their own apprehensions and fear. The most commonly encountered is the fear of the unknown. Fear is something which is innate and inborn. Fear of dentistry is there in every individual, whether young or old. This is mostly subjective in nature. Children show exaggerated fear for dentistry as this is something new to them. The pediatric dentists are trained in behavior management for reducing fear. There have been many methods, both pharmacological and non-pharmacological for behavior management in children. The pediatric dentists were able to apply one or the other behavior management techniques till now. Sudden appearance of a pandemic caused by nCOV-2 (coronavirus) changed everything. The change in practice pattern is bound to effect all the dental patients, more so the children. Here we will discuss how the behavior management techniques will change for children and how we can get some newer methods to reduce the fear.

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Bernabe, Cristian S., Izabela F. Caliman, William A. Truitt, et al. "Using loss- and gain-of-function approaches to target amygdala-projecting serotonergic neurons in the dorsal raphe nucleus that enhance anxiety-related and conditioned fear behaviors." Journal of Psychopharmacology 34, no. 4 (2020): 400–411. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881119900981.

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Background: The central serotonergic system originating from the dorsal raphe nucleus (DR) plays a critical role in anxiety and trauma-related disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder. Although many studies have investigated the role of serotonin (5-HT) within pro-fear brain regions such as the amygdala, the majority of these studies have utilized non-selective pharmacological approaches or poorly understood lesioning techniques which limit their interpretation. Aim: Here we investigated the role of amygdala-projecting 5-HT neurons in the DR in innate anxiety and conditioned fear behaviors. Methods: To achieve this goal, we utilized (1) selective lesion of 5-HT neurons projecting to the amygdala with saporin toxin conjugated to anti-serotonin transporter (SERT) injected into the amygdala, and (2) optogenetic excitation of amygdala-projecting DR cell bodies with a combination of a retrogradely transported canine adenovirus-expressing Cre-recombinase injected into the amygdala and a Cre-dependent-channelrhodopsin injected into the DR. Results: While saporin treatment lesioned both local amygdalar 5-HT fibers and neurons in the DR as well as reduced conditioned fear behavior, optical activation of amygdala-projecting DR neurons enhanced anxious behavior and conditioned fear response. Conclusion: Collectively, these studies support the hypothesis that amygdala-projecting 5-HT neurons in the DR represent an anxiety and fear-on network.

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Vincenz, Daniel, Kerstin E. A. Wernecke, Markus Fendt, and Jürgen Goldschmidt. "Habenula and interpeduncular nucleus differentially modulate predator odor-induced innate fear behavior in rats." Behavioural Brain Research 332 (August 2017): 164–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2017.05.053.

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Lu, Botao, Penghui Fan, Yiding Wang, et al. "Neuronal Electrophysiological Activities Detection of Defense Behaviors Using an Implantable Microelectrode Array in the Dorsal Periaqueductal Gray." Biosensors 12, no. 4 (2022): 193. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/bios12040193.

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Defense is the basic survival mechanism of animals when facing dangers. Previous studies have shown that the midbrain periaqueduct gray (PAG) was essential for the production of defense responses. However, the correlation between the endogenous neuronal activities of the dorsal PAG (dPAG) and different defense behaviors was still unclear. In this article, we designed and manufactured microelectrode arrays (MEAs) whose detection sites were arranged to match the shape and position of dPAG in rats, and modified it with platinum-black nanoparticles to improve the detection performance. Subsequently, we successfully recorded the electrophysiological activities of dPAG neurons via designed MEAs in freely behaving rats before and after exposure to the potent analog of predator odor 2-methyl-2-thiazoline (2-MT). Results demonstrated that 2-MT could cause strong innate fear and a series of defensive behaviors, accompanied by the significantly increased average firing rate and local field potential (LFP) power of neurons in dPAG. We also observed that dPAG participated in different defense behaviors with different degrees of activation, which was significantly stronger in the flight stage. Further analysis showed that the neuronal activities of dPAG neurons were earlier than flight, and the intensity of activation was inversely proportional to the distance from predator odor. Overall, our results indicate that dPAG neuronal activities play a crucial role in controlling different types of predator odor-evoked innate fear/defensive behaviors, and provide some guidance for the prediction of defense behavior.

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Mederos, Sara, Patty Blakely, Nicole Vissers, Claudia Clopath, and Sonja B. Hofer. "Overwriting an instinct: Visual cortex instructs learning to suppress fear responses." Science 387, no. 6734 (2025): 682–88. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adr2247.

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Fast instinctive responses to environmental stimuli can be crucial for survival but are not always optimal. Animals can adapt their behavior and suppress instinctive reactions, but the neural pathways mediating such ethologically relevant forms of learning remain unclear. We found that posterolateral higher visual areas (plHVAs) are crucial for learning to suppress escapes from innate visual threats through a top-down pathway to the ventrolateral geniculate nucleus (vLGN). plHVAs are no longer necessary after learning; instead, the learned behavior relies on plasticity within vLGN populations that exert inhibitory control over escape responses. vLGN neurons receiving input from plHVAs enhance their responses to visual threat stimuli during learning through endocannabinoid-mediated long-term suppression of their inhibitory inputs. We thus reveal the detailed circuit, cellular, and synaptic mechanisms underlying experience-dependent suppression of fear responses.

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Kleiven, Alf Ring, Even Moland, and U. Rashid Sumaila. "No fear of bankruptcy: the innate self-subsidizing forces in recreational fishing." ICES Journal of Marine Science 77, no. 6 (2019): 2304–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsz128.

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Abstract Recreational fishing, by both local residents and tourists, is a popular activity globally. The behaviour and motivation of recreational fishers is different from those of commercial fishers. Unlike the latter, the former are not dependent on making profits to continue fishing. Rather, the value of recreational fishing to those who engage in it is a combination of catches and experience values. The latter value implies that recreational fishers might continue fishing when they should not, analogous to the effect of subsidy in the commercial fishing sector. Hence, the term “self-subsidizing”: a fishery as one in which fishers subsidize themselves through an economic investment in gear and time from their non-fishery-based earnings. The consequence of which is that recreational fishers can continue fishing long after the commercial fishing industry has stopped fishing because their operations have become economically unviable. There is reason to argue that in many areas, recreational fishing effort, due to the self-subsidizing mechanism, is sustained at a high rate while stocks decrease. In this contribution, we describe the innate self-subsidizing forces in recreational fishing and discuss their implications.

