Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Integrated water resources modeling'

Like other scientists, hydrologists encode mathematical formulations that simulate various hydrologic processes as computer programs so that problems with water resource management that would otherwise be manually intractable can be solved efficiently. These computer models are typically developed to answer specific questions within a specific study domain. For example, one computer model may be developed to solve for magnitudes of water flow and water levels in an aquifer while another may be developed to solve for magnitudes of water flow through a water distribution network of pipes and reservoirs. Interactions between different processes are often ignored or are approximated using overly simplistic assumptions. The increasing complexity of the water resources challenges society faces, including stresses from variable climate and land use change, means that some of these models need to be stitched together so that these challenges are not evaluated myopically from the perspective of a single research discipline or study domain. The research in this dissertation presents an investigation of the various approaches and technologies that can be used to support model integration. The research delves into some of the computational challenges associated with model integration and suggests approaches for dealing with these challenges. Finally, it advances new software that provides data structures that water resources modelers are more accustomed to and allows them to take advantage of advanced computing resources for efficient simulations.

Environmental problems associated with the use of water are inherently complex, involving the interaction of several different systems. Further, there is often limited data on the interaction, because of its location between disciplines. In order to study these problems in a quantitative, policy relevant way, a numerical model is required that integrates the different systems and is tailored to contain the processes important to the interaction. A numerical water resource system model is developed to study the problems associated with the interaction between agriculture and water. The model integrates an econometric model of farmer behaviour with a dynamic model of water flow and solute transport. The Argolid valley in Greece represents an area where severe environmental problems have arisen as a result of the overexploitation of groundwater for agriculture. When applied to the Argolid valley the water resource system model reproduces the evolution of the environmental problems that have arisen. It is then demonstrated that the model can be used to investigate some future scenarios and policy options related to the environmental problems that have developed. The main contribution of this research is to demonstrate that a properly designed numerical model that reproduces the dynamic interaction between human behaviour and the physical environment can enable the exploration of the evolution of environmental problems despite a lack of calibration data. Having achieved this the model can then be used in a policy relevant way to investigate the implications from a range of different, possible policy options.

Hydrological models are a simplified representation of hydrological processes and can be very used for the water resources assessment and gain an integral view of the water resources status for integrated water resources management IWRM. Furthermore, they can be used to investigate the possible impacts and trends resulting from different types of scenarios, such as climate change impact studies. Accordingly, with IWRM as the future application, the primary objectives of this study is to use a hydrological model, SWAT for the modelling of a highly-regulated river basin through the physical flow control (reservoirs release in the upstream region), the Dee River Watershed in the United Kingdom. Moreover, an essential aspect of model input uncertainty, i.e. precipitation is investigated on the simulated streamflow where different methods of rainfall pre-processing are used. Furthermore, a quantile regression method is employed for analysing the long-term historical trend of rainfall, river flow and catchment water yields focusing on the patterns of the data close to 'extreme' regimes, to link them to the events of interests for the climate change impact studies. Additionally, a reliable simulation of both land surface and groundwater hydrological processes is a far important step for IWRM. One way to achieve such purpose is the coupling of surface and groundwater models. The land surface model (SWAT) is coupled with the groundwater flow model (MODFLOW) to improve the baseflow simulation of the SWAT standalone in the study area. Another critical aspect of this study is the investigation of parameter uncertainty of the coupled SWAT-MODFLOW. Finally, the climate projection data from the CMIP5 project is utilised with allocation model, Water Evaluation and Planning software WEAP to address climate change impact for future scenarios on water resources. All presented models performed well in demonstrating the study conditions, as indicated by the statistical performance. The research approach of the integrated models can generally apply to any catchment and inspired by the need of considering all aspects related to hydrological models for IWRM to bridge the gap of between stakeholder involvement and natural hydrological processes in building and applying integrated models to ensure acceptability and application in decision-making for IWRM.

The planning and implementation of effective water resources management strategies need an assessment of multiple (physical, environmental, and socio-economic) issues, and often requires new research in which knowledge of diverse disciplines are combined in a unified methodological and operational framework. Such integrative research to link different knowledge domains faces several practical challenges. The complexities are further compounded by multiple actors frequently with conflicting interests and multiple uncertainties about the consequences of potential management decisions. This thesis aims to overcome some of these challenges, and to demonstrate how new modeling approaches can provide successful integrative water resources research. It focuses on the development of new integrated modeling approaches which allow integration of not only physical processes but also socio-economic and environmental issues and uncertainties inherent in water resources systems. To achieve this goal, two new approaches are developed in this thesis. At first, a Bayesian network (BN)-based decision support tool is developed to conceptualize hydrological and socio-economic interaction for supporting management decisions of coupled groundwater-agricultural systems. The method demonstrates the value of combining different commonly used integrated modeling approaches. Coupled component models are applied to simulate the nonlinearity and feedbacks of strongly interacting groundwater-agricultural hydrosystems. Afterwards, a BN is used to integrate the coupled component model results with empirical knowledge and stakeholder inputs. In the second part of this thesis, a fuzzy-stochastic multiple criteria decision analysis tool is developed to systematically quantify both probabilistic and fuzzy uncertainties associated with complex hydrosystems management. It integrates physical process-based models, fuzzy logic, expert involvement and stochastic simulation within a general framework. Subsequently, the proposed new approaches are applied to a water-scarce coastal arid region water management problem in northern Oman, where saltwater intrusion into a coastal aquifer due to excessive groundwater extraction for irrigated agriculture has affected the aquifer sustainability, endangering associated socio-economic conditions as well as traditional social structures. The results show the effectiveness of the proposed methods. The first method can aid in the impact assessment of alternative management interventions on sustainability of aquifer systems while accounting for economic (agriculture) and societal interests (employment in agricultural sector) in the study area. Results from the second method have provided key decision alternatives which can serve as a platform for negotiation and further exploration. In addition, this approach suits to systematically quantify both probabilistic and fuzzy uncertainties associated with the decision problem. The new approaches can be applied to address the complexities and uncertainties inherent in water resource systems to support management decisions, while serving as a platform for stakeholder participation.

Land use, land cover and land management change threatens the sustainability of ecosystem services upon which individuals and communities depend. However, quantifying the effects of large-scale environmental change on regional water resources and climate is challenging because of a lack of appropriate data as well as fundamental limitations of environmental models. This thesis focuses on the development of integrated modelling systems for representing feedback mechanisms between human activities and the environment at regional scales. India is selected as a case study because of the unprecedented scale of environmental change in this country over recent decades. Land use change modelling is identified as a viable method for reconstructing historical land use/land cover at regional scales. This is facilitated through the development of a new modelling framework which allows users to perform the entire modelling workflow in the same environment and provides a consistent interface to different spatial allocation models. Hence, the modelling framework enables model intercomparison and ensemble experiments. It furthermore promotes reproducible science because it allows applications to be expressed programmatically. An adapted version of the Change in Land Use and its Effects (CLUE) land use change model is used to reconstruct historical land use/land cover in India between 1956–2010. The model algorithm explicitly accounts for competition between land use/land cover categories as a result of dynamic socio-economic and biophysical conditions. A further dataset showing the irrigated area of various crops is developed by spatially disaggregating historical agricultural inventory data based on maps of cropland extent and biophysical suitability. Land use/land cover maps are supplied to an offline historical simulation of the Joint UK Land and Environment Simulator (JULES), a process-based land surface model, to generate soil moisture values across the Gangetic plain. Simulated soil moisture values are modified to account for the effects of irrigation. The procedure exploits the characteristics of the irrigated area dataset in order to account for the growing season of individual crops. Existing tools for coordinating complex workflows in the hydrological sciences are strongly coupled to underlying modelling frameworks. As a result, they lack flexibility and often necessitate refactoring of the source code of model components. Exploring these issues further, an experiment is devised in which the data processing language R is set up as a workflow orchestration tool for hydrological data analysis and modelling. A new software package implements a set of classes for representing multi-dimensional hydrological data and to provide a common interface to hydrological models. The experimental set-up is demonstrated through two example applications drawn from hydrology and the emerging discipline of socio-hydrology. These serve to highlight the flexibility of the R system for workflow orchestration and model coupling but also draw attention to several areas for future development.

Forecasted changes to climate and land use were used to model variations in the streamflow characteristics of Occoquan watershed and water quality in the Occoquan reservoir. The combination of these two driving forces has created four themes and an integrated complexly-linked watershed-reservoir model was used to run the simulations. Two emission scenarios from the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), along with four General Circulation Models (GCMs) by using two statistical downscaling methods, were applied to drive the Hydrological Simulation Program - Fortran (HSPF) and CE-QUAL-W2 (W2) in two future time periods (2046-2065 and 2081-2100). Incorporation of these factors yielded 68 simulation models which were compared with historical streamflow and water quality data from the late 20th century. Climate change is projected to increase surface air temperature and precipitation depth in the study area in the future. Using climate change only, an increase in high and median flows and decrease in low flows are projected. Changes in flow characteristics are more pronounced when only future land use changes are considered, with increases in high, median and low flows. Under the joint examination of the driving forces, an amplifying effect on the high flows and median flows observed. In contrast, climate change is projected to dampen the extreme increases in the low flows created by the land use change. Surface water temperatures are projected to increase as a result of climate change in the Occoquan reservoir, while these changes are not very noticeable under the effect of land use change only. It is expected that higher water temperatures will promote decreased oxygen solubility and greater heterotrophy. Moreover, longer anoxic conditions are projected at the bottom of the reservoir. Results indicate that higher water temperature will increase the denitrifying capacity of the reservoir, especially during summer months, further reducing the nitrate concentration in the reservoir.
PHD

