Academic literature on the topic 'Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell'

Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) in the eye transmit the environmental light level, projecting to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) (Berson, Dunn & Takao, 2002; Hattar, Liao, Takao, Berson & Yau, 2002), the location of the circadian biological clock, and the olivary pretectal nucleus (OPN) of the pretectum, the start of the pupil reflex pathway (Hattar, Liao, Takao, Berson & Yau, 2002; Dacey, Liao, Peterson, Robinson, Smith, Pokorny, Yau & Gamlin, 2005). The SCN synchronizes the circadian rhythm, a cycle of biological processes coordinated to the solar day, and drives the sleep/wake cycle by controlling the release of melatonin from the pineal gland (Claustrat, Brun & Chazot, 2005). Encoded photic input from ipRGCs to the OPN also contributes to the pupil light reflex (PLR), the constriction and recovery of the pupil in response to light. IpRGCs control the post-illumination component of the PLR, the partial pupil constriction maintained for > 30 sec after a stimulus offset (Gamlin, McDougal, Pokorny, Smith, Yau & Dacey, 2007; Kankipati, Girkin & Gamlin, 2010; Markwell, Feigl & Zele, 2010). It is unknown if intrinsic ipRGC and cone-mediated inputs to ipRGCs show circadian variation in their photon-counting activity under constant illumination. If ipRGCs demonstrate circadian variation of the pupil response under constant illumination in vivo, when in vitro ipRGC activity does not (Weng, Wong & Berson, 2009), this would support central control of the ipRGC circadian activity. A preliminary experiment was conducted to determine the spectral sensitivity of the ipRGC post-illumination pupil response under the experimental conditions, confirming the successful isolation of the ipRGC response (Gamlin, et al., 2007) for the circadian experiment. In this main experiment, we demonstrate that ipRGC photon-counting activity has a circadian rhythm under constant experimental conditions, while direct rod and cone contributions to the PLR do not. Intrinsic ipRGC contributions to the post-illumination pupil response decreased 2:46 h prior to melatonin onset for our group model, with the peak ipRGC attenuation occurring 1:25 h after melatonin onset. Our results suggest a centrally controlled evening decrease in ipRGC activity, independent of environmental light, which is temporally synchronized (demonstrates a temporal phase-advanced relationship) to the SCN mediated release of melatonin. In the future the ipRGC post-illumination pupil response could be developed as a fast, non-invasive measure of circadian rhythm. This study establishes a basis for future investigation of cortical feedback mechanisms that modulate ipRGC activity.

