Journal articles: 'Internalizing and externalizing behaviors'

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Camisasca, Elena. "Traiettorie di internalizzazione ed esternalizzazione in bambini maltrattati: il ruolo dell'attaccamento." MALTRATTAMENTO E ABUSO ALL'INFANZIA, no. 3 (September 2009): 65–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.3280/mal2009-003007.

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- This study explores in 56 child abused children the role of attachment as a mediator of the relation between child abuse and internalizing and externalizing behaviors. We assume that the type and the duration of child abuse predict both internalizing/ externalizing behaviors and the insecure attachments and that just these affective bonds could explain the different consequences in terms of adaptive and disadaptive developments. According to this aim, we administered to the sample: the SAT (Attili, 2001) to analyze the attachment bonds; the CBCL (Achenbach, 1991) to explore internalizing and externalizing behaviours. Results show that the type and the duration of child abuse predict both internalizing/externalizing behaviours and insecure attachments. In relation to the mediational role of attachment, data show a limited and partial confirm of the hypothesis. In fact, only the disorganized attachment mediates the relation between the type of child abuse and internalizing/externalizing behaviours.Key words: child abuse, attachment, internalizing and externalizing behaviors, mediators

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Bornstein, Marc H., Chun-Shin Hahn, and O. Maurice Haynes. "Social competence, externalizing, and internalizing behavioral adjustment from early childhood through early adolescence: Developmental cascades." Development and Psychopathology 22, no. 4 (October 1, 2010): 717–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579410000416.

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AbstractThis study used a three-wave longitudinal design to investigate developmental cascades among social competence and externalizing and internalizing behavioral adjustment in a normative sample of 117 children seen at 4, 10, and 14 years. Children, mothers, and teachers provided data. A series of nested path analysis models was used to determine the most parsimonious and plausible cascades across the three constructs over and above their covariation at each age and stability across age. Children with lower social competence at age 4 years exhibited more externalizing and internalizing behaviors at age 10 years and more externalizing behaviors at age 14 years. Children with lower social competence at age 4 years also exhibited more internalizing behaviors at age 10 years and more internalizing behaviors at age 14 years. Children who exhibited more internalizing behaviors at age 4 years exhibited more internalizing behaviors at age 10 years and more externalizing behaviors at age 14 years. These cascades among social competence and behavioral adjustment obtained independent of child intelligence and maternal education and social desirability of responding.

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FINE, SARAH E., CARROLL E. IZARD, ALLISON J. MOSTOW, CHRISTOPHER J. TRENTACOSTA, and BRIAN P. ACKERMAN. "First grade emotion knowledge as a predictor of fifth grade self-reported internalizing behaviors in children from economically disadvantaged families." Development and Psychopathology 15, no. 2 (June 2003): 331–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s095457940300018x.

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In this longitudinal study, we examined the relations between emotion knowledge in first grade, teacher reports of internalizing and externalizing behaviors from first grade, and children's self-reported internalizing behaviors in fifth grade. At Time 1, we assessed emotion knowledge, expressive vocabulary, caregiver-reported earned income, and teacher-rated internalizing and externalizing behaviors in 7-year-old children from economically disadvantaged families (N = 154). At Time 2, when the children were age 11, we collected children's self-reports of negative emotions, depression, anxiety, and loneliness. First grade teacher-reported externalizing behaviors, but not first grade internalizing behaviors, were positively related to children's self-reports of internalizing behaviors in fifth grade. First grade emotion knowledge accounted for a significant amount of variance in children's self-reports of internalizing symptoms 4 years later, after controlling for per capita earned income, expressive vocabulary, and teacher-reported internalizing and externalizing behaviors in first grade.

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BARRIGA, ALVARO Q., JENNIFER R. LANDAU, BOBBY L. STINSON, ALBERT K. LIAU, and JOHN C. GIBBS. "Cognitive Distortion and Problem Behaviors in Adolescents." Criminal Justice and Behavior 27, no. 1 (February 2000): 36–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854800027001003.

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The authors investigated the prevalence of self-serving and self-debasing cognitive distortions and their specific relations to externalizing and internalizing problem behaviors in 96 incarcerated male and female delinquents and a comparison sample of 66 high school students. The incarcerated participants evidenced higher levels of cognitive distortion (self-serving and self-debasing) and problem behavior (externalizing and internalizing) than did comparison participants. Both self-serving and self-debasing cognitive distortions were associated with unique variance in overall problem behaviors. Most notably, self-serving cognitive distortions specifically related to externalizing behaviors, whereas self-debasing cognitive distortions specifically related to internalizing behaviors. The theoretical and treatment implications of the findings are discussed.

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Lane, Kathleen Lynne, Wendy Peia Oakes, Eric Alan Common, Nelson Brunsting, Kris Zorigian, Tyler Hicks, and Nathan A. Lane. "A Comparison Between SRSS-IE and BASC-2 BESS Scores at the Middle School Level." Behavioral Disorders 44, no. 3 (September 23, 2018): 162–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0198742918794843.

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We report findings of a psychometric study comparing scores from two screening tools: Student Risk Screening Scale–Internalizing and Externalizing (SRSS-IE, an adapted version of the Student Risk Screening Scale) and Behavior Assessment System for Children–Second Edition, Behavioral and Emotional Screening System (BASC-2 BESS). Participants were 624 sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade students attending a rural middle school in a southeastern state. Pearson correlation coefficients indicated statistically significant, positive relations between SRSS-IE and BASC-2 BESS scores, with very strong relations on externalizing and comorbid (internalizing and externalizing) scales. Results of concurrent classification accuracy analyses, kappa, and receiver operating curve analyses suggest the seven externalizing items on the SRSS (SRSS-E7) and BASC-2 BESS scores function in a similar manner with respect to detecting students with externalizing behaviors, but less so in detecting students with internalizing behaviors. Limitations and future direction are discussed.

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Duprey, Erinn Bernstein, Assaf Oshri, and Sihong Liu. "Developmental pathways from child maltreatment to adolescent suicide-related behaviors: The internalizing and externalizing comorbidity hypothesis." Development and Psychopathology 32, no. 3 (August 13, 2019): 945–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579419000919.

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AbstractChild maltreatment is a robust risk factor for suicidal ideation and behaviors during adolescence. Elevations in internalizing and externalizing symptomology have been identified as two distinct developmental pathways linking child maltreatment and adolescent risk for suicide. However, recent research suggests that the co-occurrence of internalizing and externalizing symptomology may form a distinct etiological pathway for adolescent risk behaviors. Using the Longitudinal Studies on Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN) sample (N = 1,314), the present study employed a person-centered approach to identify patterns of concurrent change in internalizing and externalizing psychopathology over five time points from early childhood to adolescence in relation to previous experiences of child maltreatment and subsequent suicidal ideation and behaviors. Results indicated four distinct bivariate externalizing and internalizing growth trajectories. Group membership in a heightened comorbid internalizing and externalizing symptom trajectory mediated the association between childhood abuse and adolescent suicidal ideation and suicidal behaviors. These findings suggest that the concurrent development of externalizing and internalizing symptoms in childhood and adolescence may constitute a unique developmental trajectory that confers risk for suicide-related outcomes.

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Jung, Hyunzee, Todd I. Herrenkohl, Jungeun Olivia Lee, Sheryl A. Hemphill, Jessica A. Heerde, and Martie L. Skinner. "Gendered Pathways From Child Abuse to Adult Crime Through Internalizing and Externalizing Behaviors in Childhood and Adolescence." Journal of Interpersonal Violence 32, no. 18 (August 11, 2015): 2724–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0886260515596146.