Over the last decades, fast growing population along with urban and agricultural sprawl has drastically increased the pressure on water resources of the Federal District (DF), Brazil. Various socio-environmental problems, such as soil erosion, non-point source pollution, reservoir silting, and conflicts among water users evoked the need for more efficient and sustainable ways to use land and water. Due to the complexity of processes relevant at the scale of river basins, a prior analysis of impacts of certain land use and/or land management changes is only feasible by means of modeling. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) has been proven to be useful in this context, across the globe and for different environmental conditions. In this thesis, the SWAT model is utilized to evaluate the impact of Best Management Practices (BMPs) on catchment hydrology and sediment transport. However, model applications in tropical regions, such as the DF, are hampered by severe challenges, (i) the lack of input and control data in an adequate temporal and spatial resolution and (ii) model structural failures in representing processes under tropical conditions. The present (cumulative) thesis addresses these challenges in model simulations for two contrasting watersheds, which both are important sources of the DF’s drinking water supply, i.e. (i) the agriculture-dominated Pipiripau river basin where conflicting demands put immense pressure on the available water resources and (ii) the Santa Maria / Torto river basin, which is to large parts protected as national park and, thus, covered by native vegetation of the Cerrado biome. Perhaps one of the most challenging issues facing watershed modelers in tropical regions is the fact that rain gauge networks can usually not reflect the high spatio-temporal variability of mostly convective precipitation patterns. Therefore, an ensemble of different reasonable input precipitation data-sets was used to examine the uncertainty in parameterization and model output. Acceptable streamflow and sediment load predictions could be achieved for each input data-set. However, the best-fit parameter values varied widely across the ensemble. Due to its enhanced consideration of parameter uncertainty, this ensemble approach provides more robust predictions and hence is reasonable to be used also for scenario simulations. BMP scenarios for the Pipiripau River Basin revealed that erosion control constructions, such as terraces and small retention basins along roads (Barraginhas) are promising measures to reduce sediment loads (up to 40%) while maintaining streamflow. Tests for a multi-diverse crop rotation system, in contrast, showed a high vulnerability of the hydrologic system against any increase in irrigation. Considering the BMP implementation costs, it was possible to estimate cost-abatement curves, which can provide useful information for watershed managers, especially when BMPs are supported by Payments for Environmental Services as it is the case in the study area due to the program Produtor de Água. While for agricultural areas the model has proven to generate plausible results, the plant growth module of SWAT was found to be not suitable for simulating perennial tropical vegetation, such as Cerrado (savanna) or forest, which can also play a crucial role in river basin management. For temperate regions SWAT uses dormancy to terminate growing seasons of trees and perennials. However, there is no mechanism considered to reflect seasonality in the tropics, i.e. the phenological change between wet and dry season. Therefore, a soil moisture based approach was implemented into the plant growth module to trigger new growing cycles in the transition period from dry to wet season. The adapted model was successfully tested against LAI and ET time series derived from remote sensing products (MODIS). Since the proposed changes are process-based but also allow flexible model settings, the modified plant growth module can be seen as a fundamental improvement useful for future model application in the tropics. The present thesis shows insights into the workflow of a watershed model application in the semi-humid tropics – from input data processing and model setup over source code adaptation, model calibration and uncertainty analysis to its use for running scenarios. It depicts region-specific challenges but also provides practical solutions. Hence, this work might be seen as one further step toward robust and process-based model predictions to assist land and water resources management
Starkes Bevölkerungswachstum, ungeplante Suburbanisierung und Landnutzungsänderungen (z.B. Intensivierung in der Landwirtschaft) verstärkten innerhalb der letzten Jahrzehnte zunehmend den Druck auf die Wasserressourcen des Bundesdistrikts Brasilien (zentralbrasilianisches Hochland), in dessen Mitte die junge Hauptstadt Brasília liegt. Damit verbundene negative Umweltauswirkungen, wie Bodenerosion, Stoff- und Sedimenteinträge in Fließgewässer und Talsperren sowie Konflikte zwischen den Wassernutzern erfordern daher dringend effektive und nachhaltige Lösungen im Land- und Wasserressourcen-management. Der Einfluss von möglichen zukünftigen Landnutzungs- und Bewirtschaftungsänderungen auf Wasserverfügbarkeit und -qualität hängt vom jeweiligen, oftmals sehr komplexen, landschaftsökologischen Prozessgefüge ab und kann nur mithilfe von prozessbasierten Simulationsmodellen quantitativ auf der Ebene von Einzugsgebieten abgeschätzt werden. Das “Soil and Water Assessment Tool” (SWAT) ist ein solches Modell. Es findet weltweite Anwendung für verschiedene Umweltbedingungen in Einzugsgebieten der Meso- bis Makroskala, um Landnutzungseffekte auf den Wasserhaushalt und den Transport von Nährstoffen, Pestiziden und Sedimenten zu prognostizieren. Seine Anwendung in tropischen Regionen, wie etwa in Zentralbrasilien, ist jedoch mit erheblichen Herausforderungen verbunden. Das betrifft sowohl die Verfügbarkeit von Eingangs- und Referenzdaten in ausreichender raum-zeitlicher Auflösung, als auch modellstrukturelle Unzulänglichkeiten bei der Prozessabbildung. Die vorliegende kumulative Dissertation zeigt dies anhand von Modellanwendungen für zwei unterschiedliche wasserwirtschaftlich relevante Einzugsgebiete (EZG): Das landwirtschaftlich intensiv genutzte EZG des Rio Pipiripau mit aktuell besonders konfliktträchtiger Wassernutzung, und das Santa Maria/Torto-EZG, welches - geschützt als Nationalpark - durch größtenteils natürliche Vegetationsformationen der brasilianischen Savanne (Cerrado) gekennzeichnet ist. Eine der größten Herausforderungen für die Einzugsgebietsmodellierung in tropischen Regionen liegt in der Abschätzung des Gebietsniederschlages, da vorhandene Messstationsdichten oft nicht ausreichen, um die hohe räumliche und zeitliche Variabilität der meist konvektiven Niederschläge zu erfassen. Mithilfe eines Ensembles verschiedener, plausibel generierter Niederschlagsreihen ist der Einfluss von Niederschlagsdaten-Unsicherheit auf die Modellparametrisierung und -vorhersage explizit berücksichtigt und untersucht worden. Zufriedenstellende Abfluss- und Sedimentfrachtsimulationen waren mit jeder der als Modelinput verwendeten Niederschlagsreihen möglich, jedoch nur bei entsprechender, z.T. stark voneinander abweichender Einstellung der Kalibrierungsparameter. Da diese umfassendere Betrachtung von Parameterunsicherheit zu robusteren Modellvorhersagen führt, wurde der Ensemble-Ansatz auch in der Simulation von Bewirtschaftungsszenarien, dem eigentlichen Modellzweck, verwendet. Die Szenariosimulationen zeigten, dass Maßnahmen zur Erosionsvermeidung (Terrassierung) und zum Sedimentrückhalt (kleine Sedimentrückhaltebecken entlang von Straßen - Barraginhas) die Sedimentfracht des Rio Pipiripau durchschnittlich um bis zu 40% reduzieren können, ohne dabei die Wasserverfügbarkeit zu beeinträchtigen. Modellszenarien mit einer vielgliedrigen Fruchtfolge auf großer Fläche verdeutlichten dagegen die hohe Vulnerabilität des Niedrigwasserabflusses in der Trockenzeit gegenüber jedweder Erhöhung der Bewässerungsmenge. Auf Grundlage von Kostenschätzungen für einzelne Maßnahmen konnten Kostenkurven zur Verringerung der Sedimentfracht und damit nützliche Informationen für das Wasserressourcen-Management abgeleitet werden, insbesondere weil eine Auswahl solcher Agrar-Umweltmaßnahmen im Pipiripau-EZG durch das Programm Produtor de Água finanziell gefördert werden sollen. Während das Modell in landwirtschaftlich genutzten Gebieten plausible Ergebnisse produzierte, wurden erhebliche Schwachstellen in der Simulation ausdauernder Vegetation (z.B. Cerrado) identifiziert. Zur Unterbrechung jährlicher Vegetationszyklen verwendet SWAT eine tageslängenabhängige Dormanzperiode. Diese ist zwar zweckmäßig zur Abbildung der Vegetationsdynamik in den gemäßigten Breiten, steuert aber nicht tropische Vegetationszyklen. Um den Wechsel zwischen Trocken- und Regenzeit in der pflanzenphänologischen Simulation in SWAT abzubilden, wurde daher im Rahmen dieser Arbeit das Pflanzenwachstumsmodul modifiziert, und zwar unter anderem durch Einbeziehung der simulierten Bodenfeuchte zur Unterbrechung der Wachstumszyklen. Das angepasste Modul wurde erfolgreich anhand von Fernerkundungsdaten (MODIS) zum zeitlichen Verlauf von Blattflächenindex und Evapotranspiration getestet. Es ist prozessbasiert und erlaubt flexible Einstellungen, so dass es als grundlegende Modellverbesserung auch für andere SWAT-Anwender von großem Nutzen sein kann. Die vorliegende Dissertation bringt neue Einsichten in verschiedene wichtige Aspekte der integrierten Modellierung tropischer Einzugsgebiete, von der Eingangsdatenaufbereitung über Quellcode-Anpassung, Modellkalibrierung und Unsicherheitsanalyse bis hin zu Szenariosimulationen. Sie veranschaulicht regionsspezifische Herausforderungen, liefert gleichzeitig aber auch praktikable Lösungen und damit einen wichtigen Beitrag für robustere prozessbasierte Modellanwendungen als Entscheidungsunterstützung im Bereich Land- und Wasserressourcenmanagement

The global problem of increasing freshwater scarcity has led to the promotion and adoption of the concept of integrated water resources management (IWRM) as a way of achieving sustainable development and management of available freshwater resources. However, despite its popularity and the widespread support it has enjoyed among its proponents over the years, IWRM has registered dismal performance on the implementation front. Whereas participatory involvement in the management of water resources is a key requirement in IWRM, its realisation in practice remains a major challenge. This study investigated means through which participatory involvement in water resources management could be improved with the aim of enhancing implementation of IWRM. To that end a participatory modelling exercise was designed and implemented with a select group of participants and the process evaluated; a web-based mobile data collection system was developed, tested and evaluated; and an enabling framework for water resources management was assessed. Key findings from the study suggest that participatory modelling can enhance implementation of IWRM by supporting participatory involvement in the management of water resources. However this is not possible with a web-based mobile data collection system, particularly in a developing country context. The findings also suggest that an enabling environment for water resources management is not sufficient to enhance implementation of IWRM but may need to be accompanied by additional supporting measures. As the responsibilities of managing water resources are increasingly being decentralised with more emphasis being placed on stakeholder participation, participatory modelling offers methodological guidance on how to constructively involve stakeholders in water resources management.