Purpose Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) express a unique photopigment called melanopsin. Capable of direct phototransduction, the ipRGCs are also influenced by rods and cones via synaptic inputs.  Thus, the photoinput that mediates the pupil light reflex derives from both outer (rods and cones) and inner (melanopsin-mediated) retinal photoreception. This thesis has aimed to develop a pupillometric test that provides quantitative information about the functional status of outer and inner retinal photoreception in healthy eyes and in eyes with retinal degeneration. In addition to regulating the pupil light reflex, the ipRGCs signal light information for the circadian rhythm, thus, these two non-visual physiologic responses to inner retinal photoreception were examined simultaneously. Methods Pupil responses to a long and short wavelength light over a range of intensities (under conditions of light, mesopic and dark adaptation) were recorded using a customized infrared computerized pupillometer. Results were compared for two groups: patients with retinitis pigmentosa and controls. The response function threshold intensity and a half-max intensity was determined from the rod-weighted and cone-weighted pupil responses and correlated to extent of visual loss. The pupil response to light offset was assessed as a measure of direct melanopsin activation. Lastly, pupil responses to red and blue light at equal photo flux were recorded hourly during a 24-hour period and correlated to salivary melatonin concentrations in healthy subjects. Results In normal eyes, the blue light evoked greater pupil responses compared to equiluminant red light. With increasing intensity, pupil contraction became more sustained which was most apparent with the brightest blue light. In patients with retinitis pigmentosa, the pupil responses mediated predominantly by rod and cone activation were significantly reduced compared to controls, (p&lt;0.001) and the relative decrease in their contribution resulted in a greater influence of melanopsin on the post-stimulus response. Even at endstage retinal degeneration, pupil responses that derived predominantly from residual cone activity were detectable. The threshold intensity of the rod-mediated, but not cone-mediated, pupil response was also significantly reduced (p=0.006) in patients and the half-maximal intensity of rods correlated with severity of visual loss (r2=0.7 and p=0.02). In healthy controls, the melanopsin-mediated pupil response demonstrated a circadian modulation whereas the cone-mediated pupil response did not. Conclusion Early and progressive loss of rod function in mild-moderate stages of retinitis pigmentosa is detectable and quantifiable as a progressive loss of pupillary sensitivity to extremely dim blue lights obtained under conditions of dark adaptation. In advanced stages of retinal degeneration, chromatic pupillometry is more sensitive than standard electroretinography for detecting residual levels of rod and especially cone activity. In addition, selective wavelength pupillometry can assess non-visual light-dependent functions. The timing of the post-stimulus pupil response to blue light is in phase with melatonin secretion, suggesting a circadian regulation of this pupil parameter.<br>Bakgrund Jätteganglieceller (intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells, ipRGCs) är en klass av fotoreceptorer som utnyttjar ett unikt vitamin-A-baserat fotopigment som kallas melanopsin. Utöver deras direkta ljuskänslighet, mottar ipRGCs stimulerande och hämmande synaptiska signaler från andra fotoreceptorer (tappar och stavar) som därigenom kan modulera aktiviteten hos ipRGCs. Ögats pupillreflex medieras alltså av ljus både via yttre (stavar och tappar) och inre (melanopsin-medierad) retinal fotoreception, och den gemensamma afferenta pupillomotor-signalen leds till den pretectala nucleus olivarius via axoner från ipRGCs. Arbetet i denna avhandling syftar till att utveckla ett kliniskt pupilltest som ger kvantitativ information om yttre och inre retinala fotoreceptorers funktionella status hos friska försökspersoner och patienter med retinal degeneration. Förutom att styra pupillreflexen, skickar ipRGCs även impulser som påverkar kroppens dygnsrytm. Därför ingår även en delstudie i vilken ipRGCs aktivitet studeras genom att avläsa icke-visuella fysiologiska reaktioner på inre retinal fotoreception. Metoder Ljus av lång (röd) respektive kort (blå) våglängd presenterades med stegvis ökad ljusstyrka för att selektivt stimulera stavar, tappar eller melanopsin. Pupillreaktionerna registrerades med en infraröd datoriserad pupillometer och jämfördes mellan friska kontroller och patienter med retinitis pigmentosa. I uppföljande experiment gjordes mer noggranna tester i syfte att isolera aktiveringen av varje ljusmottagande element. Tröskelintensiteten för stav- eller tapp-medierad pupillreaktion bestämdes med linjär regressionsanalys. Reaktionskurvan för stavmedierad pupillreflex kvantifierades (halv-maximal intensitet) och jämfördes med svårighetsgraden av sjukdomen i två familjer med samma sjukdomsframkallande mutation för retinitis pigmentosa. För att undersöka icke-visuella reaktioner på inre fotoreception från ipRGCs, undersöktes pupillreaktion på rött och blått ljus varje timme under en 24-timmarsperiod och korrelerades till melatoninkoncentration i saliv hos friska personer med normal syn. Resultat I normala ögon, gav blått ljus en kraftigare pupillreaktion jämfört med rött ljus av samma ljusstyrka. Med ökande intensitet, blev pupillkontraktionen mer ihållande, vilket var tydligast med starkt blått ljus. Hos patienter med retinitis pigmentosa, var både tapp- och stav-medierad pupillreaktion signifikant reducerad jämfört med kontroller, (p&lt;0,001). Patienter med avancerad sjukdom och icke-reaktivt elektro-retinogram hade fortfarande mätbar pupillreflex, huvudsakligen härrörande från kvarvarande stavaktivitet. I två familjer med retinitis pigmentosa beroende på en enda missense-mutation av NR2E3 genen, var tröskelvärdet för stavmedierad pupillreflex signifikant reducerat (p= 0,006) och korrelerade till sjukdomens svårighetsgrad. Tappmedierad pupillreflex hos dessa patienter skilde sig dock inte signifikant från kontroller, trots att fotopiskt (tapp) elektroretinogram var klart avvikande. Hos friska kontroller visade melanopsinmedierat pupillsvar en dygnsvariation medan tapp-medierat pupillsvar inte gjorde det. Slutsatser Som tillägg till standardundersökningar kan selektiv våglängds-pupillometri (kromatisk pupillometri) vara användbart för utvärdering av funktionen hos stavar och tappar. Denna avhandling visar att tidig och gradvis förlust av stav-funktion i milt-måttligt stadium av retinitis pigmentosa är detekterbar och mätbar som en progressiv förlust av pupillens känslighet för mycket svagt blått ljus, efter mörkeradaptation. I avancerade stadier av retinal degeneration är kromatisk pupillometri känsligare än standardelektroretinografi för att detektera kvarvarande nivåer av stav- och speciellt tapp-aktivitet. Hos unga patienter, där elektroretinografi kan vara tekniskt svårt, är pupillometri en lovande teknik för att värdera yttre retinal fotoreception relaterad till synfunktion. Dessutom kan selektiv våglängdspupillometri ge information om icke-visuella ljusberoende funktioner. Pupillreaktionen på blått ljus varierar med melatoninsekretionen, vilket tyder på en cirkadisk reglering. Ytterligare studier krävs för att undersöka om selektiv våglängds-pupillometri även kan användas i samband med sjukdomar relaterade till störd dygnsrytm, som sömnlöshet och årstidsbunden depression.