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Gender differences in externalizing and internalizing pathways from child abuse to adult crime were examined across four waves of an extended longitudinal study ( N = 186 males and 170 females) using multiple-group structural equation modeling. Results show that child abuse was associated with both internalizing and externalizing behaviors in the elementary school years for both males and females. However, gender differences were found such that internalizing behaviors increased the risk of adult crime for females only, and externalizing behaviors increased the risk of adult crime for males only. Internalizing behaviors among males actually lessened the risk of adult crime, and externalizing behaviors were unrelated to adult crime among females. Findings confirm distinct pathways leading from child abuse to later crime for males and females, which is important for prevention and intervention strategies.

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Tsai, Mei-Hsiang. "Application of Standardized Observation Form in School Counselling in Taiwan: Exploratory Study with Children Exhibiting Internalizing and Externalizing Behavior Concerns." International Journal of Psychological Studies 10, no. 2 (May 1, 2018): 25. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijps.v10n2p25.

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The exploratory study investigated the impact of Child-Centered Play Therapy (CCPT) on children who present with internalizing and externalizing behavioral concerns through a single-case design. Two second-grade male children in northern Taiwan displaying clinical levels of internalizing or externalizing behavior problems underwent 9 weeks of weekly 40-minute CCPT sessions. The children’s parents and teachers completed the Child Behavior Checklist and Teacher’s Report Form before and after play therapy. Observational data were collected via the Direct Observation Form throughout the baseline, intervention, and follow-up phases. Observation data were evaluated through visual analysis. In-session play therapy notes and the children’s play therapy behavior scores were also analyzed. The participants’ internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors demonstrated slight decreases.

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Gau, J. S., J. L. Silberg, M. T. Erickson, and J. K. Hewitt. "Childhood Behavior Problems: A Comparison of Twin and Non-twin Samples." Acta geneticae medicae et gemellologiae: twin research 41, no. 1 (January 1992): 53–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0001566000002518.

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AbstractThis study compares standardized measures of childhood behavior problems in a community-based twin sample with those for normative samples from the general population. Maternal parent ratings on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) for 1824 twins were compared with the CBCL normative sample. The results indicated that twins showed small but consistently higher levels of problem behaviors. These elevations were significant for older children on both internalizing and externalizing behaviors; for younger children the elevations were significant for externalizing but not internalizing behaviors.

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Hatoum, Alexander S., Soo Hyun Rhee, Robin P. Corley, John K. Hewitt, and Naomi P. Friedman. "Do executive functions explain the covariance between internalizing and externalizing behaviors?" Development and Psychopathology 30, no. 4 (November 16, 2017): 1371–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579417001602.

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AbstractThis study examined whether executive functions (EFs) might be common features of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems across development. We examined relations between three EF latent variables (a common EF factor and factors specific to updating working memory and shifting sets), constructed from nine laboratory tasks administered at age 17, to latent growth intercept (capturing stability) and slope (capturing change) factors of teacher- and parent-reported internalizing and externalizing behaviors in 885 individual twins aged 7 to 16 years. We then estimated the proportion of intercept–intercept and slope–slope correlations predicted by EF as well as the association between EFs and a common psychopathology factor (P factor) estimated from all 9 years of internalizing and externalizing measures. Common EF was negatively associated with the intercepts of teacher-rated internalizing and externalizing behavior in males, and explained 32% of their covariance; in the P factor model, common EF was associated with the P factor in males. Shifting-specific was positively associated with the externalizing slope across sex. EFs did not explain covariation between parent-rated behaviors. These results suggest that EFs are associated with stable problem behavior variation, explain small proportions of covariance, and are a risk factor that that may depend on gender.

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Bauminger, Nirit, Marjorie Solomon, and Sally J. Rogers. "Externalizing and internalizing behaviors in ASD." Autism Research 3, no. 3 (May 26, 2010): 101–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aur.131.

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Zeng, Guang, Zhengyi Chen, and Pingfu Fu. "Temporal Pattern of Co-Development of Internalizing and Externalizing Problem Behaviors: An Application of Bivariate Mixed-Effects Models." Reviews on Recent Clinical Trials 15, no. 1 (February 14, 2020): 60–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1574887114666191028115245.

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Background: Although previous research has shown that internalizing and externalizing behavior problems often co-occur, the relationship between the developmental trajectories of these two types of behavior problems is understudied. The co-occurring evolutions of developmental trajectories of two behaviors has two components: 1) the correlation between the slopes of two behavior profiles (termed the association of the evolutions); and 2) the marginal correlation of two development trajectory profiles, which is the development of correlation between internalizing and externalizing behavior over time (termed the evolution of the association). The association of the evolutions and the evolution of the association have not been fully explored in the context of the development of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems among kindergarteners in the United States. Methods: The random-effects approach for joint modeling of multivariate longitudinal profiles was used to evaluate the co-development and its temporal pattern of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems on a nationally representative sample of 9791 kindergarteners from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Class of 1998-99 (ECLS-K). Results: here was a moderate positive association between the evolutions of the two behavior problems with correlation coefficient of 0.319. The evolution of association between the two behaviors was increasing over time with the correlation coefficient from 0.195 at the Fall of kindergarten to 0.291 by the time of fifth grade in general. Race and age groups act differently on the evolution of association. The associations were getting stronger for the Asian group and older groups than their peer groups. Conclusion: This investigation of the association of evolutions and the evolution of association between the internalizing and externalizing behaviors show that the two problem behaviors reciprocally reinforce each other and lead to increases in the other in a moderate strength and the strength is increasing over time.

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Choi, Jihyang. "News Internalizing and Externalizing." Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 93, no. 4 (July 10, 2016): 816–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1077699016628812.

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The present study sheds light on the changing patterns of news experiences by defining it as news sharing. The study attempted to explicate the concept of news sharing by identifying the subdimensions of it in the context of online social networking sites (SNSs). Findings showed that news sharing is comprised of two distinctive behaviors: news internalizing (by those who read news) and externalizing (by those who offer news to others). Furthermore, news internalizing and externalizing have two subdimensions, respectively: browsing and personalizing for internalizing, and recontextualizing and endorsing for externalizing. Data were collected through a national survey of adults in the United States.

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Calkins, Susan D., Alysia Y. Blandon, Amanda P. Williford, and Susan P. Keane. "Biological, behavioral, and relational levels of resilience in the context of risk for early childhood behavior problems." Development and Psychopathology 19, no. 3 (June 2007): 675–700. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s095457940700034x.

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Longitudinal growth patterns of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems were examined in a community sample of 441 children across the ages of 2 to 5 using hierarchical linear modeling. Contextual risk was measured using five indicators (socioeconomic status, marital status, number of siblings, parent stress, parent psychopathology), and three levels of child resilience (biological, behavioral, and relational) were also assessed. Results indicate that a general pattern of decline in both types of behavior problems was observed for the entire sample across time, although considerable individual variability in this pattern was observed. Children's externalizing and internalizing behavior at age 5 was predicted by the level of risk at age 2. All three child resilience factors were also predictive of externalizing and internalizing behaviors at age 5. In the prediction of the slope of problem behavior over time, risk status interacted with both temperamental fearlessness and a mutually responsive orientation with the mother to predict the decline in externalizing and internalizing problem behavior. Results underscore the complex interactions of risk and multiple levels of resilience that are implicated in the maintenance of problem behavior over time. They highlight the importance of considering whether expected resilience factors operate similarly across different levels of risk.

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Sheppard, Adam C., and Joseph L. Mahoney. "Time Spent in Sports and Adolescent Problem Behaviors: A Longitudinal Analysis of Directions of Association." Journal of Youth Development 7, no. 3 (September 1, 2012): 87–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2012.132.