Availability of and access to water and energy are key ingredients for economic and social development. Predictions show that pressure on already limited water and energy resources is expected to increase in many parts of the world as a result of growing populations, rapid urbanization, increasing pollution and climate change impacts. The water and energy systems are highly interdependent and these interlinks provide important opportunities to improve resource security and prevent inefficient decisions which could exacerbate problems even further. This thesis explores the benefits to be gained from and the drawbacks of ignoring the various interlinks. A review of several existing water-energy integration modeling methodologies shows that the different physical, temporal and spatial characteristics of the water and energy systems present several hurdles in analyzing the two resources simultaneously. This thesis overcomes many of these issues by developing a fully integrated hard-linked water-energy linear optimization model. A case study from Spain is used to demonstrate the applications of the model for simultaneous analysis of water, energy and climate change adaptation strategies. An integrated approach is shown to have several benefits including lower total costs, better resource efficiency and improved robustness for a wide range of variations in several uncertain parameters.

QC 20171106

The connections between surface water and groundwater systems remain poorly understood in many catchments throughout the world and yet they are fundamental to effectively managing water resources. Managing water resources in an integrated manner is not straightforward, particularly if both resources are being utilised, and especially in those regions that suffer problems of data scarcity. This study explores some of the principle issues associated with understanding and practically modelling surface and groundwater interactions. In South Africa, there remains much controversy over the most appropriate type of integrated model to be used and the way forward in terms of the development of the discipline; part of the disagreement stems from the fact that we cannot validate models adequately. This is largely due to traditional forms of model testing having limited power as it is difficult to differentiate between the uncertainties within different model structures, different sets of alternative parameter values and in the input data used to run the model. While model structural uncertainties are important to consider, the uncertainty from input data error together with parameter estimation error are often more significant to the overall residual error, and essential to consider if we want to achieve reliable predictions for water resource decisions. While new philosophies and theories on modelling and results validation have been developed (Beven, 2002; Gupta et al., 2008), in many cases models are not only still being validated and compared using sparse and uncertain datasets, but also expected to produce reliable predictions based on the flawed data. The approach in this study is focused on fundamental understanding of hydrological systems rather than calibration based modelling and promotes the use of all the available 'hard' and 'soft' data together with thoughtful conceptual examination of the processes occurring in an environment to ensure as far as possible that a model is generating sensible results by simulating the correct processes. The first part of the thesis focuses on characterising the 'typical' interaction environments found in South Africa. It was found that many traditional perceptual models are not necessarily applicable to South African conditions, largely due to the relative importance of unsaturated zone processes and the complexity of the dominantly fractured rock environments. The interaction environments were categorised into four main 'types' of environment. These include karst, primary, fractured rock (secondary), and alluvial environments. Processes critical to Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) were defined within each interaction type as a guideline to setting a model up to realistically represent the dominant processes in the respective settings. The second part of the thesis addressed the application and evaluation of the modified Pitman model (Hughes, 2004), which allows for surface and groundwater interaction behaviour at the catchment scale to be simulated. The issue is whether, given the different sources of uncertainty in the modelling process, we can differentiate one conceptual flow path from another in trying to refine the understanding and consequently have more faith in model predictions. Seven example catchments were selected from around South Africa to assess whether reliable integrated assessments can be carried out given the existing data. Specific catchment perceptual models were used to identify the critical processes occurring in each setting and the Pitman model was assessed on whether it could represent them (structural uncertainty). The available knowledge of specific environments or catchments was then examined in an attempt to resolve the parameter uncertainty present within each catchment and ensure the subsequent model setup was correctly representing the process understanding as far as possible. The confidence in the quantitative results inevitably varied with the amount and quality of the data available. While the model was deemed to be robust based on the behavioural results obtained in the majority of the case studies, in many cases a quantitative validation of the outputs was just not possible based on the available data. In these cases, the model was judged on its ability to represent the conceptualisation of the processes occurring in the catchments. While the lack of appropriate data means there will always be considerable uncertainty surrounding model validation, it can be argued that improved process understanding in an environment can be used to validate model outcomes to a degree, by assessing whether a model is getting the right results for the right reasons. Many water resource decisions are still made without adequate account being taken of the uncertainties inherent in assessing the response of hydrological systems. Certainly, with all the possible sources of uncertainty in a data scarce country such as South Africa, pure calibration based modelling is unlikely to produce reliable information for water resource managers as it can produce the right results for the wrong reasons. Thus it becomes essential to incorporate conceptual thinking into the modelling process, so that at the very least we are able to conclude that a model generates estimates that are consistent with, and reflect, our understanding (however limited) of the catchment processes. It is fairly clear that achieving the optimum model of a hydrological system may be fraught with difficulty, if not impossible. This makes it very difficult from a practitioner's point of view to decide which model and uncertainty estimation method to use. According to Beven (2009), this may be a transitional problem and in the future it may become clearer as we learn more about how to estimate the uncertainties associated with hydrological systems. Until then, a better understanding of the fundamental and most critical hydrogeological processes should be used to critically test and improve model predictions as far as possible. A major focus of the study was to identify whether the modified Pitman model could provide a practical tool for water resource managers by reliably determining the available water resource. The incorporation of surface and groundwater interaction routines seems to have resulted in a more robust and realistic model of basin hydrology. The overall conclusion is that the model, although simplified, is capable of representing the catchment scale processes that occur under most South African conditions.

The recent high profile flooding events – that have occurred in many parts of the world – have drawn attention to the need for new and improved methods for water resources assessment, water management and the modelling of large-scale flooding events. In the case of the Zambezi Basin, a review of the 2000 and 2001 floods identified the need for tools to enable hydrologists to assess and predict daily stream flow and identify the areas that are likely to be affected by flooding. As a way to address the problem, a methodology was set up to derive catchment soil moisture statistics from Earth Observation (EO) data and to study the improvements brought about by an assimilation of this information into hydrological models for improving reservoir management in a data scarce environment. Rainfall data were obtained from the FEWSNet Web site and computed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Climatic Prediction Center (NOAA/CPC). These datasets were processed and used to monitor rainfall variability and subsequently fed into a hydrological model to predict the daily flows for the Zambezi River Basin. The hydrological model used was the Geospatial Stream Flow Model (GeoSFM), developed by the United States Geological Survey (USGS). GeoSFM is a spatially semi-distributed physically-based hydrological model, parameterised using spatially distributed topographic data, soil characteristics and land cover data sets available globally from both Remote Sensing and in situ sources. The Satellite rainfall data were validated against data from twenty (20) rainfall gauges located on the Lower Zambezi. However, at several rain gauge stations (especially those with complex topography, which tended to experience high rainfall spatial variability), there was no direct correlation between the satellite estimates and the ground data as recorded in daily time steps. The model was calibrated for seven gauging stations. The calibrated model performed quite well at seven selected locations (R2=0.66 to 0.90, CE=0.51 to 0.88, RSR=0.35 to 0.69, PBIAS=−4.5 to 7.5). The observed data were obtained from the National Water Agencies of the riparian countries. After GeoSFM calibration, the model generated an integration of the flows into a reservoir and hydropower model to optimise the operation of Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams. The Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams were selected because this study considers these two dams as the major infrastructures for controlling and alleviating floods in the Zambezi River Basin. Other dams (such as the Kafue and Itezhi-Thezi) were recognised in terms of their importance but including them was beyond the scope of this study because of financial and time constraints. The licence of the reservoir model was limited to one year for the same reason. The reservoir model used was the MIKE BASIN, a professional engineering software package and quasi-steady-state mass balance modelling tool for integrated river basin and management, developed by the Denmark Hydraulic Institute (DHI) in 2003. The model was parameterised by the geometry of the reservoir basin (level, area, volume relationships) and by the discharge-level (Q-h) relationship of the dam spillways. The integrated modelling system simulated the daily flow variation for all Zambezi River sub-basins between 1998 and 2008 and validated between 2009 and 2011. The resulting streamflows have been expressed in terms of hydrograph comparisons between simulated and observed flow values at the four gauging stations located downstream of Cahora Bassa dam. The integrated model performed well, between observed and forecast streamflows, at four selected gauging stations (R2=0.53 to 0.90, CE=0.50 to 0.80, RSR=0.49 to 0.69, PBIAS=−2.10 to 4.8). From the results of integrated modelling, it was observed that both Kariba and Cahora Bassa are currently being operated based on the maximum rule curve and both remain focused on maximising hydropower production and ensuring dam safety rather than other potential influences by the Zambezi River (such as flood control downstream – where the communities are located – and environmental issues). In addition, the flood mapping analysis demonstrated that the Cahora Bassa dam plays an important part in flood mitigation downstream of the dams. In the absence of optimisation of flow releases from both the Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams, in additional to the contribution of any other tributaries located downstream of the dams, the impact of flooding can be severe. As such, this study has developed new approaches for flood monitoring downstream of the Zambezi Basin, through the application of an integrated modelling system. The modelling system consists of: predicting daily streamflow (using the calibrated GeoSFM), then feeding the predicted streamflow into MIKE BASIN (for checking the operating rules) and to optimise the releases. Therefore, before releases are made, the flood maps can be used as a decision-making tool to both assess the impact of each level of release downstream and to identify the communities likely to be affected by the flood – this ensures that the necessary warnings can be issued before flooding occurs. Finally an integrated flood management tool was proposed – to host the results produced by the integrated system – which would then be accessible for assessment by the different users. These results were expressed in terms of water level (m). Four discharge-level (Q-h) relationships were developed for converting the simulated flow into water level at four selected sites downstream of Cahora Bassa dam – namely: Cahora Bassa dam site, Tete (E-320), Caia (E-291) and Marromeu (E-285). However, the uncertainties in these predictions suggested that improved monitoring systems may be achieved if data access at appropriate scale and quality was improved.