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Abdulai-Saiku, Samira, Akshaya Hegde, Ajai Vyas, and Rupshi Mitra. "Effects of stress or infection on rat behavior show robust reversals due to environmental disturbance." F1000Research 6 (December 6, 2017): 2097. http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.13171.1.

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Background: The behavior of animals is intricately linked to the environment; a relationship that is often studied in laboratory conditions by using environmental perturbations to study biological mechanisms underlying the behavioral change. Methods: This study pertains to two such well-studied and well-replicated perturbations, i.e., stress-induced anxiogenesis and Toxoplasma-induced loss of innate fear. Here, we demonstrate that behavioral outcomes of these experimental manipulations are contingent upon the ambient quality of the wider environment where animal facilities are situated. Results: During late 2014 and early 2015, a building construction project started adjacent to our animal facility. During this phase, we observed that maternal separation stress caused anxiolysis, rather than historically observed anxiogenesis, in laboratory rats. We also found that Toxoplasma infection caused an increase, rather than historically observed decrease, in innate aversion to predator odors in rats. Conclusion: These observations suggest that effects of stress and Toxoplasma are dependent on variables in the environment that often go unreported in the published literature.

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Abdulai-Saiku, Samira, Akshaya Hegde, Ajai Vyas, and Rupshi Mitra. "Effects of stress or infection on rat behavior show robust reversals due to environmental disturbance." F1000Research 6 (January 16, 2018): 2097. http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.13171.2.

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Background: The behavior of animals is intricately linked to the environment; a relationship that is often studied in laboratory conditions by using environmental perturbations to study biological mechanisms underlying the behavioral change. Methods: This study pertains to two such well-studied and well-replicated perturbations, i.e., stress-induced anxiogenesis and Toxoplasma gondii -induced loss of innate fear. Here, we demonstrate that behavioral outcomes of these experimental manipulations are contingent upon the ambient quality of the wider environment where animal facilities are situated. Results: During late 2014 and early 2015, a building construction project started adjacent to our animal facility. During this phase, we observed that maternal separation stress caused anxiolysis, rather than historically observed anxiogenesis, in laboratory rats. We also found that Toxoplasma gondii infection caused an increase, rather than historically observed decrease, in innate aversion to predator odors in rats. Conclusion: These observations suggest that effects of stress and Toxoplasma gondii are dependent on variables in the environment that often go unreported in the published literature.

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Li, Yaxi, Zhi Yan, Ainuo Lin, Xiaodong Li, and Ke Li. "Non-Dose-Dependent Relationship between Antipredator Behavior and Conspecific Alarm Substance in Zebrafish." Fishes 8, no. 2 (2023): 76. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/fishes8020076.

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A series of behavioral detection paradigms have been developed for zebrafish (Danio rerio) to examine anxiety-like behavioral responses. Among them, the novel tank diving test is rapidly gaining popularity in translational neuroscience and behavioral research for the investigation of psychopharmacological activity focusing on stress. Zebrafish respond to conspecific epidermal-released alarm substances with antipredator reactions. Although the alarm responses of zebrafish were well characterized in a novel tank diving experiment, the relationship between the intensity of the alarm behavior and the concentration of the alarm substance needed to be understood more adequately. In the current paper, we investigated the behavioral phenotypes and potencies of zebrafish elicited by the serial dilution of an alarm substance in the novel tank diving test. Using a video-tracking assisted behavioral quantification approach, we demonstrated no linear concentration-dependent relationship between antipredator behavior and skin extracts, suggesting that an optimal concentration induced each typical behavioral response. The results showed that the freezing duration (%) significantly increased when stimulated with 104-fold times dilutions of skin extract (equivalent 5 × 10–5 fish/L), while erratic movements (%), time in the bottom half (%), and latency to the upper half (s) significantly elevated when stimulated with 103-fold times dilutions (equivalent 5 × 10–4 fish/L). Therefore, the concentration threshold for an alarm substance that elicited innate fear behavior in zebrafish was presumed to be an equivalent concentration of approximately 5 × 10–4 fish/L. The conclusions may fill a knowledge gap between the innate fear response triggered by injured skin and a novel tank diving paradigm that provides insights into the characterization of alarm substance, behavioral responses, and physiological response mechanisms in zebrafish.

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Ponder, Christine A., Michaelanne Munoz, T. Conrad Gilliam, and Abraham A. Palmer. "Genetic architecture of fear conditioning in chromosome substitution strains: relationship to measures of innate (unlearned) anxiety-like behavior." Mammalian Genome 18, no. 4 (2007): 221–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00335-007-9013-9.

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Lozupone, Madia, Francesca D'Urso, Carla Piccininni, et al. "The relationship between epigenetics and microbiota in neuropsychiatric diseases." Epigenomics 12, no. 17 (2020): 1559–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.2217/epi-2020-0053.

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Microbiota might be considered as a pool for environmental epigenetic factors. Evidence is accumulating that environmental exposures – including microbes, diet, drugs – play a role in the pathogenesis of many neuropsychiatric disorders. Underlying mechanisms are complex, involving the sensitive interplay of genetics with epigenetics, neuroinflammation and the innate immune system. Modifications of microbiota affect neurogenesis and the maturation of microglia, influencing social behavior, stress-related responses and fear learning mechanisms. The excitatory neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex appear to play a key role. The mechanisms through which antibiotics administration may modulate microbiota and, therefore, behavior and neuropsychiatric disorders, may be influenced by several variables such as pre-existing gastrointestinal inflammation, the baseline microbiota composition, diet and stress perception. Probiotics, individualized diet, antibiotics and fecal transplantation could positively modulate the effects of epigenetic factors on neuropsychiatric disorders.

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O'Connor, Thomas G., Kristin Scheible, Ana Vallejo Sefair, et al. "Immune and neuroendocrine correlates of temperament in infancy." Development and Psychopathology 29, no. 5 (2017): 1589–600. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579417001250.