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This longitudinal study analyzed the direction of the association between sports participation and problem behavior. Participants were a nationally representative sample of 1,692 adolescents (ages 11-19). Results showed that, beyond baseline measures of problem behaviors, time in sports (Wave I) was negatively associated with internalizing behaviors (Wave II). However, there was not a significant relation between time in sports and externalizing behavior. In addition to analyzing the relation between previous time in sports and subsequent problem behaviors, previous problem behaviors were used to predict subsequent time spent in sport. Results showed that previous internalizing behavior (Wave I) was negatively associated with time in sports (Wave II), but only for females. Externalizing behavior was not related to subsequent time spent in sport.

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Gonzales-Backen, Melinda. "Parenting Practices and Adjustment Profiles among Latino Youth in Rural Areas of the United States." Social Sciences 8, no. 6 (June 12, 2019): 184. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/socsci8060184.

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On average, Latino adolescents in the United States (U.S.) are at an elevated risk for developing internalizing symptoms, externalizing behaviors, and engaging in binge drinking. Latino youth in rural U.S. contexts may be particularly at risk. Parent–adolescent relationships may be associated with each of these indicators of maladjustment, as well as the co-occurrence of these issues. In the current study, adjustment profiles based on internalizing symptoms, externalizing behaviors, and binge drinking among 198 Latino adolescents (Mage = 15.90, SD = 1.47) living in rural areas of the United States were examined. Further, the association of adjustment profiles with parental behavioral involvement, parental monitoring, and familial ethnic socialization was tested. Four adjustment profiles emerged from a cluster analysis (i.e., low risk, internalizing risk, externalizing risk, co-occurring risk). Results indicated that adolescents in the co-occurring risk profile reported the lowest levels of parental monitoring compared to the other three profiles, lower familial ethnic socialization compared to the low risk and internalizing risk profiles, and lower parental behavioral involvement compared to the internalizing risk profile. The findings have implications for family-based, culturally informed interventions to encourage positive adjustment among Latino adolescents in rural areas of the United States.

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Wang, Frances L., Nancy Eisenberg, Carlos Valiente, and Tracy L. Spinrad. "Role of temperament in early adolescent pure and co-occurring internalizing and externalizing problems using a bifactor model: Moderation by parenting and gender." Development and Psychopathology 28, no. 4pt2 (December 9, 2015): 1487–504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579415001224.

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AbstractWe contribute to the literature on the relations of temperament to externalizing and internalizing problems by considering parental emotional expressivity and child gender as moderators of such relations and examining prediction of pure and co-occurring problem behaviors during early to middle adolescence using bifactor models (which provide unique and continuous factors for pure and co-occurring internalizing and externalizing problems). Parents and teachers reported on children's (4.5- to 8-year-olds; N = 214) and early adolescents’ (6 years later; N = 168) effortful control, impulsivity, anger, sadness, and problem behaviors. Parental emotional expressivity was measured observationally and with parents’ self-reports. Early-adolescents’ pure externalizing and co-occurring problems shared childhood and/or early-adolescent risk factors of low effortful control, high impulsivity, and high anger. Lower childhood and early-adolescent impulsivity and higher early-adolescent sadness predicted early-adolescents’ pure internalizing. Childhood positive parental emotional expressivity more consistently related to early-adolescents’ lower pure externalizing compared to co-occurring problems and pure internalizing. Lower effortful control predicted changes in externalizing (pure and co-occurring) over 6 years, but only when parental positive expressivity was low. Higher impulsivity predicted co-occurring problems only for boys. Findings highlight the probable complex developmental pathways to adolescent pure and co-occurring externalizing and internalizing problems.

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Kim, Tae-Sun, and Hyun-Sim Doh. "Effects of Maternal Self-Esteem, Coparenting and Warmth in Early Childhood on Children’s Problem Behaviors at School Entry." Korean Journal of Child Studies 42, no. 4 (August 31, 2021): 473–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.5723/kjcs.2021.42.4.473.

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Objectives: The present study examined the effects of maternal self-esteem, coparenting and warmth in early childhood on children’s problem behaviors at school entry.Methods: The data were drawn from the seventh (T1, age 5) and eighth (T2, age 6) waves of the Panel Study of Korean Children (PSKC). A total of 1,429 mothers of 6-year-old children at T2 participated in this study. Data were analyzed with Structural Equation Modeling (SEM).Results: First, in relation to direct paths, the mother’s self-esteem at age 5 had direct effects on both internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors when children were aged 6 at school entry. Second, regarding indirect paths, mother’s self-esteem at age 5 had indirect effects on children’s internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors at age 6 through coparenting at age 5 and maternal warmth, respectively. Lastly, in relation to other indirect paths, mother’s self-esteem at age 5 had indirect effects on children’s internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors sequentially at age 6 through coparenting at age 5 and maternal warmth.Conclusion: This short-term longitudinal study explored whether mothers’ self-esteem, coparenting, and warmth in early childhood have crucial effects on children’s internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors at school entry. The results emphasize the importance of positive family dynamics in early years of life to prevent children’s problem behaviors. The findings of this study offer meaningful foundation for designing parenting education programs for parents and families as well as behavioral intervention programs for children, and they can ultimately serve as basic data for heathy development of children and family.

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Li, Boya, Marieke GN Bos, Lex Stockmann, and Carolien Rieffe. "Emotional functioning and the development of internalizing and externalizing problems in young boys with and without autism spectrum disorder." Autism 24, no. 1 (September 24, 2019): 200–210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1362361319874644.

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Children with autism spectrum disorder are at risk of developing internalizing and externalizing problems. However, information on early development of behavior problems and the contributing role of emotional functioning in preschool children with autism spectrum disorder is scarce. This study collected data of boys with and without autism spectrum disorder ( N = 156; age: 2–6 years) over three consecutive years (three waves), about their internalizing and externalizing symptoms and emotional functioning (i.e. emotion control, recognition, and vocabulary), using parent-report questionnaires. No age effect was found on internalizing or externalizing problems for boys with and without autism spectrum disorder. Boys with autism spectrum disorder displayed more behavior problems than their typically developing peers and showed lower levels of emotional functioning. Better emotion control and improved emotion recognition were associated with a decrease in problem behaviors for boys with and without autism spectrum disorder, whereas improved emotion vocabulary was uniquely related to a decrease in externalizing problems in boys with autism spectrum disorder. Our findings suggest that boys with and without autism spectrum disorder showed similar developmental courses of internalizing and externalizing problems. However, lower levels of emotional functioning were already more pronounced in boys with autism spectrum disorder at a young age. This contributes to higher levels of behavior problems.

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Schmitz, Stephanie, and David A. Mrazek. "Genetic and Environmental Influences on the Associations Between Attention Problems and Other Problem Behaviors." Twin Research 4, no. 6 (December 1, 2001): 453–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/twin.4.6.453.

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AbstractProblem behavior in children shows a high degree of cooccurrence, both within the domains of internalizing and externalizing behaviors and across domains. Maternal ratings of 207 same- and opposite-sex twin pairs on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/4–18; Achenbach, 1991) were used to determine the etiology of these associations. In the current sample of 4- to 11-year-old children (mean age: 7.6 years) phenotypic correlations were .68 between Internalizing and Externalizing, between .41 and .66 within the internalizing scales, and between .58 and .71 within the externalizing scales. Correlations across domains on the scale level were of similar magnitude. Genetic and shared environmental correlations were generally high, with the exception of the somatic complaints scale which showed low genetic correlations with other scales. These findings of uniformly high shared etiology was seen within and across domains. For example, Attention Problems showed genetic correlations of .65 with Delinquent Behavior and .76 with Aggressive Behavior; the genetic correlations of Attention Problems with internalizing scales were .71 for Anxious/Depressed and .79 for Withdrawn; a low genetic correlation was only shown for the Somatic Complaints scale (rg = .16). Although the magnitude of shared environmental contributions was lower, the environmental correlations were close to unity, indicating that the same family environmental factors were involved in aspects of problem behavior when assessed across domains. Results for the Attention Problems scale were similar to other disruptive behavior, justifying its inclusion with the externalizing scales.