Water quantity, availability and, particularly, quality of Brazilian freshwater is under progessive degradation due to Anthropocene\'s environmental changing conditions. Strategies of Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) are essential to mitigate these impacts. This Ph.D. thesis proposes a new model of water resources management, thereby integrating selfpurification and ecohydrologic processes to evaluate ecosystem services from watershed under change. In Chapter 2, this thesis examinates the payment for hydrologic cosystem services (Water-PES) in Brazilian Atlantic Forest and points ecohydrologic variables useful for assessing and further valuing hydrologic services. In Chapter 3, this thesis discusses proposals for freshwater monitoring plan which integrate quali-quantitative aspects for EbA and Water-PES projects. Therefore, in Chapter 4 experimental quali-quantative freshwater data from in-situ field observations are investigated according land-use/land-cover (LULC) in headwaters of water supply systems. In Chapter 5, through simulated impacts on freshwater yield from scenarios of LULC change, the grey water footprint (greyWF) is assessed, as well as environmental sustainability of sub-basins is depicted from a new ecohydrologic index for assessing hydrologic services. The methodology is performed using through field sampling and lab-analysing of physico-chemical, biologic and hydraulic variables in nested sub-basins draining to the Cantareira Water Supply System, in Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais states, Brazil. These areas participate in the Water-PES projects Water Producer/PCJ and Water Conservator at headwaters of Piracicaba watershed, during recent severe drought conditions between years 2013-15. The greyWF is estimated from outputs of time series simulated through ecohydrologic model Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). Under assumption of continuity of Water-PES projects, and using the same series of hydrometorological records for a common period (2008-2014), freshwater quali-quantitative impacts are performed through three LULC scenarios: past situation \"S1\" (year 1990), current situation \"S2\" (year 2010) and future situation \"S2+EbA\" (year 2035). From these scenarios, flow and load duration curves, mean water yields, greyWF and seasonal variabilities, were simulated. Through this research, continuous-monitoring Data Collecting Stations were installed in public-private partnership encompassing EESC/USP, ANA, CPRM, CEMADEN, SMA, TNC, WWF and local mayors. This continuous monitoring is addressed to increase the system resilience, based on better decision-making for water security, in strategic headwaters not only for water supply, but also for environmental conservation. This doctoral thesis brings contributions to a better comprehension of anthropic impacts on water resources and for strategies of EbA in front of progressive rates of losses of ecosystem services. This PhD. thesis was part of three research initiatives which partly granted activities: (1) Thematic Project FAPESP 2008/58161-1 \"Assessment of Impacts and Vulnerability to Climate Change in Brazil and Strategies for Adaptation Options\"; (2) \"INCLINE - INterdisciplinary CLimate INvEstigation Center\" (NapMC/USP Núcleo de Apoio às Pesquisas em Mudanças Climáticas) and (3) \"Água Brasil\" Project, Banco do Brasil Foundation, WWF Brazil, ANA & FIPAI/EESC-USP.
A quantidade, a disponibilidade e, em particular, a qualidade da água doce está em degradação progressiva devido às mudanças ambientais no Antropoceno. Estratégias de adaptação baseadas em ecossistemas (EbA) são essenciais para reduzir estes impactos. Propõe-se um novo modelo de gerenciamento de recursos hídricos que integre a pegada hídrica cinza e processos ecohidrológicos para avaliação dos serviços hidrológicos em bacias hidrográficas sob mudanças. As etapas da pesquisa são: Capítulo 2 – análise dos projetos de pagamentos por serviços ambientais de proteção às bacias hidrográficas na Mata Atlântica brasileira e, no contexto de EbA, indicação de variáveis ecohidrológicas úteis na quantificação e futura valoração dos serviços hidrológicos; Capítulo 3 – desenvolvimento de plano de monitoramento ecohidrológico que integra aspectos qualitativos e quantitativos dos recursos hídricos para projetos de EbA; Capítulo 4 – provisão de dados experimentais de qualidade e quantidade da água, além de observações in-situ, para investigação das influências das mudanças de uso e ocupação do solo nas cabeceiras de mananciais, estratégicos para o abastecimento público e a conservação ambiental; Capítulo 5 – estimativas da pegada hídrica cinza para nitrato, fósforo total e sedimentos a partir do monitoramento de variáveis quali-quantitativas em bacias com diferentes condições de uso e ocupação de solo. Foi realizada a instalação de três Plataformas de Coleta de Dados, por meio de parceria entre EESC, ANA, CPRM, CEMADEN, SMA, TNC e WWF, visando aumentar a resiliência do sistema, decorrente de futuro aprimoramento da gestão, para a segurança hídrica. A metodologia incluiu coletas em seis diferentes períodos, durante dois anos, e análises das variáveis condutividade elétrica, cor, DQO, DBO5,20, nitrato, nitrito, nitrogênio amoniacal, fosfato, pH, turbidez, sólidos totais, coliformes termotolerantes, Escherichia coli, medidas de vazões e velocidades médias em seções transversais. O método foi aplicado em microbacias participantes dos projetos Produtor de Água/PCJ e Conservador das Águas, dentre outras, com áreas de drenagem entre 7 e 1.000 km2, que contribuem para a bacia do rio Piracicaba (12.530 km2). Dados primários, medidos em recente período de severa estiagem no Sistema Cantareira (2013-14), foram integrados aos bancos de dados de órgãos gestores federais e estaduais. A produção de água foi maior em sub-bacias menos florestadas. Foi possível aprimorar a regionalização de cargas poluidoras por área de drenagem na região do Cantareira. A pegada hídrica cinza (WF) foi estimada a partir de simulações no modelo ecohidrológico Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). Curvas de permanência de vazões e carga poluidora por área de drenagem foram elaboradas. Supondo-se a continuidade dos projetos \"Produtor de Água/PCJ\" e \"Conservador das Águas\", foram investigados os impactos de cenário futuro de uso do solo. Finalmente, foi desenvolvido novo índice ecohidrológico para quantificação dos serviços hidrológicos e avaliação a sustentabilidade das sub-bacias, a partir da pegada hídrica cinza composta. Assim, usando ferramentas de vanguarda tecnológica (SWAT e WF), a tese fornece subsídios para uma melhor compreensão dos impactos antropogênicos sobre os recursos hídricos e novas estratégias de adaptação baseada em ecossistemas, frente às progressivas taxas de perda de serviços ambientais. Esta tese esteve vinculada a três projetos de pesquisa, dos quais obteve apoio financeiro: (1) Projeto Temático FAPESP 2008/58161-1 \"Assessment of Impacts and Vulnerability to Climate Change in Brazil & Strategies for Adaptation Options\"; (2) \"INCLINE - INterdisciplinary CLimate INvEstigation Center\" (NapMC/USP) e (3) Projeto \"Água Brasil\", Fundação Banco do Brasil, WWF Brasil, ANA e FIPAI/EESC-USP.

La région Méditerranéenne a été identifiée comme l'une des régions les plus vulnérables aux changements climatiques et anthropiques et constitue un des « hot-spots » mondiaux de crise de l'eau. Dans un tel contexte, les questions relatives à la gestion des ressources en eau se posent de manière accrue. Pour y faire face, des approches de modélisation intégrée associant l'évaluation de la disponibilité des ressources en eau et des demandes en eau sont proposées. Une chaîne méthodologique a été mise en place à l'échelle régionale, considérant des scénarios hydrologiques et d'usages de l'eau sous contraintes climatiques et incluant les objectifs de la Stratégie Méditerranéenne pour le Développement Durable en termes d'efficience hydraulique. Cette première approche permet d'évaluer la situation du stress hydrique en Méditerranée et son évolution à l'horizon 2050. Actuellement, le Sud et l'Est de la Méditerranée doivent faire face à un stress hydrique sévère, voire à une pénurie. D'ici 2050, les ressources en eau disponibles pourraient diminuer de l'ordre de 30 à 50 % tandis que les prélèvements devraient doubler. Le stress hydrique devrait ainsi augmenter sur l'ensemble du pourtour méditerranéen. Néanmoins, si les objectifs d'efficience sont atteints, les prélèvements en eau pourraient se stabiliser, voire même diminuer (10–40 %) dans certains bassins Nord méditerranéens. Le stress hydrique pourrait alors rester faible sur la rive Nord et être tempéré dans certains bassins de la rive Est. Une deuxième chaîne méthodologique a été développée à l'échelle du bassin de l'Ebre (Espagne) afin d'appréhender la satisfaction des demandes en eau environnementales, domestiques et agricoles. Le bassin a été divisé en 9 sous-bassins versants afin de considérer les différentes contraintes hydro-climatiques et l'influence des barrages principaux sur les régimes hydrologiques, auxquels ont été associés 11 sites de demande. Cette approche permet de définir les pressions actuelles sur le bassin et d'évaluer l'évolution de la capacité à satisfaire les demandes en eau sous contrainte de scénarios climatique, d'évolution démographique et d'expansion des surfaces irriguées à moyen terme. Actuellement, les demandes en eau sur le bassin versant de l'Ebre sont satisfaites. A l'horizon 2050, les écoulements printaniers et estivaux pourraient diminuer de 30 à 35 % en différents points du bassin. Les demandes en eau environnementales et domestiques devraient toujours être satisfaites, néanmoins, la capacité à satisfaire les besoins agricoles pourrait ne pas toujours être assurée au cours de la période estivale. Ces deux démarches établissent une confrontation entre l'offre et la demande en eau à différentes échelles et fournissent des indicateurs sur la capacité à satisfaire les demandes en eau sous contraintes climatiques et anthropiques. Elles constituent ainsi des approches originales pour évaluer la disponibilité actuelle et future des ressources en eau, identifier les régions où des tensions d'usages risquent de se produire et mieux orienter les stratégies d'adaptation. Dans un contexte de changements globaux, ce type d'exercice est fondamental pour soutenir les politiques de gestion de l'eau et encourage la co-construction de scénarios entre usagers, décisionnaires et scientifiques
The Mediterranean basin has been identified as one of the world's most vulnerable regions to climatic and anthropogenic changes and constitutes a water crisis' hot spot. Under such context, questions on water resources management arise. Integrated methodologies taking into account evolution in water resources availability and water demands are thus generated. A first methodology accounting for the Mediterranean basin specific conditions is developed to assess the current and future water stress state of this region. The medium-term evolution of water stress is investigated using climatic scenarios and a water-use scenario based on efficiency improvements following the recommendations of the Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development. Currently, the southern and eastern rims are experiencing high to severe water stress. By the 2050 horizon, a 30–50% decline in freshwater resources is simulated over most of the Mediterranean basin and total water withdrawals are projected to double. Water stress could hence increase over the whole Mediterranean basin. If progresses in efficiency are reached, total water withdrawals would stabilize over the Mediterranean basin and even make them decrease (10–40%) in many northern catchments. Water stress could thus be tempered in some eastern catchments and kept to low on the northern rim. A second integrated water resources modelling framework was developed over the Ebro catchment (Spain) in order to evaluate water allocation for the domestic and agricultural sector as well as for environmental purposes. The catchment was divided into 9 sub-catchments to which 11 demand sites were attributed, in order to take into account the different hydro-climatic regimes and the influence of dams on hydrological regimes. This method defines current pressures applied to water resources and evaluates the evolution of water allocation by the medium term under climatic and water-use scenarios considering population growth and irrigated areas expansion. Currently, water demands are satisfied over the Ebro catchment. In 2050, water resources are projected to decline by 30-35% during the spring and summer seasons. Environmental and domestic water demands should still be satisfied but agricultural water demands could have to face severe water shortages during the summer season. These two modeling frameworks establish a dialogue between water resources and water demands at different space scales and give indexes on the capacity to satisfy water demands under climatic and anthropogenic scenarios. These studies provide original approaches to evaluate water resources current and future availability, to identify the most vulnerable regions to water use conflicts and to better orientate adaptation strategies. In a context of climatic and anthropogenic changes, such frameworks are a first step to better sustain water management policies and to support the co-construction of scenarios between users, policy-makers and scientists

