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1

Canada. Library of Parliament. Political and Social Affairs Division. and Canada. Library of Parliament. Research Branch., eds. Election observer teams: International sponsors. Ottawa: Research Branch, Library of Parliament, 1992.

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2

Nigeria. Independent National Electoral Commission. 2007 general elections: Guidelines for election observation (domestic and international observers). Abuja, Nigeria: Independent National Electoral Commission, 2007.

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3

Browning, D. Lea. Chile, the plebiscite and beyond: Report of the international delegation. Washington, D.C: The Group, 1989.

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4

Herizal, Hazri, Asian Network for Free Elections, and Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development, eds. Indonesia general assembly election, presidential election 2004: Report of international observation mission, February-September 2004. Bangkok, Thailand: Asian Network for Free Elections, 2004.

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5

Monitoring democracy: When international election observation works, and why it often fails. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2012.

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6

International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance and Inter-Regional Dialogue on Democracy (Organization), eds. The integrity of elections: The role of regional organizations. Stockholm, Sweden: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, 2012.

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7

Cooper, Adam. Nepal constituent assembly election, 10th April 2008: Report of the International Election Observation Mission by the Asian Network for Free Elections (ANFREL). Bangkok, Thailand: Asian Network for Free Elections, 2008.

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8

Cooper, Adam. Nepal constituent assembly election, 10th April 2008: Report of the International Election Observation Mission by the Asian Network for Free Elections (ANFREL). Bangkok, Thailand: Asian Network for Free Elections, 2008.

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9

Tuccinardi, Domenico, and Manuel Wally. International obligations for elections: Guidelines for legal frameworks. Stockholm: International IDEA, 2014.

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10

International election monitoring, sovereignty, and the Western hemisphere idea: The emergence of an international norm. New York: Routledge, 2005.

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11

Cruz, Arturo Santa. International election monitoring, sovereignty, and the Western hemisphere idea: The emergence of an international norm. New York, NY: Routledge, 2006.

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12

L'assistance électorale multilatérale: Promouvoir la paix par la démocratie. Paris: L'Harmattan, 2012.

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13

The pseudo-democrat's dilemma: Why election observation became an international norm. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2011.

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14

Martí, Anna Badia. La participación de la ONU en procesos electorales. Madrid: McGraw-Hill, 1998.

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15

United States. Congress. House. Committee on International Relations. Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific. Democracy in Indonesia: Preparations for the national election : hearing before the Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific of the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, One Hundred Sixth Congress, first session, May 12, 1999. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1999.

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16

Garrone, Fanny Castro-Rial. Las misiones de observación electoral en la prevención de conflictos. Madrid: Instituto Universitario General Gutiérrez Mellado, UNED, 2005.

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17

Conference on the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Electoral Commissions Forum (1997 Midgard, Namibia). Papers presented at the Conference on the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Electoral Commissions Forum: Midgard, Namibia, 22-24 July 1997. Auckland Park: Electoral Institute of South Africa, 1998.

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18

International monitoring of plebiscites, referenda and national elections: Self-determination and transition to democracy. Dordrecht: M. Nijhoff, 1994.

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19

Bakary, Tessy D. May 17, 1997 legislative elections in Cameroon: The report of the IFES International Observer Mission. [Cameroon?]: IFES, 1997.

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20

Relations, United States Congress House Committee on International. Prospects for free and fair elections in Bosnia: Hearing before the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, One Hundred Fourth Congress, second session, June 11, 1996. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1996.

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21

Schimpp, Michele Wozniak. The U.S. Agency for International Development and elections support: A synthesis of case study experiences. Washington, D.C: The Agency, Center for Development Information and Evaluation, Research and Reference Services, 1993.

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22

A, Johnson E., and Irem John E, eds. Review of INEC's operational plan 2009-2011: Report of proceedings of the National Stakeholders' Conference : held at the Africa Hall of the International Conference Centre, Central Business District, FCT, Abuja, March 16-18th, 2010. Abuja, Nigeria: The Commission, 2010.

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23

Graham, Al. The seeds of freedom: Personal reflections on the dawning of democracy. Clementsport, N.S: Canadian Peacekeeping Press, 1996.

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24

Namibia: Disputed elections 2004 : monitoring national & presidential elections. Windhoek: NSHR, 2004.

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25

L'observation internationale des élections dans la région de l'OSCE: Contribution à l'étude de l'effectivité du contrôle électoral. Paris: L'Harmattan, 2013.

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26

Möckli, Silvano. Der Einsatz der schweizerischen Wahlbeobachter in Namibia: Bericht zuhanden der Arbeitsgruppe Gute Dienste und internationale Freidenssicherung, Unterausschuss "Forschung und Studien", des Eidgenössischen Departements für auswärtige Angelegenheiten. St. Gallen: Institut für Politikwissenschaft, Hochschule St. Gallen, 1990.

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27

Jeanet, Exel, ed. The 1996 Bosnia-Herzegovina elections: An analysis of the observations. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic, 1997.