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Huemer, Julia, Richard J. Shaw, Antonio Prunas, Rebecca Hall, James Gross, and Hans Steiner. "Adolescent Defense Style as Correlate of Problem Behavior." Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie 43, no. 5 (September 2015): 345–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1024/1422-4917/a000368.

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Abstract. Objective: Adolescent problem behaviors are often the visible results of intrapsychic distress. Defensive reactions are the unconscious means of managing intrapsychic distress. This cross-sectional study examines the strength of defensive style as measured by self-report on the Response Evaluation Measure (REM-71) relative to age, sex, and SES, as a correlate of internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors, as assessed by the Youth Self Report (YSR). Methods: A sample of 1,487 students from two suburban high schools completed self-report measures of defense style, self-esteem, and internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors. Demographic variables (age, sex, and SES) were included as covariates. Results: Mature and immature defense style correlated as expected with problem behaviors. Demographic variables contributed minimally to the variance in the outcome variable. Conclusions: Defense style, as assessed by the REM-71, is a significant correlate of clinically elevated internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors in youth as in adults. This study adds to the convergent validity of the REM-71.

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Lansford, Jennifer E., Patrick S. Malone, Sombat Tapanya, Liliana Maria Uribe Tirado, Arnaldo Zelli, Liane Peña Alampay, Suha M. Al-Hassan, et al. "Household income predicts trajectories of child internalizing and externalizing behavior in high-, middle-, and low-income countries." International Journal of Behavioral Development 43, no. 1 (July 4, 2018): 74–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0165025418783272.

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This study examined longitudinal links between household income and parents’ education and children’s trajectories of internalizing and externalizing behaviors from age 8 to 10 reported by mothers, fathers, and children. Longitudinal data from 1,190 families in 11 cultural groups in eight countries (Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Philippines, Sweden, Thailand, and United States) were included. Multigroup structural equation models revealed that household income, but not maternal or paternal education, was related to trajectories of mother-, father-, and child-reported internalizing and externalizing problems in each of the 11 cultural groups. Our findings highlight that in low-, middle-, and high-income countries, socioeconomic risk is related to children’s internalizing and externalizing problems, extending the international focus beyond children’s physical health to their emotional and behavioral development.

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Grabow, Aleksandria Perez, Atika Khurana, Misaki N. Natsuaki, Jenae M. Neiderhiser, Gordon T. Harold, Daniel S. Shaw, Jody M. Ganiban, David Reiss, and Leslie D. Leve. "Using an adoption–biological family design to examine associations between maternal trauma, maternal depressive symptoms, and child internalizing and externalizing behaviors." Development and Psychopathology 29, no. 5 (November 22, 2017): 1707–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579417001341.

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AbstractMaternal trauma is a complex risk factor that has been linked to adverse child outcomes, yet the mechanisms underlying this association are not well understood. This study, which included adoptive and biological families, examined the heritable and environmental mechanisms by which maternal trauma and associated depressive symptoms are linked to child internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Path analyses were used to analyze data from 541 adoptive mother–adopted child (AM–AC) dyads and 126 biological mother–biological child (BM–BC) dyads; the two family types were linked through the same biological mother. Rearing mother's trauma was associated with child internalizing and externalizing behaviors in AM–AC and BM–BC dyads, and this association was mediated by rearing mothers’ depressive symptoms, with the exception of biological child externalizing behavior, for which biological mother trauma had a direct influence only. Significant associations between maternal trauma and child behavior in dyads that share only environment (i.e., AM–AC dyads) suggest an environmental mechanism of influence for maternal trauma. Significant associations were also observed between maternal depressive symptoms and child internalizing and externalizing behavior in dyads that were only genetically related, with no shared environment (i.e., BM–AC dyads), suggesting a heritable pathway of influence via maternal depressive symptoms.

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Korhonen, Marie, Ilona Luoma, Raili K. Salmelin, Mika Helminen, Riittakerttu Kaltiala-Heino, and Tuula Tamminen. "The trajectories of child’s internalizing and externalizing problems, social competence and adolescent self-reported problems in a Finnish normal population sample." School Psychology International 35, no. 6 (February 25, 2014): 561–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0143034314525511.

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Group-based modeling techniques are increasingly used in developmental studies to explore the patterns and co-occurrence of internalizing and externalizing problems. Social competence has been found to reciprocally influence internalizing and externalizing problems, but studies on its associations with different patterns of these problems are scarce. Using data from a Finnish longitudinal normal population sample, trajectories of internalizing and externalizing problems were formed using the Child Behavior Checklist completed by the mother at the child’s age of 4- to 5-years-old, 8- to 9-years-old, and 16- to 17-years-old ( N = 261). The results indicate that adolescent’s self-reported internalizing and externalizing problems based on the Youth Self Report were associated with the trajectories of internalizing and externalizing problems. Social competence both in early childhood and in adolescence was poorer among children with chronic internalizing problems and among those with adolescent-onset externalizing problems. One-third of the children who had a chronically high level of internalizing problems had an initially high but decreasing level of externalizing problems, while 33% of the adolescents with adolescent-onset externalizing problems had a chronically high level of internalizing problems. School psychologists are encouraged to screen for internalizing problems from children with behavioral, academic or social problems.

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Huizink, Anja C., Mijke P. van den Berg, Jan van der Ende, and Frank C. Verhulst. "Longitudinal Genetic Analysis of Internalizing and Externalizing Problem Behavior in Adopted Biologically Related and Unrelated Sibling Pairs." Twin Research and Human Genetics 10, no. 1 (February 1, 2007): 55–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/twin.10.1.55.

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AbstractTo obtain a better understanding of how genetic and environmental processes are involved in the stability and change in problem behavior from early adolescence into adulthood, studies with genetically informative samples are important. The present study used parent-reported data on internalizing and externalizing problem behavior of adoptees at mean ages 12.4, 15.5 and 26.3. In this adoption study adopted biologically related sibling pairs shared on average 50% of their genes and were brought up in the same family environment, whereas adopted biologically unrelated sibling pairs only shared their family environment. The resemblance between these adopted biologically related (N = 106) and unrelated sibling pairs (N = 230) was compared and examined over time. We aimed to investigate (1) to what extent are internalizing and externalizing problem behavior stable from early adolescence into adulthood, and (2) whether the same or different genetic and environmental factors affect these problem behaviors at the 3 assessments. Our results show that both internalizing (rs ranging from .34 to .58) and externalizing behavior (rs ranging from .47 to .69) were rather stable over time. For internalizing and externalizing problem behavior it was found that both genetic and shared environmental influences could be modeled by an underlying common factor, which explained variance in problem behavior from early adolescence into adulthood and accounted for stability over time. The nonshared environmental influences were best modeled by a Cholesky decomposition for internalizing behavior, whereas a time-specific influence of the nonshared environment was included in the final model of externalizing behavior.

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Rhee, Soo Hyun, Victoria E. Cosgrove, Stephanie Schmitz, Brett C. Haberstick, Robin C. Corley, and John K. Hewitt. "Early Childhood Temperament and the Covariation Between Internalizing and Externalizing Behavior in School-Aged Children." Twin Research and Human Genetics 10, no. 1 (February 1, 2007): 33–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/twin.10.1.33.