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AbstractThere is now a clear focus on incorporating, and integrating, multiple levels of analysis in developmental science. The current study adds to research in this area by including markers of the immune and neuroendocrine systems in a longitudinal study of temperament in infants. Observational and parent-reported ratings of infant temperament, serum markers of the innate immune system, and cortisol reactivity from repeated salivary collections were examined in a sample of 123 infants who were assessed at 6 months and again when they were, on average, 17 months old. Blood from venipuncture was collected for analyses of nine select innate immune cytokines; salivary cortisol collected prior to and 15 min and 30 min following a physical exam including blood draw was used as an index of neuroendocrine functioning. Analyses indicated fairly minimal significant associations between biological markers and temperament at 6 months. However, by 17 months of age, we found reliable and nonoverlapping associations between observed fearful temperament and biological markers of the immune and neuroendocrine systems. The findings provide some of the earliest evidence of robust biological correlates of fear behavior with the immune system, and identify possible immune and neuroendocrine mechanisms for understanding the origins of behavioral development.

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Lin, Junjie. "Exploring the Impact and Decisions of Loss Aversion Psychology in the Real Estate Field and Energy Conservation." Advances in Economics, Management and Political Sciences 132, no. 1 (2024): 92–97. https://doi.org/10.54254/2754-1169/2024.18448.

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The well-known phenomenon of loss aversion, which refers to the tendency for individuals to strongly prefer avoiding losses over acquiring gains, has long been recognized as a significant factor influencing decision-making in various aspects of life. This innate fear of experiencing losses can often lead to irrational behavior and unwise choices. One area where loss aversion plays a crucial role is in the realm of personal finance. Individuals who have a strong aversion to losses may exhibit cautious behavior by increasing their savings as a precautionary measure against uncertain future events. From real estate and various national policies to daily life choices, these choices can change people's aversion to losses. Therefore, the primary focus of this article is to explore the decision-making processes employed by real estate developers and customers under the influence of loss aversion mentality, as well as people's choices for energy conservation driven by loss aversion mentality. Through data analysis, this article concludes that if consumers reasonably control and utilize their loss aversion psychological effects, they will not suffer any economic losses.

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Vergara, Macarena D., Victor N. Keller, José A. Fuentealba, and Katia Gysling. "Activation of type 4 dopaminergic receptors in the prelimbic area of medial prefrontal cortex is necessary for the expression of innate fear behavior." Behavioural Brain Research 324 (May 2017): 130–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2017.01.050.

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Donatti, Alberto Ferreira, and Christie Ramos Andrade Leite-Panissi. "Activation of corticotropin-releasing factor receptors from the basolateral or central amygdala increases the tonic immobility response in guinea pigs: An innate fear behavior." Behavioural Brain Research 225, no. 1 (2011): 23–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2011.06.027.

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Shuhama, Rosana, Cristina M. Del-Ben, Sônia R. Loureiro, and Frederico G. Graeff. "Animal defense strategies and anxiety disorders." Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências 79, no. 1 (2007): 97–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0001-37652007000100012.

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Anxiety disorders are classified according to symptoms, time course and therapeutic response. Concurrently, the experimental analysis of defensive behavior has identified three strategies of defense that are shared by different animal species, triggered by situations of potential, distal and proximal predatory threat, respectively. The first one consists of cautious exploration of the environment for risk assessment. The associated emotion is supposed to be anxiety and its pathology, Generalized Anxiety Disorder. The second is manifested by oriented escape or by behavioral inhibition, being related to normal fear and to Specific Phobias, as disorders. The third consists of disorganized flight or complete immobility, associated to dread and Panic Disorder. Among conspecific interactions lies a forth defense strategy, submission, that has been related to normal social anxiety (shyness) and to Social Anxiety Disorder. In turn, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder do not seem to be directly related to innate defense reactions. Such evolutionary approach offers a reliable theoretical framework for the study of the biological determinants of anxiety disorders, and a sound basis for psychiatric classification.

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Beulahbel Bency, P. B. "Achievement Motivation and Achievement of Higher Secondary Students of Kanyakumari District." Shanlax International Journal of Education 7, no. 4 (2019): 56–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.34293/education.v7i4.633.

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Motivation is imperative because it affects our lives every day. Motivation is the innate drive for all of our activities. All of our behaviors, actions, hope, and beliefs are altered by our inner drive to flourish. Our motives for achievement can range from living needs to satisfying creative needs or realizing success in competitive endeavors. These basic physiological motivational drives alter our natural behavior in different environments. Motivation refers to the dynamics of our practice, which involves our needs, desires, and ambitions in life. It can be well-defined as the driving force trailing all the actions of an individual. The influence of an individual’s needs and enjoy both have a substantial impact on the direction of their behavior. It is placed on your feelings and achievement-related goals. There are different forms of motivation, including external, intrinsic, physiological, and achievement motivation. There are also more adverse forms of motivation. Attainment motivation is based on reaching success and achieving all of our desire in life. It has been imagined in many diverse ways. It can be forwarded as the need for progress or the attainment of quality. Individuals will fill their needs through different means and are driven to succeed for varying reasons, both internal and external. Achievement motives include the need for success and the fear of failure. These are the more predominant reasons that direct our behavior towards positive and negative consequences. The goals of the study were to find the levels, to find the significant association of achievement motivation and achievement based on locality, type of management, type of family and monthly income and to see the correlation between Achievement Motivation and Achievement. Survey Method was used for the present study. 300 higher secondary students were accepted by casual sampling technique from the more senior secondary schools of Kanyakumari district. Percentage Analysis, Mean, Standard Deviation, Chi-square, and Correlation were the statistical techniques used. SPSS analyst zed data and the results arrived. Based on the findings, suggestive measures for improvement were provided.

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Calvo, Fabrício, Bruno Lobão-Soares, Renato Leonardo de Freitas, et al. "The endogenous opioid system modulates defensive behavior evoked by Crotalus durissus terrificus: Panicolytic-like effect of intracollicular non-selective opioid receptors blockade." Journal of Psychopharmacology 33, no. 1 (2018): 51–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881118806301.

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Background: There is a controversy regarding the key role played by opioid peptide neurotransmission in the modulation of panic-attack-related responses. Aims: Using a prey versus rattlesnakes paradigm, the present work investigated the involvement of the endogenous opioid peptide-mediated system of the inferior colliculus in the modulation of panic attack-related responses. Methods: Wistar rats were pretreated with intracollicular administration of either physiological saline or naloxone at different concentrations and confronted with rattlesnakes ( Crotalus durissus terrificus). The prey versus rattlesnake confrontations were performed in a polygonal arena for snakes. The defensive behaviors displayed by prey (defensive attention, defensive immobility, escape response, flat back approach and startle) were recorded twice: firstly, over a period of 15 min the presence of the predator and a re-exposure was performed 24 h after the confrontation, when animals were exposed to the experimental enclosure without the rattlesnake. Results: The intramesencephalic non-specific blockade of opioid receptors with microinjections of naloxone at higher doses decreased both anxiety- (defensive attention and flat back approach) and panic attack-like (defensive immobility and escape) behaviors, evoked in the presence of rattlesnakes and increased non-defensive responses. During the exposure to the experimental context, there was a decrease in duration of defensive attention. Conclusions: These findings suggest a panicolytic-like effect of endogenous opioid receptors antagonism in the inferior colliculus on innate (panic attack) and conditioned (anticipatory anxiety) fear in rats threatened by rattlesnakes.