This thesis developed clinical protocols for early detection of retinal deficits in age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and provides new insight of AMD on melanopsin function, extending to both image-forming and non-image forming pathways. The administration of vision tests under dim illuminations detected deficits in AMD before conventional ophthalmic tests. A sub-class of retinal ganglion cells expressing the melanopsin photopigment was dysfunctional in early AMD and was associated with sleep inefficiency in advanced AMD. This thesis provides the foundation to advance retinal function measurement in AMD and expands our knowledge on the relationship between AMD progression and non-vision related functions.

This thesis advanced understanding of the timing, spatial and adaptation properties of the human pupil light reflex (PLR). It developed new functional measures of the eye's melanopsin cells, which regulate circadian rhythms and pupil size, and are dysfunctional in a range of common eye and brain disorders. Measuring the PLR under different light stimulations, this research determined that melanopsin inputs to the pupil are independent of stimulus timing, but are sensitive to both stimulus spatial location and adaptation level. The outcomes introduce new frameworks for translating these objective biomarkers of melanopsin function into clinical tools for diagnosing and monitoring disease.

This thesis investigated the role of rod, cone and melanopsin photoreceptors in mediating human brightness perception across the natural operating range of the eye. In scotopic illumination, brightness perception is initiated by rod signals transmitted to higher brain centres via conventional retinogeniculate and melanopsin pathways. In mesopic illumination, melanopsin photoreception begins to scale brightness perception. In photopic illumination, melanopsin and cone luminance signals combine to mediate light hypersensitivity (photophobia) in healthy controls and migraineurs. These findings advance understanding of the relative photoreceptor contributions to human vision and guide the development of lighting technologies for individuals who experience disease-related photophobia.

Light adaptation optimises visual responses to illumination changes. Although it is well established that adaptation is faster for cone than rod photopigments, these dynamics are unknown for melanopsin photopigments in human eyes. This thesis reports the development of a novel method for characterising the melanopsin photobleach regeneration characteristic and its effect on the cone-driven pupil light reflex. Compared to cone-opsins, the melanopsin photopigment undergoes less bleaching in broadband light (~43% less) and with a slower regeneration rate (3.4X). During light adaptation, higher melanopsin excitations enhance the cone-mediated pupil response to improve visual contrast sensitivity.