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AbstractThere is significant covariation between internalizing and externalizing behavior, although there is also evidence that internalizing behavior is a protective factor against externalizing behavior. Several researchers have posited that the examination of the relationship between temperament or personality and behavior problems may help explain these seemingly contradictory results. Specifically, negative emotionality or neuroticism has been cited as a temperament characteristic that internalizing and externalizing behavior share in common, whereas behavioral inhibition may be related only to internalizing behavior. We examined the degree to which the covariation between internalizing and externalizing behavior assessed from age 4 to 12 years can be explained by temperament characteristics assessed from age 14 to 36 months. Additionally, we assessed the extent to which this relationship is due to genetic or environmental factors, analyzing data from 225 monozygotic and 185 dizygotic twin pairs assessed by the Colorado Longitudinal Twin Study. In males, a portion of the covariation between internalizing and externalizing behavior was explained by shared environmental influences in common with emotionality and shared environmental influences in common with shyness. In females, most of the covariation between internalizing and externalizing behavior was explained by shared environmental influences in common with emotionality. A possible limitation of this study is that the covariation between temperament and behavior problems may be due to shared measurement variance, as parent ratings were used to assess both temperament and behavior problems.

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Blacklock, Adrienne, Louis A. Schmidt, Stephanie A. Fryberg, Gillian H. Klassen, Johanna Querengesser, Jillian Stewart, Colin Andrew Campbell, et al. "Identification with ancestral culture is associated with fewer internalizing problems among older Naskapi adolescents." Transcultural Psychiatry 57, no. 2 (June 14, 2019): 321–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1363461519847299.

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The manifestations of externalizing and internalizing behaviors among minority adolescents might best be understood by examining their relation to culturally specific factors, such as cultural identity, as well as to factors that seem to be relevant across cultures, such as age and gender. In this study, we examined the roles of age and gender in moderating the relation between self-reported cultural identity and externalizing and internalizing problems and the interaction between Indigenous and Mainstream cultural identity in relation to problematic behaviors. The participants included 61 students (32 female) with a mean age of 14.5 years (SD = 1.69) from a Naskapi reserve in Quebec, Canada. Age moderated the relation between identification with Indigenous culture and internalizing symptomatology. Indigenous and Mainstream cultural identity did not interact in predicting internalizing or externalizing problems. Consistent with the available evidence regarding the centrality of identity in adolescent development, the magnitude of the inverse relation between identification with Indigenous culture and number of clinical internalizing symptoms appears to increase in significance later in adolescence. The lack of an interaction between Indigenous and Mainstream cultural identity in relation to internalizing and externalizing problems suggests that it is the need to consider both cultures individually without the assumption that one negates the other.

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Rosenfield, Sarah, Mary Clare Lennon, and Helene Raskin White. "The Self and Mental Health: Self-Salience and the Emergence of Internalizing and Externalizing Problems." Journal of Health and Social Behavior 46, no. 4 (December 2005): 323–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002214650504600402.

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How do schemas about self-salience—the importance of the self versus the collective in social relations—affect mental health? We propose that self-salience shapes the likelihood of experiencing internalizing or externalizing problems. Schemas that privilege others over the self increase the risk of internalizing symptoms, including depressive symptoms and anxiety, whereas those that privilege the self over others predispose individuals to externalizing behaviors of antisocial behavior and substance abuse. Furthermore, we propose that these schemas contribute to the gender differences that exist in these problems. We test these predictions with data from adolescents, the stage at which these problems and the gender differences in them arise. Results show that self-salience underlies both internalizing and externalizing problems. In addition, schemas about self-salience help explain the gender differences found in mental health problems.

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Lane, Kathleen Lynne, Wendy Peia Oakes, Emily D. Cantwell, Eric A. Common, David J. Royer, Melinda M. Leko, Christopher Schatschneider, Holly Mariah Menzies, Mark Matthew Buckman, and Grant Edmund Allen. "Predictive Validity of Student Risk Screening Scale—Internalizing and Externalizing (SRSS-IE) Scores in Elementary Schools." Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 27, no. 4 (September 12, 2018): 221–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1063426618795443.

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In this article, we examined predictive validity of Student Risk Screening Scale—Internalizing and Externalizing (SRSS-IE) scores for use with elementary-age students ( N = 4,465) from 14 elementary schools. Results indicated elementary school students with high levels of risk according to fall SRSS-IE scores—especially those with externalizing behaviors—were more likely to have lower oral reading fluency scores, lower Measures of Academic Progress (MAP) reading scores, more nurse visits, and more days spent in in-school suspension compared with students at low risk for externalizing or internalizing behaviors. Educational implications, limitations, and future directions are presented.

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Whipp, Alyce M., Eero Vuoksimaa, Koen Bolhuis, Eveline L. de Zeeuw, Tellervo Korhonen, Matteo Mauri, Lea Pulkkinen, et al. "Teacher-rated aggression and co-occurring behaviors and emotional problems among schoolchildren in four population-based European cohorts." PLOS ONE 16, no. 4 (April 29, 2021): e0238667. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238667.

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Aggressive behavior in school is an ongoing concern. The current focus is on specific manifestations such as bullying, but the behavior is broad and heterogenous. Children spend a substantial amount of time in school, but their behaviors in the school setting tend to be less well characterized than at home. Because aggression may index multiple behavioral problems, we used three validated instruments to assess means, correlations and gender differences of teacher-rated aggressive behavior with co-occurring externalizing/internalizing problems and social behavior in 39,936 schoolchildren aged 7–14 from 4 population-based cohorts from Finland, the Netherlands, and the UK. Correlations of aggressive behavior were high with all other externalizing problems (r: 0.47–0.80) and lower with internalizing problems (r: 0.02–0.39). A negative association was observed with prosocial behavior (r: -0.33 to -0.54). Mean levels of aggressive behavior differed significantly by gender. Despite the higher mean levels of aggressive behavior in boys, the correlations were notably similar for boys and girls (e.g., aggressive-hyperactivity correlations: 0.51–0.75 boys, 0.47–0.70 girls) and did not vary greatly with respect to age, instrument or cohort. Thus, teacher-rated aggressive behavior rarely occurs in isolation; boys and girls with problems of aggressive behavior likely require help with other behavioral and emotional problems. Important to note, higher aggressive behavior is not only associated with higher amounts of other externalizing and internalizing problems but also with lower levels of prosocial behavior.

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Rothenberg, W. Andrew, Jennifer E. Lansford, Liane Peña Alampay, Suha M. Al-Hassan, Dario Bacchini, Marc H. Bornstein, Lei Chang, et al. "Examining effects of mother and father warmth and control on child externalizing and internalizing problems from age 8 to 13 in nine countries." Development and Psychopathology 32, no. 3 (December 23, 2019): 1113–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579419001214.

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AbstractThis study used data from 12 cultural groups in 9 countries (China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Philippines, Sweden, Thailand, and United States; N = 1,315) to investigate bidirectional associations between parental warmth and control, and child externalizing and internalizing behaviors. In addition, the extent to which these associations held across mothers and fathers and across cultures with differing normative levels of parent warmth and control were examined. Mothers, fathers, and children completed measures when children were ages 8 to 13. Multiple-group autoregressive cross-lagged structural equation models revealed that evocative child-driven effects of externalizing and internalizing behavior on warmth and control are ubiquitous across development, cultures, mothers, and fathers. Results also reveal that parenting effects on child externalizing and internalizing behaviors, though rarer than child effects, extend into adolescence when examined separately in mothers and fathers. Father-based parent effects were more frequent than mother effects. Most parent- and child-driven effects appear to emerge consistently across cultures. The rare culture-specific parenting effects suggested that occasionally the effects of parenting behaviors that run counter to cultural norms may be delayed in rendering their protective effect against deleterious child outcomes.

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Schmidt, Louis A., Nathan A. Fox, and Dean H. Hamer. "Evidence for a gene–gene interaction in predicting children's behavior problems: Association of serotonin transporter short and dopamine receptor D4 long genotypes with internalizing and externalizing behaviors in typically developing 7-year-olds." Development and Psychopathology 19, no. 4 (October 2007): 1105–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579407000569.