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Wisenden, Brian D., Josh Klitzke, Ryan Nelson, David Friedl, and Peter C. Jacobson. "Predator-recognition training of hatchery-reared walleye (Stizostedion vitreum) and a field test of a training method using yellow perch (Perca flavescens)." Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 61, no. 11 (2004): 2144–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/f04-164.

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Fishes reared in captivity are predator-naïve and suffer large predation mortality when stocked into lakes with a full complement of predators. We tested the potential of predator training to enhance post-stocking survival of hatchery-reared walleye (Stizostedion vitreum). In the first part of the study, we found that walleye (i) use chemical cues for assessing predation risk, (ii) do not have innate recognition of the odor of northern pike (Esox lucius) as an indicator of predation, and (iii) associate predation risk with pike odor after a single simultaneous encounter with pike odor and chemical alarm cues from walleye skin. In the second part of the study, we attempted to mass-train yellow perch, Perca flavescens (as a surrogate for walleye), to fear pike odor. Perch response to pike odor was not changed by placing sponge blocks containing pike odor and perch alarm cues around the perimeter of a pond. On pre- and post-training assays, perch avoided traps scented with perch alarm cues, but did not avoid traps labeled with pike odor or water. We conclude that recognition training offers potential as a management tool for walleye, but significant logistic challenges must be solved before it can be implemented.

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MacDorman, Karl F., and Hiroshi Ishiguro. "The uncanny advantage of using androids in cognitive and social science research." Interaction Studies 7, no. 3 (2006): 297–337. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/is.7.3.03mac.

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The development of robots that closely resemble human beings can contribute to cognitive research. An android provides an experimental apparatus that has the potential to be controlled more precisely than any human actor. However, preliminary results indicate that only very humanlike devices can elicit the broad range of responses that people typically direct toward each other. Conversely, to build androids capable of emulating human behavior, it is necessary to investigate social activity in detail and to develop models of the cognitive mechanisms that support this activity. Because of the reciprocal relationship between android development and the exploration of social mechanisms, it is necessary to establish the field of android science. Androids could be a key testing ground for social, cognitive, and neuroscientific theories as well as platform for their eventual unification. Nevertheless, subtle flaws in appearance and movement can be more apparent and eerie in very humanlike robots. This uncanny phenomenon may be symptomatic of entities that elicit our model of human other but do not measure up to it. If so, very humanlike robots may provide the best means of pinpointing what kinds of behavior are perceived as human, since deviations from human norms are more obvious in them than in more mechanical-looking robots. In pursuing this line of inquiry, it is essential to identify the mechanisms involved in evaluations of human likeness. One hypothesis is that, by playing on an innate fear of death, an uncanny robot elicits culturally-supported defense responses for coping with death’s inevitability. An experiment, which borrows from methods used in terror management research, was performed to test this hypothesis. [Thomson Reuters Essential Science Indicators: Fast Breaking Paper in Social Sciences, May 2008]

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Oldenquist, Andrew. "The Origins of Morality: An Essay in Philosophical Anthropology." Social Philosophy and Policy 8, no. 1 (1990): 121–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0265052500003770.

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By what steps, historically, did morality emerge? Our remote ancestors evolved into social animals. Sociality requires, among other things, restraints on disruptive sexual, hostile, aggressive, vengeful, and acquisitive behavior. Since we are innately social and not social by convention, we can assume the biological evolution of the emotional equipment – numerous predispositions to want, fear, feel anxious or secure – required for social living, just as we can assume cultural evolution of various means to control antisocial behavior and reinforce the prosocial kind. Small clans consisting, say, of several extended families whose members cooperated in hunting, gathering, defense, and child-rearing could not exist without a combination of innate and social restraints on individual behavior.I shall argue for a naturalistic theory of morality, by which I do not mean the definitional claims G.E. Moore sought to refute, but a broader and more complex theory that maintains that a sufficient understanding of human nature, history, and culture can fully explain morality; that nothing is left hanging. A theory that coherently brings together the needed biological, psychological, and cultural facts I shall call a philosophical anthropology; it is a theory that:1) takes the good for humans – both an ultimate good (if there is any) and other important goods – to depend on human nature;2) argues that a rudimentary but improving scientific and philosophical theory of human nature now exists, and thus denies that people are “essenceless”;3) takes this theory to be evolutionary and historical, making the question “How did morality originate?” pivotal for ethical theory, but leaves open the empirical question of the relative importance of biological and cultural evolution; and4) takes the origin of the moral ideas to be explainable in terms of human nature and history.

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de Freitas, R. L., C. J. Salgado-Rohner, A. F. Biagioni, et al. "NMDA and AMPA/Kainate Glutamatergic Receptors in the Prelimbic Medial Prefrontal Cortex Modulate the Elaborated Defensive Behavior and Innate Fear-Induced Antinociception Elicited by GABAA Receptor Blockade in the Medial Hypothalamus." Cerebral Cortex 24, no. 6 (2013): 1518–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bht001.

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Levina, G., K. Tikhonov, O. A. Artemieva, and M. V. Zelepukina. "Behavior and resistance in Simmental bull calves of different genotypes." Agrarian Bulletin of the 193, no. 2 (2020): 54–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.32417/1997-4868-2020-193-2-54-61.