Estimation of the variation in the integrated hydraulic conductivity around the Tunåsen infiltration facility - An investigation of the effects of uncertainties in existing information Almost half of Sweden’s drinking water volume is produced from groundwater. The main fraction of this is extracted from eskers, some of which allow for very large extraction rates. Despite this, the groundwater volume is not sufficient in some areas. This has led to an extensive use of artificial recharge. In Uppsala, the total volume added through artificial recharge is divided between four infiltration facilities. The largest of these facilities is Tunåsen basin infiltration facility, which is situated along the Uppsala esker. For Tunåsen as well as for other recharge facilities, it is of great importance that the infiltrated water is allowed a sufficient transport time before it is extracted further down the flow path. This is in order to ensure that the water obtains characteristics similar to those of natural groundwater. A way to estimate the transport time is to model the groundwater flow in the area between the infiltration facility and the extraction site. However, due to the fact that groundwater flow in eskers often is very complex, modeling such a system requires data of high quality and resolution. The aim of this master’s thesis was to document the variation in estimated values of integrated horizontal hydraulic conductivity and to investigate how the variation was affected by uncertainties connected to existing information for the area between the Tunåsen infiltration facility and the extraction sites in Storvad and Galgbacken. The thesis was done as a pilot study for Uppsala vatten och avfall AB’s upcoming construction of a high-resolution model of the Uppsala and Vattholma eskers. The investigation began with a literature review, from which existing information was compiled. An integrated horizontal hydraulic conductivity was calculated based on two types of information: descriptions of the layers in borehole profiles and information from sieve analyses. The obtained values were then compared to a rough estimate based on information about groundwater flow and hydraulic gradient. The compilation of existing material showed that the largest uncertainties were related to borehole profiles. This was due to the use of different ways to describe soil layers and to lack of information of a soil layer’s true grain size composition. The calculations of integrated hydraulic conductivity showed the largest variation when based on descriptions of borehole profiles. The calculations that were made based on sieve analyses as well as the rough estimate based on groundwater flow and hydraulic gradient showed a smaller variation. However, without the existence of measurements of the actual hydraulic conductivity, it is impossible to say for certain how the documented uncertainties affect the variation. In the upcoming work with the construction of the high-resolution model it is therefore of great importance that such information is obtained, for example by performing pumping tests.
Skattning av den integrerade hydrauliska konduktivitetens variation kring Tunåsens infiltrationsanläggning - En utredning av påverkan från möjliga osäkerheter i befintlig information I Sverige utgörs nästan hälften av den totala dricksvattenvolymen av grundvatten. Den största delen av grundvattnet utvinns ur rullstensåsar, vilka i vissa fall tillåter mycket stora uttag. Trots detta är grundvattenvolymen på vissa håll inte tillräcklig. Detta har lett till att den naturliga grundvattenmängden i sex procent av landets grundvattentäkter kompletteras genom konstgjord infiltration. I Uppsala sker konstgjord infiltration på fyra platser, där Tunåsens infiltrationsanläggning belägen på Uppsalaåsen är den största. För Tunåsen såväl som för andra områden där konstgjord infiltration används, är det av stor betydelse att det infiltrerade vattnet har en tillräckligt lång transporttid mellan infiltrations- och uttagspunkt för att möjliggöra att det får grundvattenliknande egenskaper innan det pumpas upp. Ett sätt att uppskatta denna transporttid är genom att modellera grundvattenflödet i området mellan infiltrationsanläggningen och den eller de grundvattentäkter där vattnet pumpas upp. Till följd av att grundvattenströmningen i rullstensåsar ofta är komplex, ställer dock en modellering av ett sådant område stora krav på både kvalitet och upplösning hos den information från vilken modellen byggs upp. Syftet med detta examensarbete var att dokumentera variationen i en skattad integrerad horisontell hydraulisk konduktivitet och utvärdera hur denna påverkades av osäkerheter relaterade till den idag befintliga informationen för området mellan Tunåsens infiltrationsanläggning och Storvads respektive Galgbackens grundvattentäkt. Detta gjordes som en förstudie till Uppsala vatten och avfall ABs kommande arbete med upprättandet av en noggrann modell över hela Uppsala- och Vattholmaåsen. Arbetet började med en litteraturstudie och en informationsinsamling, genom vilka den idag tillgängliga informationen sammanställdes. Utifrån den sammanställda informationen beräknades sedan värden på hydraulisk konduktivitet baserat på beskrivningarna i de upprättade lagerföljderna och baserat på information från tidigare utförda siktanalyser. De beräknade värdena jämfördes därefter med värden framtagna genom en överslagsberäkning baserad på information om grundvattenflöde och hydraulisk gradient. Sammanställningen av befintlig information visade på att de mest betydande osäkerheterna var relaterade till jordlagerdata, där de kunde kopplas till såväl användandet av olika beskrivningssätt i lagerföljderna som till brister i informationen om verklig kornstorleksfördelning. Skattningarna av integrerad horisontell hydraulisk konduktivitet resulterade i störst variation när de baserades på jordlagerföljderna, då det högsta värdet i många fall var 107 gånger så stort som det lägsta. De beräkningar som utfördes på siktanalyser visade på en mer begränsad variation, vilket även var fallet för överslagsberäkningarna. Utan mätningar på den verkliga hydrauliska konduktiviteten går det dock inte att säkert avgöra hur mycket de funna osäkerheterna påverkar variationen. Inför utvecklingen av den kommande modellen är det därför nödvändigt att komplettera den idag befintliga informationen med ny data, till exempel genom att provpumpningar utförs.

There is a growing need to manage water resources in a sustainable way, particularly in semi arid areas, with dramatic social and economic development as well as rapid population growth. Optimising water allocation in a river basin is an important aspect ensuring equitable and efficient water use. This research develops an optimisation approach (the Integrated Water Resource Optimisation model, IWRO) to optimise the conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater resources in a sustainable manner. The IWRO model is comprised of a surface water optimisation model (SWO) and the Tsinghua groundwater optimisation (TGO) model. These models employ Genetic Algorithms (GAs) to optimise water allocation. Application of a surface water optimisation (SWO) model incorporating a GA is demonstrated initially for a simple test case, through which the GA approach was validated against known solutions. Sensitivity analysis of different operators and parameters related to GAs was also carried out. The validated SWO model was then applied to a more complex system, the Shiyang River Basin in Gansu Province in China, to maximise equitable surface water supplies. On the groundwater side, the GA approach was applied with the existing Tsinghua groundwater model to optimise groundwater supplies with sustainability considerations. The results were compared with those from an existing model (the WEAP model), indicating that the IWRO model is capable of satisfying the objectives of equitable water allocation and groundwater sustainability set for it. In the context of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), account must be taken of a wide range of social and environmental issues. Different scenarios were therefore designed for the Shiyang River Basin management. Various criteria in terms of economic, social, environment and water security were also indentified for further multi-criterion decision making analysis.

This submission reviews the two successful examples of water markets, one in the developed world, the Murray Darling Basin in Australia and other in the developing world, the Limari Basin case in Chile respectively. Of central importance, we find the commodification of a natural resource, water, through a process of the progressing neoliberal agenda. As regards the outcome of this process in these two cases
while on the one hand the water markets have contributed to a more efficient allocation of water resources from less efficient to more efficient uses, on the other hand, problems related to environmental degradation in the former case and the social inequity in the latter have been unable to be solved.

Khartoum State in Sudan is subject to the erratic and intense rainfall during the short rainy season and dryness and heat throughout the rest of the year. High intensity rainstorms with a short duration have become more frequent in the area during the last two decades resulting in cities inundation and flash floods in the rural parts. On the other hand, the dry season means hot weather in the urban parts and water shortage in the rural part. Rural areas are dependent on the runoff water brought about by the seasonal streams as a source of water. For this study, Khartoum City Center and Seleit area were taken to investigate the application of water harvesting in the urban and rural areas, respectively. Accordingly, the hydrological characteristics and the specification of the potential water harvesting sites and systems were examined. For Khartoum City Center, characteristics of the drainage system were examined using ArcGIS platform. It is found that the drainage system covers 42% of the area with total capacity of 24000 m3. Daily rainfall data for urban meteorological station were used to calculate the probability and the return period of the rainfall, as well as the potential runoff. Rainfall probability of occurrence was calculated applying Gumbel distribution method for extreme events that were arranged according to the Peak-over-Threshold method. The potential runoff that could be generated from a certain rainfall was calculated using the Natural Resources Conservation Services method provided by the United States Department of Agriculture (US-NRCS). Accordingly, the curve number was calculated depending on the land use/land cover and the hydrological soil group. Consequently, the weighted curve number is found to be 94%, indicating dominant imperviousness. 13.1 mm rainfall depth produces runoff volume equal to the drainage system capacity with return period of one year; whereas more than four folds the drainage system capacity is produced by 30 mm rainfall depth that is considered the threshold for raising flood hazard. Six potential sites for roof rainwater harvesting were selected. Accordingly, it is found that, the application of roof water harvesting in 18% and 72% of the commercial and business district buildings can accommodate the runoff resulting from the 13.1 and 30 mm rainfall depth, respectively. Hence, impounding rainstorm water would help managing the urban runoff water, and consequently, the stored water could be used for making more green areas that will enhance the urban environment. Three watersheds of ephemeral streams (wadi), namely Wadi El Kangar, Wadi El Seleit, and Wadi El Kabbashi make up Seleit area. Distinct maps were prepared in ArcMap for the calculation of the potential runoff and the specification of the appropriate water harvesting sites and systems. The Wadis watersheds areas are found to be 540, 344 and 42 km2 for Wadi El Kangar, Wadi El Seleit and Wadi El Kabbashi, respectively. Daily rainfall data of rural meteorological station were classified into three groups representing the soil dry (AMCI), moderate (AMCII), and wet (AMCIII) moisture conditions; the respective CNI, CNII, and CNIII values were calculated accordingly. The weighted CN values indicate high runoff potential within the three soil moisture conditions. Accordingly, the rainfall thresholds for runoff generation for AMCI, AMCII and AMCIII conditions are found to be respectively 18.3 mm, 9.1 mm and 4.4 mm for Wadi El Kabbashi and 22 mm, 11 mm and 5 mm for both Wadi El Seleit and Wadi El Kangar. El Kangar dam subwatershed was used for calibrating the potential runoff calculated by the NRCS method. Since the Wadis are ungauged, Google Earth and GIS platforms were used to calculate geometrically the volume of the dam reservoir water for three years. This volume was compared to the annual runoff calculated by the NRCS method. Consideration to different factors was made to locate the potential water harvesting sites. Accordingly, water harvesting systems for fodder and crop plantation; sand storage surface or subsurface dams; or groundwater recharge, were specified. The socio-economic study revealed that the financial capacity, if any, of the villagers is very limited. Thus, the financial source for the construction of the suggested potential water harvesting or the rehabilitation of the existing ones is questionable. Hence, other potential financial sources are needed to help executing water harvesting projects in the region, e.g. Khartoum State Government. Applying water harvesting in Seleit area is found to be promising. Improving the livelihood of the villagers by applying runoff water harvesting could assure better water accessibility, better income generation from farms production, and allocation of time for other activities, e.g. education. This would be reflected in reduced migration to nearby cities and stabilized market supply of agricultural and animal products. Therefore, the development of the rural part is of great benefit to the development of Khartoum State, as long as the interdependency and mutual benefit between the rural and urban areas, represented by the local food and labor market, remain exist.