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AbstractRecent work on the molecular genetics of complex traits in typical and atypical human development has focused primarilyon associations of single genes with behavior. Disparate literature suggests that the presence of one or two copies of the short allele of the serotonin transporter (5-HTT) gene and the long allele (7-repeat allele) version of the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene predicts internalizing- and externalizing-related behaviors, respectively. Apparently for the first time in the extant literature, we report a gene–gene statistical interaction on behavior problems in a group of typically developing children at age 7. DNA was extracted from buccal cells collected from 108 children and genotyped for short and long alleles of the5-HTTgene and the short (2–5 repeats) versus long (6–8 repeats) allele of theDRD4gene. Mothers completed the Child Behavior Checklist. As predicted, children with one or two copies of the short allele of the5-HTTgeneandthe long allele version of theDRD4gene exhibited significantly more internalizing and externalizing behaviors at age 7 than children with other combinations of the5-HTTandDRD4short and long genotypes. As well, children with the5-HTTlongand DRD4long genotypes had the lowest reported scores on internalizing and externalizing behaviors at age 7, suggesting that the presence of the5-HTTlong genotype may serve as a protective factor against these behaviors in children with the longDRD4genotype. Implications of these findings for understanding cumulative biological risk and protective factors in childhood behavior problems and psychopathology are discussed.

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Rice, Simon M., Helen M. Aucote, Dina Eleftheriadis, and Anne Maria Möller-Leimkühler. "Prevalence and Co-Occurrence of Internalizing and Externalizing Depression Symptoms in a Community Sample of Australian Male Truck Drivers." American Journal of Men's Health 12, no. 1 (January 21, 2016): 74–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1557988315626262.

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Trucking industry employees are known to be at risk of elevated levels of stress and a range of behaviors that may compromise their mental health. Clinical reports indicate that in response to negative emotional states, men tend to engage in a cluster of externalizing behaviors including irritability, anger and aggression, risk taking, and substance misuse. However, as such symptoms fall outside standard diagnostic depression criteria, the diagnosis and treatment of depression in men may be impeded. The present exploratory study reports retrospective symptom ratings of internalizing and externalizing depression symptoms from 91 Australian male truck drivers. Moderate correlation between externalizing and internalizing symptoms was reported across the sample, though internalizing symptoms were reported more frequently. However, consistent with prediction, those meeting probable depression caseness ( n = 20) reported three times the number of externalizing symptoms relative to those in the nonclinical group (Cohen’s d = 1.31). Externalizing symptoms may be a particular phenotypic feature of depression in men, and assessment of such symptoms may assist in the detection of those unwilling to disclose typical internalizing symptoms (i.e., sadness, hopelessness). Results also highlight the need for targeted research into stress-related and mental health outcomes of men in high health risk occupations such as truck driving.

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Lane, Kathleen Lynne, Wendy Peia Oakes, Emily D. Cantwell, David J. Royer, Melinda M. Leko, Christopher Schatschneider, and Holly Mariah Menzies. "Predictive Validity of Student Risk Screening Scale for Internalizing and Externalizing Scores in Secondary Schools." Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 27, no. 2 (January 22, 2018): 86–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1063426617744746.

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In this article, we examined predictive validity of Student Risk Screening Scale for Internalizing and Externalizing (SRSS-IE) scores for use at the middle ( N = 2,313 from four middle schools) and high ( N = 2,727 from two high schools) school level. Results indicated middle and high school students with high levels of risk according to fall SRSS-IE scores (particularly those with externalizing behaviors) were likely to have lower grade point averages, fail more courses, have more nurse visits, and spend more time in in-school suspensions compared with students at low risk for externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Education implications, limitations, and future directions are presented.

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Pesenti-Gritti, Paola, Chiara A. M. Spatola, Corrado Fagnani, Anna Ogliari, Valeria Patriarca, Maria Antonietta Stazi, and Marco Battaglia. "The co-occurrence between internalizing and externalizing behaviors." European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 17, no. 2 (September 10, 2007): 82–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00787-007-0639-7.

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Hentges, Rochelle F., Susan A. Graham, Andre Plamondon, Suzanne Tough, and Sheri Madigan. "A Developmental Cascade from Prenatal Stress to Child Internalizing and Externalizing Problems." Journal of Pediatric Psychology 44, no. 9 (June 5, 2019): 1057–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsz044.

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Abstract Objective This study utilized a developmental cascade approach to test alternative theories about the underlying mechanisms behind the association of maternal prenatal stress and child psychopathology. The fetal programming hypothesis suggests that prenatal stress affects fetal structural and physiological systems responsible for individual differences in child temperament, which further increases risk for internalizing and externalizing problems. Interpersonal models of stress transmission suggest that maternal stress influences child mental health via early parenting behaviors. We also examined a continuation of stress hypothesis, in which prenatal stress predicts child mental health via the continuation of maternal stress in the postpartum period. Methods Participants were 1,992 mother–child pairs drawn from a prospective pregnancy cohort. Mothers reported on their perceived stress, anxiety, and depression during pregnancy and at 4-month postpartum. Birthweight was assessed via medical records of birthweight. At 4-month postpartum, hostile-reactive parenting behaviors were assessed. Child temperamental negative affect was measured at age 3. Child internalizing and externalizing problems were assessed at age 5. Results Prenatal stress was associated with both internalizing and externalizing problems via postnatal stress and child temperament. Prenatal stress was also associated with externalizing behaviors via increased hostile-reactive parenting. After accounting for postnatal factors, prenatal stress continued to have a direct effect on child internalizing, but not externalizing, symptoms. Conclusion Results provide support for the fetal programming, interpersonal stress transmission, and continuation of stress models. Findings highlight the need for prenatal preventative programs that continue into the early postnatal period, targeting maternal stress and parenting behaviors.

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Seay, Kristen D. "Pathways From Parental Substance Use to Child Internalizing and Externalizing Behaviors in a Child Protective Services Sample." Child Maltreatment 25, no. 4 (April 1, 2020): 446–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1077559520913638.

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This study examines the role of mediation in the pathway from parental substance use to children developing child internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Using the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being II, a random half sample (i.e., split-half approach) of children aged 18 months to 17 years who remained in the home following a child welfare investigation ( N = 1,633) was used to examine direct and mediated pathways from parental self-reported alcohol and drug use to, separately, parent report of child internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Four parallel mediators were examined: child-reported exposure to violence, child-reported parental monitoring, parent-reported harsh physical discipline, and parent-reported emotional maltreatment. The strongest models for both parental alcohol and drug use to internalizing and externalizing behaviors were single-mediator models through emotional maltreatment. Results suggest emotional maltreatment is a crucial intervention target for families with substance use disorders. Parenting interventions must also strengthen parent–child relationships in order to be effective at improving child outcomes.

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Scott, Allie, Suzy Barcelos Winchester, and Mary C. Sullivan. "Trajectories of problem behaviors from 4 to 23 years in former preterm infants." International Journal of Behavioral Development 42, no. 2 (February 22, 2017): 237–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0165025417692899.

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Premature infants have significant risk for later behavior problems. This study examined growth trajectories of three problem behaviors across five developmental age points from preschool to early adulthood in a well-characterized sample of premature infants. The effects of neonatal risk, gender, and socioeconomic context were modeled on these trajectories. The longitudinal sample was comprised of preterm infants ( N = 160) with full variation of neonatal morbidity and birth weight (640–1,950 g). Trajectories of externalizing, internalizing and attention problem behaviors from 4 to 23 years, measured by the Child Behavior Checklist, were tested using latent growth curve modeling. The results indicate individual variation in the number of externalizing and internalizing problems over time. Externalizing problems were not significantly different for males and females, but male scores were consistently higher. Neonatal risk was significantly associated with higher internalizing problems at age 4, but was not predictive at school age and beyond. Attention-problem scores increased from early preschool through adolescence for males, but females had little change over the same ages. SES was not predictive of any problem behavior trajectories and no significant two-way interactions were found. The results advance understanding of stability and change of three important problem behaviors through preschool, childhood, and adolescence to young adulthood in prematurely born infants in order to inform clinicians about timely assessment and the refinement of effective interventions.