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Abstract. The new genotypes of animals have been created with the use of the Simmental-seedstock herd improver bulls. Selective breeding to be effective for these animals requires understanding the genetic basis of the main types of behavior. For this purpose, an experiment with the Simmetal herd was performed. The average herd-milk production comprised 7.0 thousand kg milk per cow per year (Kursk Region). The bull calves were kept loose. They were divided into two groups of 6 animals each, representing the breeds formed of 1/4 Simmental × 3/4 Holstein in group 1 and 1/8 Simmental × 3/8 Holstein × 1/2 Montbeliarde in group 2. Age-related differences between the bull calves within the groups were no more than two weeks. It was ascertained that the progeny of the Montbeliarde bull fathers (group 2) tended to be calm, spending more time on social behavior. Thus, frequencies of allogrooming in these bull calves at 10–12 months old and 14–15 months old were 50 % and 33 % more, respectively, than that in their peers of a genotype formed of 1/4 Simmental × 3/4 Holstein. Feeding behavior activity and feed intake in the bull calves aged 10–12 months and 14–15 months from group 2 were 18.4 % and 10.8 % higher, respectively, than that in their peers from group 1. The bull calves from group 1 were more nervous, since head butting, which occurred with a physical contact, among the bull calves at 14–15 months old was observed in 50 % of them. In addition, frequencies of agitated behavior (which can be indicated by scratching) exhibited by the bull calves aged 10–11 months and 14–15 months were higher by 16 % and 34 %, respectively, than that in their peers produced from the Montbeliarde bulls. Intense fear associated with a change in the habitual place of keeping was exhibited by 33 % of bull calves from group 1. The innate resistance parameter values for the bull calves of both genotypes were corresponded to the normal variables. The difference between the 14–15-month-old bull calves in the serum bactericidal activity was in favor of the Montbeliarde bulls, comprising 0.1 μ g/mL. Therefore, using the Montbeliarde bulls, overall, has had a positive effect on behavior including feeding behavior activity and feed intake in the produced progeny. It contributed to increasing the liveweights in the bull calves at 10–12 months old and 14–15 months old by 68.5 kg and 97 kg, respectively, when compared to the bull calves with the high rates of consanguinity in Holsteins.

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Stevenson, Carl W., John P. Meredith, Clare H. Spicer, Rob Mason, and Charles A. Marsden. "Early life programming of innate fear and fear learning in adult female rats." Behavioural Brain Research 198, no. 1 (2009): 51–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2008.10.021.

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de Freitas, Renato Leonardo, Carlos José Salgado-Rohner, Jaime Eduardo Cecílio Hallak, José Alexandre de Souza Crippa, and Norberto Cysne Coimbra. "Involvement of prelimbic medial prefrontal cortex in panic-like elaborated defensive behaviour and innate fear-induced antinociception elicited by GABAA receptor blockade in the dorsomedial and ventromedial hypothalamic nuclei: role of the endocannabinoid CB1 receptor." International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 16, no. 8 (2013): 1781–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1461145713000163.

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Abstract It has been shown that GABAA receptor blockade in the dorsomedial and ventromedial hypothalamic nuclei (DMH and VMH, respectively) induces elaborated defensive behavioural responses accompanied by antinociception, which has been utilized as an experimental model of panic attack. Furthermore, the prelimbic (PL) division of the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) has been related to emotional reactions and the processing of nociceptive information. The aim of the present study was to investigate the possible involvement of the PL cortex and the participation of local cannabinoid CB1 receptors in the elaboration of panic-like reactions and in innate fear-induced antinociception. Elaborated fear-induced responses were analysed during a 10-min period in an open-field test arena. Microinjection of the GABAA receptor antagonist bicuculline into the DMH/VMH evoked panic-like behaviour and fear-induced antinociception, which was decreased by microinjection of the non-selective synaptic contact blocker cobalt chloride in the PL cortex. Moreover, microinjection of AM251 (25, 100 or 400 pmol), an endocannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist, into the PL cortex also attenuated the defensive behavioural responses and the antinociception that follows innate fear behaviour elaborated by DMH/VMH. These data suggest that the PL cortex plays an important role in the organization of elaborated forward escape behaviour and that this cortical area is also involved in the elaboration of innate fear-induced antinociception. Additionally, CB1 receptors in the PL cortex modulate both panic-like behaviours and fear-induced antinociception elicited by disinhibition of the DMH/VMH through microinjection of bicuculline.

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Abdifatah Ahmed, Zakariye, Moktar Omar Sheikh Mohamed, Ahmed Abdi Mohamed, and Jeilani Busuri Mio. "Factors influencing the performance of donkey welfare a case study in benadir region, Somalia." International Journal of Avian & Wildlife Biology 7, no. 2 (2023): 60–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.15406/ijawb.2023.07.00191.

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Animal welfare, refers to the ability of an animal to cope with its current living conditions. Such an animal is free from distress, pain and fear, and express innate behavior. This study sought to look at the factors that influence the performance of donkey welfare in Benadir region-Somalia. The specific objectives of the study were to establish the influence of donkey owners’ perceptions on the performance of donkey welfare, to determine the influence of donkeys’ contribution to owners’/user’s livelihood on the performance of donkey welfare and to asses the influence of owner/user training on the performance of donkey welfare. A descriptive study design was used for the study and the sample size for the research study was hundred and eighty (180) donkey owners/users in Benadir region from the three Different districts: - Howlwadag, Warta nabada and Daynile. Quantitative data was collected and coded in SPSS Version 20 for analysis. The study found out that donkey owner’ perceptions, donkeys’ contribution to owner/user livelihood and owner/user level of training had statistically significance association to the influence of on performance of donkey welfare in Benadir Region-Somalia. Donkey owners’ perception affects how they treat the donkeys; donkeys contributed largely to the livelihood of the donkey owners and users. The findings of this study will be help to the donors and other stakeholders as they will help them to mainstream their programming to ensure donkey owners and users change their attitude thereby improving the performance of the donkey welfare. The findings of this study also will provide policy makers and Ministry of Livestock and range in Somalia with information that they will use to ensure that donkey owners and users have the necessary knowledge and skills to handle their donkeys well. The study has built on the existing study and also suggests area of further study and research. the recommendations of the study were that there is need for more sensitization and training to donkey owners or users on donkey welfare issues. In addition, to the government especially the ministry of livestock and range should be done to improve policies that protect the welfare of donkeys.

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Wilson, Christina A., Almira Vazdarjanova, and Alvin V. Terry. "Exposure to variable prenatal stress in rats: Effects on anxiety-related behaviors, innate and contextual fear, and fear extinction." Behavioural Brain Research 238 (February 2013): 279–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2012.10.003.

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Bassi, Gabriel S., Alexandre Kanashiro, Francele M. Santin, Glória E. P. de Souza, Manoel J. Nobre, and Norberto C. Coimbra. "Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Sickness Behaviour Evaluated in Different Models of Anxiety and Innate Fear in Rats." Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology 110, no. 4 (2011): 359–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-7843.2011.00824.x.