The questions posed in this study address the different processes that were involved in the decision-making and establishment of the water management organisations, the extent of public participation, as well as features of evident governance in implementing the policies. A critical analysis of the role of stakeholders and the various influences they may have in water management will also be examined. The methodology follows a historical study approach. A thorough document review will be done of the policies and related materials around BMCs, where events will be constructed from the findings. Interviews will be conducted for verification purposes, to verify the desktop findings and to assimilate any conflicts of opinion that might have not been documented.

The handbook presented in this paper summarises the results of the research initiative “International Water Research Alliance Saxony” (IWAS). The subproject “IWAS Vietnam” (Phase I, October 2008 – December 2010) focuses on the model region “South-East Asia” with emphasis on Vietnam. The project started as a joint research initiative between German and Vietnamese organisations and included contributions from academic, private and public sector in both countries. The handbook was compiled by the Technische Universität Dresden (project coordination), the Institute for Technical and Scientific Hydrology and Dresden Drainage and Sewerage Company, with substantial contributions from Vietnamese partners
Sổ tay hướng dẫn trong bài viết này tóm lược các kết quả của sáng kiến nghiên cứu từ “Liên minh Nghiên cứu ngành nước quốc tế bang Saxony” (IWAS). Dự án nhánh “IWAS Việt Nam” (giai đoạn 1, 10/2008 - 12/2010) tập trung vào khu vực Đông Nam Á với trọng tâm là Việt Nam. Dự án khởi động như một sáng kiến liên kết nghiên cứu giữa các tổ chức của CHLB Đức và Việt Nam với sự đóng góp từ các đơn vị tư nhân, nhà nước và trường đại học của cả hai quốc gia. Quyển sổ tay này được biên soạn bởi Đại học Kỹ thuật Dresden (cơ quan điều phối dự án), Viện Công nghệ và Khoa học Thủy văn, và Công ty Thoát nước Dresden, cùng với sự đóng góp quan trọng của các đối tác Việt Nam

Water and energy are two of the most important resources for societal prosperity and economic development. It is clear that water and energy are intrinsically linked together and depend on one another in modern society. To date, however, efforts on water-energy nexus concentrate on quantifying the energy use in water cycle or the water use in energy production. From management perspective, water and energy are still managed separately. Little work has been done to investigate the impacts of the management options associated with one resource on the other and examine the integrated water and energy management options. Accordingly, the overall goal of this study is to examine the integrated management options for long-term regional water and energy resources management with consideration of their interactions through a system dynamics approach. System dynamics is based on systems thinking, which focuses on the system structure and offers a deeper insight into problems. It can link ecological, human, and social elements of water and energy systems in one modeling platform to investigate their interactions A four-step system dynamics modeling process was used in this study, which includes problem articulation, model formulation, model testing, and scenario design and simulation. Tampa Bay region was chosen as the study area, which is located on the west central coast of Florida and estuary along the Gulf of Mexico. This study considered a 100-year time scale with monthly interval, the first 30 years of which are used for model validation and the rest of which are for simulation. In order to investigate the interrelationship between water and energy systems, two sub-models (i.e., water sub-model and energy sub-model) were developed first. The water sub-model is composed of sectoral water demand (agriculture, industry, municipality, and energy sector), water supply (surface water, groundwater, reclaimed water, and water imports), and water quality and energy consumption associated with water supply. The result shows that surface water level increases by 1.32~1.39% when considering water quality and 1.10~1.30% considering both water quality and energy consumption. There is a slight decrease in groundwater storage (0.02~0.08%) compared with the reference behavior. The result also reveals that water conservation education is the most effective option to reduce the freshwater withdrawals (~17.3%), followed by rebates on indoor water-efficient appliances (~15.4%). Water loss control has a high potential to reduce freshwater withdrawals but it is not effective currently due to limited budget. The implementation of minimum surface water level reduces the surface water withdrawal by 26 MGD (million gallons per day) and requires alternative water supply sources to meet the water demands. The energy sub-model consists of sectoral energy demand (agriculture, industry, municipality, and water sector), energy supply (coal, natural gas, oil, and electricity), and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and water pollution associated with energy supply. The result finds that cost of fuels is the primary concern of determining the energy mix for power generation. The current electricity mix in the study area consists of 35.4% fuels from coal, 44.6% from natural gas, and 20% from oil. When considering the environmental impacts associated with energy supply, this percentage of coal reduces to 10.6%, and GHG emissions and water pollution can be reduced by 22% and 43% accordingly. The result also shows that energy price is most effect of reducing the demand (~16.3%), followed by energy conservation education (~10.6%). Rebates on household appliances are the least effective option (~3.6%) due to consumers' low willingness to pay. Combining the supply decision incorporating environmental impacts and the demand option of energy price increase, the reductions of GHG emissions and water pollution can reach 37% and 55%, respectively. The integrated model is developed by linking the water and energy models through the interactions between water and energy systems identified by the system archetypes. The result shows that water demand is reinforced by energy demand, and vice versa. This growth, however, is limited by water and energy availability. The result also reveals that some decisions to solve the problems of one resource result in the problems of the other resource. The increase of water price is one of these, which decreases the water demand by 24.3% but leads to increase of the energy demand by 1.53% due to the use of reclaimed water. Rebates on indoor water-efficient appliances are effective to reduce both water and energy demands largely due to the household energy use in water heating. In addition, this study demonstrates that integrated management options can improve the uses of water and energy, but decisions without considering each other may lead to more issues. For example, reclaimed water, a supply management option considering the energy, can increase the water balance index by 27.3% and the energy balance index by 0.14%; it can also reduce the water pollution by 11.76% and the GHG emissions by 13.16%. Seawater desalination, a supply management option without integrated consideration, intends to decrease the water shortage but eventually increases the water balance index by 29.7%. It also causes the increases in water pollution and GHG emissions by 89.79% and 14.53%, respectively. Similarly, solar energy presents the advantage in increasing the balance indices and reducing the environmental impacts. This study is an initial attempt to link water and energy systems to explore integrated management options. It is limited by the data availability, assumptions for model simplification, and lack of consideration of climate change. The recommendations for future study include (a) employing a more accurate projection or representation of precipitation, (b) testing the energy model with local data, (c) considering water and energy allocation between different users under shortages, (d) examining the environmental impacts associated with bay water withdrawal for power generation, (e) investigating the water and energy use under climate change, and (f) involving stakeholders early in model development and continuous participation in policy analysis.

Complexity of challenges associated with water resources management is increasing due to factors such as climate variability and uncertainty, increased regulatory requirements, changes in planning horizons, and trans-boundary considerations. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) and Adaptive Management (AM) are widely publicized approaches developed and proposed to deal with this complexity. Both concepts have a history reaching back decades, but have been facing difficulties in their transfer from theory into practice. There is a clear need to look in more detail at the process of transforming IWRM and AM theory into practice and this research investigates this process and the factors that mediate it. A conceptual framework was developed - characterizing the process for transfer of theory into practice - that formed the basis for development of the research questions. The research approach focused on analyzing the implementation pathways of IWRM and AM in four case studies, whose selection was informed by the need to explore a context with extensive history of IWRM and AM practice. Data collection took place through semi-structured interviews aiming to uncover how those involved in planning and implementation of IWRM and AM experienced these processes. Besides aiming to understand the ‘lived experiences’, a more abstract framework of the process, factors and dynamics was derived, grounded in the views of the respondents. The findings indicate different types of factors that influence the theory to practice process for IWRM and AM, relating to: (a) theory and its use in practice; (b) the environment that can complicate or facilitate the implementation process; (c) the way cooperation and decision-making processes are organized; and (d) individual attributes of those involved. Incorporating lessons from past into current initiatives are vital to more effective implementation of IWRM and AM. This research gives greater insight into the mediating factors and dynamics, providing this through empirical evidence into design of IWRM and AM planning and implementation. It also provides a thorough discussion on what IWRM and AM exactly mean, proposing a new definition for both concepts.