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Greenfield, Brett, Abigail Williams-Butler, Kathleen Pirozzolo Fay, Jacquelynn F. Duron, Emily Adlin Bosk, Kate Stepleton, and Michael J. Mackenzie. "Maternal adverse childhood experiences, current cumulative risk, and behavioral dysregulation among child welfare involved children." Developmental Child Welfare 1, no. 4 (December 2019): 327–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2516103219892276.

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The intergenerational influence of adverse childhood experiences on individual outcomes demonstrates a need for research that considers both personal and environmental contributors to risk. As such, the current study explored how maternal cumulative risks influence the relationship between maternal Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and their children’s behavioral dysregulation among families involved with the child welfare system ( N = 314). The importance of child age is also considered. The sample was stratified by age groups of children (1.5–5 years and 6–18 years), and the relationship between maternal ACEs, cumulative risk, and child behavior was assessed using OLS regressions. For younger children, maternal ACEs were only associated with externalizing behaviors when not controlling for cumulative risk, but cumulative risks were independently and significantly associated with both internalizing and externalizing behaviors. For older children, ACEs were independently associated with both types of behavior, but controlling for cumulative risk attenuated the strength of this relationship. Cumulative risks were also independently associated with older children’s internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Findings suggest the need to consider both individual and environmental risks for parents and children involved in the child welfare system, and the developmental timing and stability of that risk, in order to adequately support parent-child relationships as well as caregiving environments.

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Stifter, Cynthia A., Samuel Putnam, and Laudan Jahromi. "Exuberant and inhibited toddlers: Stability of temperament and risk for problem behavior." Development and Psychopathology 20, no. 2 (2008): 401–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579408000199.

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AbstractTemperament, effortful control, and problem behaviors at 4.5 years were assessed in 72 children classified as exuberant, inhibited, and low reactive as 2-year-olds. Exuberant toddlers were more positive, socially responsive to novel persons, less shy, and rated as having more problem behaviors, including externalizing and internalizing behaviors, than other children as preschoolers. Two forms of effortful control, the ability to delay a response and the ability to produce a subdominant response, were associated with fewer externalizing behaviors, whereas expressing more negative affect (relative to positive/neutral affect) when disappointed was related to more internalizing behaviors. Interaction effects implicated high levels of unregulated emotion during disappointment as a risk factor for problem behaviors in exuberant children.

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Kalberg, Jemma Robertson, Kathleen Lynne Lane, Steven Driscoll, and Joseph Wehby. "Systematic Screening for Emotional and Behavioral Disorders at the High School Level." Remedial and Special Education 32, no. 6 (November 2011): 506–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0741932510362508.

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The authors examined the utility of a modified version of the Systematic Screening for Behavior Disorders for use at the high school level to address issues of comorbidity. Results suggested that the modified version was able to discriminate among students with varying degrees of risk in terms of academic performance as measured by GPA. In terms of convergent validity, teachers were able to differentiate between the social skills of students rated with typical behaviors and those at risk for externalizing or comorbid behaviors in terms of cooperation, self-control, school adjustment, and empathy skills. Furthermore, teachers were better able to discriminate externalizing behaviors relative to internalizing behaviors. Overall, solely relying on teacher nominations may be sufficient for discriminating between the presence versus absence of risk. However, it may not be sufficient to discriminate among the presence of different types of risk, particularly internalizing behaviors. Limitations and educational implications are discussed.

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Lindsey, Eric W. "Emotion Regulation with Parents and Friends and Adolescent Internalizing and Externalizing Behavior." Children 8, no. 4 (April 13, 2021): 299. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/children8040299.

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This study examined adolescents’ self-reported use of emotion regulation strategies with parents and friends in relation to internalizing and externalizing behavior. A total of 185 children aged 13–14 years old (91 girls, 94 boys) completed three surveys to assess their emotion regulation strategies with mothers, fathers and best friends. Parents completed surveys assessing adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing behavior. Regression analysis revealed that adolescents’ self-reported ER with mothers and fathers and friends made independent contributions to parent reports of youth internalizing and externalizing behavior. Adolescents who reported engaging in more emotion suppression with friends had higher internalizing scores, whereas adolescents who reported more affective expression with friends had lower internalizing scores. Self-reported emotion regulation strategies with mothers and fathers were unrelated to internalizing behavior. Adolescents who reported engaging in higher levels of affective suppression and cognitive reappraisal with their mothers and fathers had lower parental ratings of externalizing behavior. Emotion regulation strategies with best friends were unrelated to externalizing behavior.

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Sturge-Apple, Melissa L., Patrick T. Davies, Dante Cicchetti, and Liviah G. Manning. "Mothers’ Parenting Practices as Explanatory Mechanisms in Associations Between Interparental Violence and Child Adjustment." Partner Abuse 1, no. 1 (January 2010): 45–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.1.1.45.

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This article examines maternal parenting behaviors as mediators of associations between interparental violence and young children’s internalizing and externalizing symptomatology. Participants included 201 toddlers and their mothers. Assessments of interparental violence and children’s symptoms were derived from maternal surveys. Maternal parenting behaviors were assessed during an observational paradigm and coded for hostility, responsiveness, and disengagement. Results indicated that mothers’ responsiveness and disengagement mediated associations between interparental violence and children’s internalizing (e.g., withdrawn, inhibited, anxious, depressed behaviors) and externalizing (e.g., aggressive behaviors, attentional difficulties) symptoms. The results are interpreted in the context of conceptualizations that underscore how different dimensions of maternal parenting behaviors may play key explanatory roles in understanding associations between interparental violence and children’s adjustment difficulties.

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Appleyard, Karen, Chongming Yang, and Desmond K. Runyan. "Delineating the maladaptive pathways of child maltreatment: A mediated moderation analysis of the roles of self-perception and social support." Development and Psychopathology 22, no. 2 (April 28, 2010): 337–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s095457941000009x.

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AbstractThe current study investigated concurrent and longitudinal mediated and mediated moderation pathways among maltreatment, self-perception (i.e., loneliness and self-esteem), social support, and internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. For both genders, early childhood maltreatment (i.e., ages 0–6) was related directly to internalizing and externalizing behavior problems at age 6, and later maltreatment (i.e., ages 6–8) was directly related to internalizing and externalizing behavior problems at age 8. Results of concurrent mediation and mediated moderation indicated that early maltreatment was significantly related to internalizing and externalizing behavior problems at age 6 indirectly both through age 6 loneliness and self-esteem for boys and through age 6 loneliness for girls. Significant moderation of the pathway from early maltreatment to self-esteem, and for boys, significant mediated moderation to emotional and behavioral problems were found, such that the mediated effect through self-esteem varied across levels of social support, though in an unexpected direction. No significant longitudinal mediation or mediated moderation was found, however, between the age 6 mediators and moderator and internalizing or externalizing problems at age 8. The roles of the hypothesized mediating and moderating mechanisms are discussed, with implications for designing intervention and prevention programs.

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Park, Sunyoung, Samantha Guz, Anao Zhang, S. Natasha Beretvas, Cynthia Franklin, and Johnny S. Kim. "Characteristics of Effective School-Based, Teacher-Delivered Mental Health Services for Children." Research on Social Work Practice 30, no. 4 (October 10, 2019): 422–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1049731519879982.