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28

Krishna, Kumar, ed. Postconflict elections, democratization, and international assistance. Boulder: L. Rienner, 1998.

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29

Santa-Cruz, Arturo. International Election Monitoring, Sovereignty, and the Western Hemisphere. Routledge, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203959008.

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30

United Nations. Electoral Assistance Secretariat. and Joint International Observer Group, eds. Briefing book: Joint International Observer Group (JIOG). [Lilongwe, Malawi]: JIOG, 1993.

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31

Linda, Greenwood, United Nations. Electoral Assistance Secretariat., and Joint International Observer Group, eds. International observer briefing manual for the Malaŵi parliamentary and presidential elections, May 17, 1994. Lilongwe, Malaŵi: The Secretariat, 1994.

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32

National and international observer guidelines of the Kingdom of Bhutan =: ʼBrug gi rgyal yoṅs daṅ rgyal spyi lta rtog paʼi lam ston sgrig yig. Thimphu: Election Commission of Bhutan, 2007.

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33

Donno, Daniela. Defending Democratic Norms: International Actors and the Politics of Electoral Misconduct. Oxford University Press, Incorporated, 2013.

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34

Santa-Cruz, Arturo. International Election Monitoring, Sovereignty, and the Western Hemisphere: The Emergence of an International Norm. Taylor & Francis Group, 2010.

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35

Organization of American States. Unit for the Promotion of Democracy., ed. Electoral observation Nicaragua 1996. Washington, D.C: Organization of American States, 1997.

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36

Kelley, Judith G. Monitoring Democracy: When International Election Observation Works, and Why It Often Fails. Princeton University Press, 2012.

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37

Kelley, Judith G. Monitoring Democracy: When International Election Observation Works, and Why It Often Fails. Princeton University Press, 2012.

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38

Hyde, Susan D. Pseudo-Democrat's Dilemma: Why Election Observation Became an International Norm. Cornell University Press, 2015.

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39

Stina, Torjesen, and Øverland Indra, eds. International election observers in post-Soviet Azerbaijan: Geopolitical pawns or agents of change? Stuttgart: Ibidem-Verlag, 2007.

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40

US GOVERNMENT. Democracy in Indonesia: Preparations for the national election : Hearing before the Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific of the Committee on International ... Sixth Congress, first session, May 12, 1999. For sale by the U.S. G.P.O., Supt. of Docs., Congressional Sales Office, 1999.

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41

Prospects for free and fair elections in Bosnia: Hearing before the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, One Hundred Fourth Congress, second session, June 11, 1996. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1996.

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42

International Election Observers in Post-Soviet Azerbaijan: Geopolitical Pawns or Agents of Change? (Soviet and Post-Soviet Politics and Society 46). Edited by Stina Torjesen and Indra Overland. ibidem-Verlag, www.ibidem-verlag.de/spps.html, 2007.

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43

Graham, Al. SEEDS OF FREEDOM (P). Canadian Peace Keeping Press, 1996.

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44

Arceneaux, Craig, and Anika Leithner. International Monitors. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190677800.003.0002.

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This chapter focuses on explaining the causes and consequences of divergent findings among reports issued by international electoral-observer monitors. Several reasons could be behind these differences, including the foreign policy interests of bilateral donors, the methods used by each organization, and their political agendas and values. The chapter focuses on the degree of professionalization of observer monitors to explain how missions arrive at their evaluations, and on the lack of standardization in the field despite endorsement of a common code of conduct among over 40 international observer groups. It analyzes 14 electoral reports across five different countries via a Democracy Coverage Index to show how observer groups use a diverse range of standards to evaluate elections. Where evaluations differ, countries can appeal to different monitoring reports, reducing the overall effectiveness of efforts to enforce international standards of electoral integrity.
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45

The 1996 Bosnia-Herzegovina Elections: An Analysis of the Observations. Springer, 2011.

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46

Schmeets, H., and Jeanet Exel. The 1996 Bosnia-Herzegovina Elections: An Analysis of the Observations. Springer, 1997.

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47

Paul, Richard. Ultrasound-guided vascular access in intensive/acute cardiac care. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0021.

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Vascular access is an essential requirement for the care of the critically ill cardiac patient, being necessary for drug and fluid delivery and monitoring of a patient’s haemodynamic response to an instigated therapy. The most common vascular access procedures conducted in the acute cardiac care unit are central venous and peripheral venous access, and arterial cannulation. Traditional landmark methods are associated with complication rates, ranging from 18 to 40%, depending on the site of access. The use of ultrasound to guide venous and arterial access has been shown to reduce the incidence of complications, such as inadvertent arterial puncture and pneumothorax formation (venous) and posterior wall puncture (arterial), to reduce the time taken and number of attempts to place a catheter, and to reduce the incidence of complete failure to insert a vascular access device. Since 2002, international consensus groups have published recommendations that two-dimensional ultrasound guidance be the preferred method for elective and emergency internal jugular catheter insertion. This chapter explores the evidence for the use of ultrasound to guide vascular access across multiple sites of insertion and describes the basic equipment and techniques necessary for successful deployment.
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