Even though practical water resources planning and management has evolved greatly, there is still a mismatch between it and Integrated Water Resources Management. In light of the European Water Framework Directive and other European Policies related to water and sustainability, the Ecosystem Services assessment and Water Accounting methodologies have been identified as tools that can help approaching Integrated Water Resources Management. However, the existing methodologies are disconnected from the real requirements of water resources planning and management in complex river basins such as the ones suffering from water scarcity. The Water Accounting frameworks adopt a financial accounting perspective that is too exhaustive for the purpose of transmitting the relevant water stocks and flows for water managers and users in a river basin, and that entail less accuracy in the global water balance. Also, the analysed Ecosystem Assessment Tools overlook the influence of water management as well as the temporal and spatial variability of water resources and demands. This Thesis proposes methodologies for Water Accounting and Ecosystem Services Assessment which overcome the identified limitations and are especially adapted to be implemented in water scarce river basins. The Australian Water Accounting Standards are simplified to avoid exhaustive accounting for the sake of accuracy and transparency of water management information. An improved version is fully designed, and some criteria are proposed to guide its implementation at river basin scale with the purpose of improving public information and governance. A set of Integrated Water Resources Management Tools embedded in the Decision Support System AQUATOOL is tailored with economic information in order to obtain the benefits of three Freshwater Ecosystem Services considering the influence of water management with a detailed time step. The application of the resulting methodologies to different cases of study show the relevance of adopting a water management perspective in order to capture all the complexity of water scarce river basins in the results, so that they are useful for informed decision making. The Water Accounting results disclose synthesised and relevant information for water users and other stakeholders about the state of water resources and their allocation and supply during the analysed period. The Freshwater Ecosystem Services assessment results reveal helpful to classify water bodies or watersheds according to their capacity to provide environmental benefits, and to analyse the tradeoffs between the traditional water demands and the Ecosystem Services beneficiaries. Finally, the methodologies are put into context inside the Integrated Water Resources Management process that covers the target variables to consider, the tools that allow analysing the influence of management actions on them, the indicators that are more informative to water managers, and the ways to transmit the information to the general public. Furthermore, the types of analyses which can be conducted with the proposed methodologies are detailed, and illustrated with examples in scientific literature. The presented research is based on published work, which is expanded or detailed, and includes other non published material. The result is a Thesis that provides improved results and conclusions with respect to the stand-alone papers.
A pesar de que la planificación y gestión de los recursos hídricos ha evolucionado enormemente, existe todavía discordancia entre la misma y la Gestión Integrada de Recursos Hídricos. A la luz de la Directiva Europea Marco del Agua y otras Políticas Europeas relacionadas con el agua y la sostenibilidad, la Contabilidad del Agua y la evaluación de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas se han identificado como herramientas que pueden ayudar a aproximarse a la Gestión Integrada de Recursos Hídricos. Sin embargo, las metodologías existentes actualmente están desconectadas de los requisitos reales de la planificación y gestión de los recursos hídricos en cuencas hidrográficas complejas como las que sufren de escasez hídrica. Los marcos de Contabilidad del Agua adoptan una perspectiva de contabilidad financiera que es demasiado exhaustiva para el propósito de transmitir información relevante sobre las reservas y flujos a los gestores y usuarios del agua en una cuenca, y conllevan menos precisión en el balance global de agua. Además, las herramientas analizadas para la evaluación de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas pasan por alto la influencia de la gestión del agua así como la variabilidad temporal y espacial de los recursos hídricos y las demandas. Esta Tesis propone metodologías para la Contabilidad del Agua y la Evaluación de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas que superan estas limitaciones y que están especialmente adaptadas para su implementación en cuencas con escasez de agua. Los Estándares Australianos de Contabilidad del Agua se simplifican para evitar la contabilidad exhaustiva a favor de la precisión y la transparencia en la información sobre la gestión del agua. Se diseña una versión mejorada y se proponen algunos criterios para guiar su implementación a escala de cuenca con el propósito de mejorar la información pública y la gobernanza. Un conjunto de herramientas para la Gestión Integrada de Recursos Hídricos que forman parte del Sistema Soporte a la Decisión AQUATOOL se une con información económica para obtener los beneficios generados por tres Servicios de los Ecosistemas de Agua Dulce considerando la influencia de la gestión del agua a una escala temporal detallada. La aplicación de las metodologías resultantes a distintos casos de estudio muestra la relevancia de adoptar una perspectiva de gestión del agua para capturar en los resultados la complejidad de las cuencas con escasez de agua, de modo que sean útiles para la toma de decisiones informadas. Los resultados de Contabilidad del Agua muestran información sintética y relevante para los usuarios del agua y otros actores interesados sobre el estado de los recursos hídricos, y su asignación y suministro durante el periodo analizado. Los resultados de la evaluación de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas de Agua Dulce se revelan útiles para clasificar las masas de agua o subcuencas de acuerdo con su capacidad para proporcionar beneficios ambientales y para analizar el equilibrio entre las demandas de agua tradicionales y los beneficiarios de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas. Finalmente, las metodologías se ponen en contexto dentro del proceso de Gestión Integrada de Recursos Hídricos que abarca las variables objetivo a considerar, las herramientas que permiten analizar la influencia de las acciones de gestión sobre ellas, los indicadores más informativos para los gestores del agua, y los modos de transmitir la información al público en general. Además, se detallan e ilustran con ejemplos en la literatura científica los tipos de análisis que pueden llevarse a cabo mediante las metodologías propuestas. La investigación que se presenta está basada en trabajos publicados, que se expanden o detallan, e incluye material no publicado. El resultado es una Tesis que proporciona resultados y conclusiones mejorados respecto a los artículos independientes.
A pesar que la planificació i la gestió dels recursos hídrics ha evolucionat enormement, existeix encara discordancia entre aquesta i la Gestió Integrada de Recursos Hídrics. A la llum de la Directiva Europea Marc de l'Aigua i altres Polítiques Europees relacionades amb l'aigua i la sostenibilidad, la Comptabilitat de l'Aigua i l'avaluació dels Serveis dels Ecosistemes s'han identificat com a ferramentes que poden ajudar a aproximar-se a la Gestió Integrada de Recusos Hídrics. No obstant això, les metodologies existents actualment estan desconnectades dels requeriments reals de la planificació i gestió dels recursos hídricos en conques hidrogràfiques complexes com les que pateixen d'escassesa hídrica. Els marcs de Comptabilitat de l'Aigua adopten una perspectiva de Comptabilitat financera que és massa exhaustiva per al propòsit de transmetre informacó relevant sobre les reserves i fluxes als gestors i usuaris de l'aigua en una conca, i comporten menys precisió al balanç global de l'aigua. A més, les ferramentes analitzades per a l'avaluació dels Serveis dels Ecosistemes passen per alt la influència de la gestió de l'aigua així com la variabilitat temporal i espacial dels recursos hídrics i les demandes. Aquesta Tesi proposa metodologies per a la Comptabilitat de l'Aigua i l'Avaluació dels Serveis dels Ecosistemes que superen aquestes limitacions i que estan especialment adaptades per a la seua implementació en conques amb escassesa d'aigua. Els Estàndards Australians de Comptabilitat de l'Aigua es simplifiquen per evitar la comptabilitat exhaustiva a favor de la precisió i la transparència en la informació sobre la gestió de l'aigua. Es dissenya una versió millorada i es proposen alguns criteris per guiar la seua implementació a escala de conca amb el propòsit de millorar la informació pública i la governança. Un conjunt de ferramentes per a la Gestió Integrada de Recursos Hídrics que formen part del Sistema Suport a la Decisió AQUATOOL s'uneix amb informació econòmica per obtindre els beneficis generats per tres Serveis dels Ecosistemes d'Aigua Dolça considerant la influència de la gestió de l'aigua a una escala temporal detallada. L'aplicació de les metodologies resultants als distints casos d'estudi mostren la rellevància d'adoptar una perspectiva de gestió de l'aigua per capturar als resultats la complexitat de les conques amb escassesa d'aigua, de manera que siguen útils per a la presa de decisions informades. Els resultats de la Comptabilitat de l'Aigua mostren informació sintètica i rellevant per als usuaris i altres actors interessats sobre l'estat dels recursos hídric, i la seua assignació i subministrament al llarg del període analitzat. Els resultats de l'avaluació dels Serveis dels Ecosistemes d'Aigua Dolça es revelen útils per classificar les masses d'aigua o subconques d'acord amb la seua capacitat per proporcionar beneficis ambientals i per analitzar l'equilibri entre les demandes d'aigua tradicionals i els beneficiaris dels Serveis dels Ecosistemes. Finalment, les metodologies es posen en context dins del procés de Gestió Integrada de Recursos Hídrics que abarca les variables objectiu a considerar, les ferramentes que permeten analitzar la influència de les accions de gestió sobre elles, els indicadors més informatius per als gestors de l'aigua, i les maneres de transmetre la informació al públic en general. A més, es detallen i il¿lustren amb exemples en la literatura científica els tipus d'anàlisis que es poden portar a terme mitjançant les metodologies propostes. La investigació que es presenta està basada en treballs publicats, que s'expandeixen o detallen, i inclou material no publicat. El resultat és una Tesis que proporciona resultats i conclusions millorades respecte als articles independents.
Momblanch Benavent, A. (2016). Assessment of Ecosystem Services and Water Accounting Methodologies for Integrated Water Resources Management in water scarce basins [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/75523
TESIS

From the Proceedings of the 1985 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Association and the Hydrology Section - Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science - April 27, 1985, Las Vegas, Nevada

Many studies have investigated Nigeria’s experiences of river basin management. Despite the acceptance of IWRM by the Nigerian Government, findings from the literature demonstrate that there remain significant water management challenges in Nigeria. However, reported research which exposes the forces influencing the implementation of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Nigeria remains sparse. This thesis exposes these forces, and most importantly, the environments within which they are embedded by drawing upon theoretical and empirical evidence on the processes required to transfer IWRM from theory to practice. The retroductive logic of enquiry was adopted as a guide and a conceptual framework was developed to illustrate the forces influencing IWRM implementation at the river basin level in Nigeria and the environments within which they are embedded. The conceptual framework formed the basis for the development of the research questions and also informed the choice of neo-institutional theory as a guide to proffer answers to the research questions. The research process employed a qualitative social science approach to provide answers to the research questions and realise the study’s main aim. The study’s theoretical framework followed a string of hermeneutics, phenomenology, and interpretivists philosophies and a case study research strategy to explore issues related to IWRM implementation in both Ogun-Oshun River Basin and Benin-Owena River Basin from different perspectives using multiple sources of evidence – documents, semi-structured interviews, and direct observations. Interviews were conducted with the staff of the River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs) and other water-related national and international organisations in the selected case river basins in Nigeria. The data obtained were first analysed using textual approach and then followed by variance institutional approach. Findings clearly illustrate that: (i) there were weaknesses in IWRM implementation in Nigeria, and (ii) both institutional (that is, regulative, normative, cognitive, and cultural) and technical (that is, water infrastructure) elements which are located within the macro and the operational environments were the forces that contributed to the weaknesses in IWRM implementation at the river basin level in Nigeria. Consistent with the institutional analysis perspective, to improve IWRM implementation in practice in Nigeria, the study proposed improvements to the regulative institutions to serve as a shock. This study contributes to IWRM and reinforces the importance of institutional and technical elements as potent forces that can enable or constrain the implementation of a water management approach, IWRM.