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Purpose: The increasing need for school-based mental health services has altered teachers’ involvement in mental health services. Methods: This study presents a meta-analysis from a previous systematic review to identify which study characteristics result in effective treatment outcomes. Specific treatment characteristics analyzed in this study include type of intervention, treatment modality, length of treatment, and type of measurement. Effect sizes were coded by internalizing and externalizing disorders, depending on the symptoms the corresponding treatments were intended to address. A final sample size included 9 independent effect sizes of internalizing behaviors and 21 effect sizes of externalizing behaviors. Results: Internalizing disorders, social skill interventions, classroom modalities, and medium treatment length were moderating treatment characteristics. No significant effects were found for externalizing disorders. Conclusions: These results further add to the research on teacher’s role in school-based mental health services and provide important information for social workers who work in schools.

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Baba, Yoko, James D. Lee, and Michael E. Vallerga. "Exploring Family Multi-type Maltreatment, Social Support, and Externalizing and Internalizing Problems Among Asian and Asian American College Students." Asian Journal of Social Science Studies 5, no. 3 (October 11, 2020): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.20849/ajsss.v5i3.780.

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Exposure to family violence as a child has a detrimental long-term impact on one’s life. This relationship is under-researched in Asian populations in the United States or in Asian countries. This study examined long-term effects of maltreatment, including interparental violence and child maltreatment on externalizing and internalizing problems experienced by Asian and Asian American college students. We also explored protective effects of social support against the negative consequences of family maltreatment. Surveying 542 college students in Hong Kong, South Korea, Japan, and the United States, we measured effects of family maltreatment on problem outcomes and examined the role of social support. Exposure to dual harm of family maltreatment (i.e., intraparental violence and child maltreatment) increased students’ externalizing problems compared to exposure to one type of family maltreatment, but no differences in internalizing behaviors were found. Effects of social support from parents and peers on externalizing and internalizing problems were neither moderating nor mediating, but direct. Those who received parental support had fewer externalizing behaviors, but effects of peer support were not significant. In contrast, those who obtained parental and peer support showed lower levels of internalizing mental health concerns. Surprisingly, men exhibited more mental health issues than women. Exposure to dual harm increases behavioral problems, but family support can help repair damage among Asian and Asian American college students. The relationship between abuse and problem outcomes was similar across countries, indicating common psychological processes.

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Fowler, Patrick J., Carolyn J. Tompsett, Jordan M. Braciszewski, Angela J. Jacques-Tiura, and Boris B. Baltes. "Community violence: A meta-analysis on the effect of exposure and mental health outcomes of children and adolescents." Development and Psychopathology 21, no. 1 (January 2009): 227–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579409000145.

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AbstractMeta-analytic techniques were used to estimate the effects of exposure to community violence on mental health outcomes across 114 studies. Community violence had its strongest effects on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and externalizing problems and smallest impact on other internalizing symptoms. Victimization by community violence most predicted symptomatology compared to witnessing or hearing about community violence. Witnessing community violence had a greater effect than hearing about violence on externalizing problems, but both types of exposure had an equal impact on other internalizing problems. PTSD symptoms were equally predicted by victimization, witnessing, or hearing about community violence. Compared to children, adolescents reported a stronger relationship between externalizing behaviors and exposure, whereas children exhibited greater internalizing problems than did adolescents.

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Piqueras, José Antonio, Victoria Soto-Sanz, Jesús Rodríguez-Marín, and Carlos García-Oliva. "What is the Role of Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms in Adolescent Suicide Behaviors?" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 14 (July 14, 2019): 2511. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16142511.

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Suicide is the second leading cause of death in adolescents and young adults aged 15 to 29 years. Specifically, the presence of internalizing and externalizing symptomatology is related to increased risk for suicide at these ages. Few studies have analyzed the relations between these symptoms and their role as mediators in predicting suicide behavior. This study aimed to examine the relation between internalizing and externalizing symptomatology and suicide behaviors through a longitudinal study. The sample consisted of 238 adolescents aged 12 to 18 years. The data were analyzed via the PROCESS Statistical Package. The main results showed that previous depression symptoms had a significant indirect effect, through previous suicide behaviors and current depression symptoms, on current suicide behaviors, accounting for 61% of the total variance explained. Additionally, being a girl increased this risk. Therefore, the implementation of early identification and intervention programs to address youth symptoms of depression and suicidal behaviors could significantly reduce the risk for future suicidal behaviors in adolescence.

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Gustavson, Daniel E., Carol E. Franz, Matthew S. Panizzon, Michael J. Lyons, and William S. Kremen. "Internalizing and externalizing psychopathology in middle age: genetic and environmental architecture and stability of symptoms over 15 to 20 years." Psychological Medicine 50, no. 9 (July 1, 2019): 1530–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291719001533.

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AbstractBackgroundInternalizing and externalizing psychopathology factors explain much of the covariance among psychiatric conditions, especially at the level of genetic risk. However, few studies have examined internalizing and externalizing factors in middle-aged samples, especially their ability to predict later symptoms across midlife. The goals of the current study were (i) to quantify the genetic and environmental influences on internalizing and externalizing psychopathology in individuals in their early 40s, and (ii) examine the extent to which these genetic and environmental influences predict self-reported measures of internalizing and externalizing symptoms 15–20 years later.Method1484 male twins completed diagnostic interviews of psychopathology at mean age 41 and self-reported measures of anxiety, depression, substance use, and related variables at up to two time-points in late middle age (mean ages 56 and 62).ResultsStructural equation modeling of the diagnostic interviews confirmed that internalizing and externalizing factors accounted for most of the genetic variance in individual disorders, with substantial genetic (ra = 0.70) and environmental (re = 0.77) correlations between the factors. Internalizing psychopathology at age 41 was correlated with latent factors capturing anxiety, depression, and/or post-traumatic stress symptoms at ages 56 (r = 0.51) and 62 (r = 0.43). Externalizing psychopathology at age 41 was correlated r = 0.67 with a latent factor capturing aggression, tobacco use, and alcohol use at age 56. Stability of both factors was driven by genetic influences.ConclusionsThese findings demonstrate the considerable stability of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology symptoms across middle age, especially their genetic influences. Diagnostic interviews effectively predict self-reported symptoms and behaviors 15–20 years later.

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Martinez-Torteya, Cecilia, G. Anne Bogat, Alytia A. Levendosky, and Alexander von Eye. "The influence of prenatal intimate partner violence exposure on hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis reactivity and childhood internalizing and externalizing symptoms." Development and Psychopathology 28, no. 1 (April 8, 2015): 55–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579415000280.

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AbstractThis prospective longitudinal study examines the long-term influence of intimate partner violence (IPV) exposure in utero. We hypothesized that (a) prenatal IPV increases risk for internalizing and externalizing problems as well as for a profile of dysregulated cortisol reactivity, and (b) patterns of cortisol hyper- and hyporeactivity are differentially associated with internalizing and externalizing problems. The participants were 119 10-year-old children. Their mothers reported their IPV experiences and distress during pregnancy. Child and maternal reports of internalizing and externalizing problems as well as lifetime IPV exposure were obtained. Salivary cortisol was assessed at baseline, 20 min, and 40 min after challenge. The results partially supported our hypotheses: Exposure to IPV during pregnancy predicted child-reported internalizing and externalizing problems, mother ratings of child externalizing problems, and a profile of high cortisol secretion before and after stress challenge. The results were significant above and beyond the influence of maternal distress during pregnancy and IPV that occurred during the child's life. In addition, a profile of high cortisol secretion was associated with maternal reports of child internalizing behaviors. Findings support the growing consensus that prenatal stress can lead to lasting disruptions in adaptation and highlight the need for more longitudinal examinations of prenatal IPV exposure.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Internalizing and externalizing behaviors'

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