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Shields, Jessica, and Jean A. King. "The role of 5-HT1A receptors in the behavioral responses associated with innate fear." Behavioral Neuroscience 122, no. 3 (2008): 611–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0735-7044.122.3.611.

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Ribeiro, A. M., F. F. Barbosa, H. Munguba, M. S. M. O. Costa, J. S. Cavalcante, and R. H. Silva. "Basolateral amygdala inactivation impairs learned (but not innate) fear response in rats." Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 95, no. 4 (2011): 433–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2011.02.004.

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Coimbra, N. C., F. Calvo, R. L. Freitas, B. Lobao-Soares, D. H. Elias-Filho, and I. Tracey. "Naloxone-induced antipanic effect on defensive behaviour and innate fear-induced antinociception of preys confronted with rattlesnakes." International Journal of Psychophysiology 69, no. 3 (2008): 269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.05.216.

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Balázsfi, Diána, Anna Fodor, Bibiána Török, et al. "Enhanced innate fear and altered stress axis regulation in VGluT3 knockout mice." Stress 21, no. 2 (2018): 151–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10253890.2017.1423053.

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Stephenson Jr, Max, and Neda Moayerian. "Plus Ça Change: The Politics of Alterity, and Italian and Maltese Responses to Recent Migration Challenges." Athens Journal of Politics & International Affair 1, no. 2 (2025): 111–32. https://doi.org/10.30958/ajpia.1-2-1.

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This article analyzes the evolving refugee related policies of Italy and Malta in recent years by employing Hannah Arendt’s insights into the origins of refugee status and the power of alterity as an animating force of human behavior. We contend that both these countries have circumvented European Union and United Nations compacts and rules governing refugee treatment during this difficult historical era and that their behavior, and that of their populations, provides a powerful and salient reminder of the challenge of ensuring displaced people rights in the face of human willingness to ‘other.’ We argue too that the bases of those obstacles take multiple forms including deliberate appeals to hatreds, fears, and grievances, real and imagined, by political leaders for purposes of securing power, as well as via perversions of national memory and history. More deeply, the wellsprings of the behaviors to which Arendt pointed lie in individuals’ innate relative incapacity to tolerate difference, presenting a critical ongoing challenge for democratic governance amidst conditions of pluralism of whatever stripe. Keywords: refugees, Syrian Civil War, Hannah Arendt, Italy, Malta, alterity

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Buvana, R., and Talwar Prashanth. "Grit and Self-Efficacy on Growth Mindset- A Review Based Analysis." International Journal of Management, Technology, and Social Sciences (IJMTS) 8, no. 1 (2023): 37–52. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7556674.

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Purpose: Grit signifies a student's competence that endures after stumbling academic blocks. The trait Grit is closely identified with mindset. Students who believe that their shortcomings result from their fixed mental models, find no use nor reason to attempt again. Individuals with such rigid attitudes are believed to have a fixed mindset. On the contrary, students with a growth mindset are more likely to be resilient and have more grit. On the contrary, individuals who are mentally tough and strong are likely to be considered to have a growth mindset. According to previous research, grit is a question of nature and nurture. People need to build a growth attitude in order to become grittier. Design/Methodology/Approach: More than 100 research papers, articles, and journals were reviewed systematically to identify gaps, identify conflicts in previous studies, and for the purpose of foundation of knowledge on current topic. A systematic review of literature uses a meticulous and transparent methodology for research synthesis, with the aim of evaluating and, where feasible, diminishing bias in the findings. This review is based on careful and systematic scrutinization of the above-mentioned keywords and their combinations thereof. Electronic databases like Google Scholar, Research gate, Academia, Srinivas Publication and Mendeley/Elsevier with open access journals were perused. Results/ Findings: The relevant reviews indicate that people with a higher level of a growth mindset exhibit an equally high level of self-efficacy than pupils who had a more rigid perspective. Several literatures suggest that grit is associated with improved participation and better performance in a school environment. Students with a fixed mindset have a strong notion that their innate intelligence is limited preventing them from reaching their desired goals. This results in a hopeless ‘giving up’ attitude with a deep-rooted fear of failure. Whereas a growth mindset person marches forward with confidence. Their thoughts and beliefs are controlled by them. They understand that every person is brilliant in their own way which can be built, changed, and developed over time with the necessary components of will and effort. Few studies highlight different intervention models to improve fixed mindset of students. Few other studies suggest that practitioners could find a difference in the increase of grit with effective and committed goal settings which eventually would lead to an increased level of mindset in the right direction.  Originality/Value: This study is a prequel for the original study on grit, self-efficacy, and mindset modification for the professional success of Industrial Training Institute Students. This intervention-based study has been recommended by few previous studies. In all originality, the experimental study would largely impact the young adults, their cognition and non-cognitive behavior with a developed growth mindset. Type of Paper: Systematic Literature Review-Based Analysis.

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Abdulai-Saiku, Samira, and Ajai Vyas. "Toxoplasma gondii Infection Causes an Atypical Abundance of Oxytocin and Its Receptor in the Female Rat Brain." Pathogens 10, no. 11 (2021): 1495. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10111495.

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Infection with the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii causes loss of innate fear of cat odors in both male and female rats. This behavioral change is presumed to reflect a parasitic manipulation that increases transmission of the parasite from its intermediate to definitive host. The host behavioral change in male rats is dependent on gonadal steroids. In contrast, the loss of fear in female rats is not accompanied by greater gonadal steroids and cannot be rescued by gonadectomy. This disparity suggests that proximate mechanisms of the post infection host behavioral change in rats are sexually dimorphic. Here, we report that female rats infected with Toxoplasma gondii exhibit greater abundance of messenger RNA for oxytocin and oxytocin receptors in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and posterodorsal medial amygdala, respectively. Brain oxytocin is critical for sex-typical social and sexual behaviors in female rodents. The change in oxytocin and its receptor could potentially alter activity in the social salience circuits, leading to a reduction in defensive behaviors and an increase in approach to ambivalent environmental cues. Our results argue that sexually dimorphic neural substrates underpin sexually monomorphic host behavioral change in this host–parasite association.