From the Proceedings of the 1987 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Association, Hydrology Section - Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science and the Arizona Hydrological Society - April 18, 1987, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona

Participation is often seen as fundamental in development studies and for development projects. There are also critical ideas claiming that there are power relations which should be taken into account before embracing participation as good in itself. From the basis of the critical ideas found in the book Participation: The New Tyranny? this paper examines the cases of ‘Integrated Water Resources Management’ and ‘Integrated Approach for Mitigation of Arsenic Contamination of Drinking Water in Bangladesh’ in order to determine whether the critical ideas in the book are applicable when analysing texts about these cases. After determining that there are indications of power imbalances between the facilitators and the local population in the two cases, this paper finally argues that the critical ideas are applicable and that there is a need for more and broader discussions and dialogues between various actors involved in development projects. Also mentioned in this paper is the importance of raising awareness of power relations and incorporating different views when planning and implementing development projects.

This study seeks to investigate how Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) has been implemented on a local level in Burkina Faso, by focusing on 1) how the local context has been considered in the top-down implementation, and 2) what role formal and informal institutions play in the Local Water Committees (CLEs). Burkina Faso is facing issues of water scarcity, and in times of climate change management of water resources has become a topic of great concern. In 1992, the general principles of IWRM were presented at the Dublin conference. Since then, IWRM has been implemented in many countries across the world, and in West Africa, Burkina Faso has been a pioneering country when it comes to the implementation. Previous research on institutional reforms in development has shown that blueprint solutions tend to fail on adaptation to the local context. Furthermore, both formal and informal institutions need to be acknowledged in institutional analyses. In order to answer the research focus in this thesis, a field study has been conducted in Burkina Faso. It is a comparative case study of two Local Water Committees within one Water Agency, where semi-structured informant interviews and an ethnographic approach have been used as methods. It is shown that the implementation, to some extent, has failed to consider the local context. However, the findings indicate that the local context in itself is an ambiguous concept that is highly complex due to history, culture and recent political changes in Burkina Faso. Informal institutions are shown to have some impact on the possibilities to work, however, future research is needed to establish this further.

This study investigates provisions made within institutional and regulatory frameworks of water resources management to enhance multi-stakeholder relationships and the challenges of maintaining those relationships, and implications of water resources management for rural communities in the Densu River basin, Ghana. The primary objectives of this study were four fold, these are to: i) review the existing regulatory framework and how it promotes or hinders multi-stakeholder relationships within the catchment area; ii) examine multi-stakeholder relationships to identify challenges in promoting effective collaboration in water resources management; iii) explore the impacts of catchment management on the livelihoods of rural communities; and iv) generate a model that best or appropriately conceptualizes relationship mechanisms within the framework of water governance. The study employed a mixed methods approach which included data collected through reviewing regulatory and policy documents, key informant interviews, observation, and a household survey of 327 respondents. The results indicate that provisions are made within the existing institutional and regulatory framework to foster multi-stakeholder inter-relationships in the water resources management in the Densu River basin. The management of the Densu River basin is guided by a number of regulatory mechanisms that are scattered within different institutions. The regulatory mechanisms are seen as the instruments for building and maintaining multi-stakeholder relationships, but some have become a source of conflict among stakeholders, posing threats to water resources management in the Densu basin. The findings show that several issues hinder effective multi-stakeholder inter-relationships in water resources management in the Densu River basin. These issues include colonial legacies embedded within institutions, institutional challenges, and political processes. Despite the adoption of integrated water resources management (IWRM) some institutions still hold on to the old water resources management arrangements instituted during the colonial era, creating challenges for effective institutional collaboration. Additionally, institutional challenges such as limited financial and human resources, corruption, high attrition rate, and lack of integration of projects and programs are also threatening multi-stakeholder inter-relationships. The political processes at the district assemblies that determine representatives on the Densu Basin Board were also identified as posing significant threat to building effective multi-stakeholder inter-relationship for water resources management in the Densu River basin. The findings further indicate that a number of uncoordinated catchment management strategies such as restrictions on farming areas, bans on illegal mining and logging, and others strategies have been instituted in the upper Densu basin to prevent degradation of the river. However, these strategies are having significant socioeconomic impacts on the local communities. A majority of residents are aware and comply with the enforcement of the strategies, but some are quite reluctant to adhere to them because of increasing economic hardships. This situation threatens the successful implementation of the strategies and the overall protection of the river. Other residents, however, have adopted alternative strategies (expanding petty trading, farming improvement, multiple jobs and others) to cope with the increasing economic hardships as a result of the enforcement of the catchment management strategies by the government.

Groundwater plays an important role in runoff generation in the humid tropics, both as subsurface stormflow during rain events and sustaining baseflow during dry periods. Yet groundwater fluxes in tropical areas, particularly groundwater/surface-water (GW-SW) interactions, are not very well characterized at regional scales, thus preventing us from estimating how climate change and anthropogenic activities will affect future groundwater availability. In the case of Panama, abundance of water resources has caused its misuse and thus groundwater is exploited without previous knowledge of its distribution and availability. However, regions of the country such as the Central Pacific Region suffer from water scarcity during periods of extended drought, when streamflow reduces significantly and shallow wells get dry. Understanding groundwater dynamics, especially GW-SW interactions, is crucial for government authorities to make informed decisions in order to secure water availability for current and future generations. This thesis presents advances on the characterization of the La Villa groundwater basin, located in the Central Pacific Region of Panama. By building a groundwater conceptual and numerical model, and a surface water model, potential recharge areas and groundwater flow patterns were identified. Also, the model reveals that groundwater feeds the rivers, not only during dry periods, but throughout the year. Although this preliminary model is not yet capable of predicting the total amount of groundwater stored, and neither can be used to inform management decision, it can inform us of which features have the greatest influence on groundwater flow and it can tell us what types of data are necessary to improve the results of the simulation. The development of these models is the first step towards the development of an integrated hydrologic simulation that can be used to test different climate change and/or management scenarios.

Agriculture based livelihoods in arid and semi-arid areas encompass limited physical resources and evolving relationships between environment, population and the state. Northwest China encounters constant socio-economic changes, changing climate, agriculture and land practices and political relations that impact the social-ecological system. This thesis investigates how policy, environmental changes and local action interact with each other and affect the livelihoods and determine the environment in the Shiyang River Basin. Focusing on increasingly severe water crisis, environment degradation and endangered livelihoods that define arid and semi-arid environment, this thesis examines local people's perceptions of and interaction with their environment and water-related interventions in the Shiyang River Basin, a typical inland arid area in Northwest China. In 12-months fieldwork, mixed methods were used including semi-structured interviews, questionnaires, group discussions and participant observation. This research explicitly applying a socio-ecological system lens shows that people's perceptions of water crises can be highly divergent, regarding access to and control over local water resources and the roles of internal and external interventions. A wide range of factors result in uneven access to resources and inequitable consequences across space and even within local communities. In the Chinese contexts, personal experiences together with geographical factor, lands area and income levels have significant impacts on villagers' water perceptions. Political trust, social capital and collective action play a key role in the understanding, implementation processes and outcomes of government-enforced water reforms at local levels. This research is the first known study to use the tools of social analysis to examine water, society and the state interactions and their consequences on governance of the irrigation commons, local livelihoods and sustainability in rural China. It shows the everyday water struggle over water control, access and economic opportunities among different water stakeholders. Although a majority of population still depend on irrigated agriculture for their livelihoods, the future of agriculture in studied basin or in China generally is uncertain as farmers migrate, the population ages and next generations become better educated and migrate to the city. This thesis enables a new perspective on the global water management debate within a context where research has stresses the natural and technocratic approaches and creates new opportunities for more effective and appropriate governance of common pool resources. Interdisciplinary understanding regarding stakeholder perceptions, water resources management and environmental change are enriched. Potential barriers and solutions are transferable to other regions and countries where water crises are accelerating due to population growth, urbanization, industrialization, agriculture and economic development, climate change and other socio-political changes.

Optimal operation of water reclamation facilities (WRFs) is critical for an indirect potable reuse (IPR) system, especially when the reclaimed water constitutes a major portion of the reservoir's safe yield. It requires timely and informed decision-making in response to the fluctuating operational conditions, e.g., weather patterns, plant performance, water demand, etc. Advanced integrated modeling techniques can be used to develop reliable operational strategies to mitigate future risks associated with water quality without needing high levels of financial investment. The Upper Occoquan Service Authority (UOSA) WRF, located in northern Virginia, discharges nitrified reclaimed water directly into a tributary of the Occoquan Reservoir, one of the major water supply sources for Fairfax County. Among the many operational challenges at UOSA, one is to regulate the nitrate concentration in its reclaimed water based on the denitrifying capacity of the reservoir. This study presents an integrated model that is used to predict future reservoir conditions based on the weather and streamflow forecasts obtained from the Climate Forecast System and the National Water Model. The application captures the dynamic transformations of the pollutant loadings in the streams, withdrawals by the water treatment plant, WRF effluent flows, and plant operations to manage the WRF performance. It provides plant operators with useful feedback for correctly targeting the effluent nitrates using an intelligent process simulator called IViewOps. The platform is powered by URUNME, a new software that fully automates the operation of the reservoir and process models integrating forecasting products, and data sources. URUNME was developed in C#.NET to provide out-of-the-box functionality for model coupling, data storage, analysis, visualization, scenario management, and decision support systems. The software automatically runs the entire integrated model and outputs data on user-friendly dashboards, displaying historical and forecasting trends, on a periodic basis. This decision support system can provide stakeholders with a holistic view for the design, planning, risk assessments, and potential improvements in various components of the water supply chain, not just for the Occoquan but for any reservoir augmentation type IPR system.
Doctor of Philosophy