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Voslářová, Eva, Dora Olejníková, Vladimír Večerek, Veronika Vojtkovská, and Iveta Bedáňová. "Effects of age and disturbance on fear in pheasants kept in a rearing facility." Acta Veterinaria Brno 91, no. 3 (2022): 303–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.2754/avb202291030303.

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The survival of captive-reared pheasants in the wild depends primarily on their ability to avoid predators, therefore, pheasants need to maintain their innate anti-predatory behaviour. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of age and disturbance on tonic immobility (TI) in pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) kept in a commercial rearing facility. TI tests were performed in pheasants aged 8, 10, 12, 14 and 16 weeks. Randomly selected pheasants of the same age were tested either immediately after capture (group C) or after exposure to various stimuli/disturbance (group D). No significant differences in the number of attempts to induce TI were found between the observed groups of pheasants (the vast majority of pheasants remained immobile on the first attempt). The effect of age was found only in group D, where birds aged 14 and 16 weeks showed a reduction in the duration of TI compared to younger birds. In group C, the duration of TI in pheasants of different ages did not differ. The results document a change in the duration of TI in response to an intense stimulus depending on the age of captive-reared pheasants. Knowledge of changes in anti-predatory behaviour depending on age and habituation to the environment and new stimuli is essential when determining the optimal age for pheasants to be released into the wild considering its impact on the subsequent survival of the released birds. Birds released at an older age and thus accustomed to repeated disturbances during captive rearing may have impaired defence behaviour.

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Samuel, Lydia, Charlotte Arnesen, Andreas Zedrosser, and Frank Rosell. "Fears from the past? The innate ability of dogs to detect predator scents." Animal Cognition 23, no. 4 (2020): 721–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10071-020-01379-y.

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Canteras, Newton S., Érika R. Ribeiro-Barbosa, and Eliane Comoli. "Tracing from the dorsal premammillary nucleus prosencephalic systems involved in the organization of innate fear responses." Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 25, no. 7-8 (2001): 661–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0149-7634(01)00048-3.

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Chen, Jing-An, Shuo Li, Bing-Xin Wang, Ning Wu, Fei Li, and Jin Li. "The effect of visually evoked innate fear on reward-associated conditional response and reversal learning in mice." Physiology & Behavior 244 (February 2022): 113648. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113648.

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Kuchkorova, Sadokat Toshpulatovna. "Ethological and Cognitive Foundations of Zoo-Symbols in Literary Discourse." European International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Management Studies 5, no. 5 (2025): 70–74. https://doi.org/10.55640/eijmrms-05-05-17.

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This study examines how animal symbols (zoonyms) in literature reflect both ethological principles and cognitive processes. We combined Tinbergen’s ethological framework with cognitive metaphor theory to analyze French and Uzbek literary passages featuring animal imagery. Each instance of animal symbolism was categorized into one of five motivational bases – instinctive, emotional, archetypal, initiatory, or moral – guiding a cross-cultural comparison. Applying Tinbergen’s four questions (function, phylogeny, mechanism, ontogeny) revealed that many animal metaphors share biological roots (e.g., a universal fear of predators) yet carry culturally specific nuances. The findings indicate that literary zoo-symbols are not arbitrary; they arise from innate animal behaviors interpreted through human cognitive and cultural lenses. Ultimately, the research highlights an integrated ethological–cognitive approach to understanding how animal imagery conveys meaning, offering insights for future cross-cultural literary studies.

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Calixto, A. V., F. S. Duarte, C. K. L. Moraes, M. S. Faria, and T. C. M. De Lima. "Nitric oxide involvement and neural substrates of the conditioned and innate fear as evaluated in the T-maze test in rats." Behavioural Brain Research 189, no. 2 (2008): 341–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2008.01.018.

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Freitas, Renato Leonardo, Andrés Uribe-Mariño, Maria Angélica Castiblanco-Urbina, Daoud Hibraim Elias-Filho, and Norberto Cysne Coimbra. "GABAA receptor blockade in dorsomedial and ventromedial nuclei of the hypothalamus evokes panic-like elaborated defensive behaviour followed by innate fear-induced antinociception." Brain Research 1305 (December 2009): 118–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2009.09.096.

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Lin, Shan, Meng-Yue Zhu, Meng-Yu Tang, et al. "Somatostatin-Positive Neurons in the Rostral Zona Incerta Modulate Innate Fear-Induced Defensive Response in Mice." Neuroscience Bulletin, October 19, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12264-022-00958-y.

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AbstractDefensive behaviors induced by innate fear or Pavlovian fear conditioning are crucial for animals to avoid threats and ensure survival. The zona incerta (ZI) has been demonstrated to play important roles in fear learning and fear memory, as well as modulating auditory-induced innate defensive behavior. However, whether the neuronal subtypes in the ZI and specific circuits can mediate the innate fear response is largely unknown. Here, we found that somatostatin (SST)-positive neurons in the rostral ZI of mice were activated by a visual innate fear stimulus. Optogenetic inhibition of SST-positive neurons in the rostral ZI resulted in reduced flight responses to an overhead looming stimulus. Optogenetic activation of SST-positive neurons in the rostral ZI induced fear-like defensive behavior including increased immobility and bradycardia. In addition, we demonstrated that manipulation of the GABAergic projections from SST-positive neurons in the rostral ZI to the downstream nucleus reuniens (Re) mediated fear-like defensive behavior. Retrograde trans-synaptic tracing also revealed looming stimulus-activated neurons in the superior colliculus (SC) that projected to the Re-projecting SST-positive neurons in the rostral ZI (SC-ZIrSST-Re pathway). Together, our study elucidates the function of SST-positive neurons in the rostral ZI and the SC-ZIrSST-Re tri-synaptic circuit in mediating the innate fear response.

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Liu, Xue, Xiaolong Feng, Hongren Huang, et al. "Male and female mice display consistent lifelong ability to address potential life-threatening cues using different post-threat coping strategies." BMC Biology 20, no. 1 (2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12915-022-01486-x.

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Abstract Background Sex differences ranging from physiological functions to pathological disorders are developmentally hard-wired in a broad range of animals, from invertebrates to humans. These differences ensure that animals can display appropriate behaviors under a variety of circumstances, such as aggression, hunting, sleep, mating, and parental care, which are often thought to be important in the acquisition of resources, including territory, food, and mates. Although there are reports of an absence of sexual dimorphism in the context of innate fear, the question of whether there is sexual dimorphism of innate defensive behavior is still an open question. Therefore, an in-depth investigation to determine whether there are sex differences in developmentally hard-wired innate defensive behaviors in life-threatening circumstances is warranted. Results We found that innate defensive behavioral responses to potentially life-threatening stimuli between males and females were indistinguishable over their lifespan. However, by using 3 dimensional (3D)-motion learning framework analysis, we found that males and females showed different behavioral patterns after escaping to the refuge. Specifically, the defensive “freezing” occurred primarily in males, whereas females were more likely to return directly to exploration. Moreover, there were also no estrous phase differences in innate defensive behavioral responses after looming stimuli. Conclusions Our results demonstrate that visually-evoked innate fear behavior is highly conserved throughout the lifespan in both males and females, while specific post-threat coping strategies depend on sex. These findings indicate that innate fear behavior is essential to both sexes and as such, there are no evolutionary-driven sex differences in defensive ability.

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Anggreini, Putri, Chrismawan Ardianto, Mahardian Rahmadi, and Junaidi Khotib. "Quercetin attenuates acute predator stress exposure-evoked innate fear and behavioral perturbation." Journal of Basic and Clinical Physiology and Pharmacology 30, no. 6 (2019). http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jbcpp-2019-0242.

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Abstract Background Oxidative stress plays a pivotal role in the pathophysiology and pathogenesis of mental diseases, such as depression or anxiety. Psychological stress induced by predatory stimulus is one of the models that explain how induced affective behavior is manifested as a depression-like state. Quercetin is a flavonoid that exhibits potential pharmacological activity on mental diseases. Thus, the present study was designed to investigate the effect of quercetin on innate fear and affective behavior induced by repeated predator stress exposure on mice. Materials and methods ICR mice were exposed to predatory stress for 3 days. Quercetin at a dose of 50 mg/kg was given intraperitoneally along with stress induction. The freezing behavior during the stress induction was analyzed. The anxiety-like and depressive-like behaviors and cognitive and motor functions were examined on the last day of induction. Results Predatory stress increased the affective behaviors (anxiety-like and depressive-like behaviors) and produced freezing behavior without alterations in the cognitive function and exploratory behavior. Treatment with quercetin 50 mg/kg attenuated the freezing, anxiety-like and depressive-like behaviors. Conclusions Repeated predator stress exposure causes both innate fear and depression-like state for the prey animals. Quercetin may have a protective effect against depression and alleviates the fear of traumatic events.

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ZHAO, Jiajia, Qi SONG, Yongye WU, and Liping YANG. "Advances in neural circuits of innate fear defense behavior." Journal of Zhejiang University (Medical Sciences), August 1, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.3724/zdxbyxb-2023-0131.

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Furuyama, Takafumi, Ayana Imayoshi, Toyo Iyobe, et al. "Multiple factors contribute to flight behaviors during fear conditioning." Scientific Reports 13, no. 1 (2023). http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-37612-0.

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AbstractShifting defensive mode from one to another by the imminence of threat is crucial for survival. The transition of defensive mode from freezing to flight is observed during the modified fear conditioning, however, the flight during fear conditioning is not well characterized. To characterize the flight behaviors during the fear conditioning, we conducted experiments in male mice focusing on the influence of the context, the intensity of the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus (CS), the schedule of conditioning, and the state of the subject. Flight behaviors triggered by salient CS showed characteristics of fear-potentiated defensive behaviors depending on the conditioned context, while repetitive conditioning enhanced the expression of the flight and developed an association between the CS and the flight. The salient auditory stimulus was the primary factor to trigger flight behaviors. Also, the spaced conditioning increased the expression of flight behaviors. Taken together, the flight behavior during fear conditioning is not a simple conditioned response nor simple fear-potentiated behavior, but a complicated mixture of multiple components of defensive behaviors. The transition of defensive mode could be induced by the integration of multiple innate and learned components of fear or anxiety.

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Loomba, Niharika, Anyu Cao, Senna Charles, Isaac Kandil, Michelle Kwon, and Sachin Patel. "Endocannabinoid modulation of defensive state transitions to innate and learned threat." Psychopharmacology, May 24, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-025-06812-z.

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Abstract A hallmark of many psychiatric disorders is maladaptive and heightened fear responses to non-threatening stimuli. Adaptive defensive responses to threats involve transitions between passive behaviors, such as freezing, and active escape strategies, such as darting or fleeing. The endocannabinoid (eCB) system, particularly 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), plays a crucial role in modulating fear and stress responses. However, the extent to which 2-AG influences defensive behavioral state transitions to fear responses remains unclear. To address this, we investigated the role of 2-AG in shaping defensive behaviors to learned and innate threats using pharmacological manipulations in both the serial compound stimulus (SCS) and the looming shadow paradigm. During SCS, inhibition of 2-AG synthesis enhanced freezing to early cues and promoted active responses during cues associated with heightened threat imminence. In the looming shadow paradigm, 2-AG depletion biased defensive behavior toward freezing and increased time spent in a safe zone, suggesting a shift toward passive responses. These findings demonstrate that 2-AG signaling critically regulates the balance and transitions between passive and active defensive strategies in both learned and innate fear contexts. Thus, 2-AG plays a key role in the scaling of defensive response transitions and the promotion of active defensive responses to threats.

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Ke, Shuo, Feiyu Wang, Chuanyu Fu, et al. "Artificial fear neural circuit based on noise triboelectric nanogenerator and photoelectronic neuromorphic transistor." Applied Physics Letters 123, no. 12 (2023). http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0167011.

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Fear neural circuits can recognize precisely threatening stimuli and enable the early-warning for the individual in the real world. In this regard, implementation of fear neural circuits functions by neuromorphic devices could potentially improve the intelligent adaptability and cognition of humanoid robots. Here, an artificial fear neural circuit is proposed, which consists of a noise triboelectric nanogenerator (N-TENG) and an amorphous indium gallium zinc oxide based photoelectronic neuromorphic transistor (IGZO-PNT). Such an artificial fear neural circuit collects sound wave and light signals from the N-TENG and a-IGZO channel, respectively, converts these signals to electrical signals and integrates them into excitatory postsynaptic currents by the IGZO-PNT. The innate-fear and learned-fear behaviors are emulated by our artificial fear neural circuit. Furthermore, as a proof of concept, the escape behavior after fear triggered is realized by using a vibrator. Our biomimetic design can promote the developments of next-generation photoelectronic neuromorphic systems and humanoid robots.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Innate fear behavior'

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