Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Iron ore mining'

The competition in the world market for iron ore has increased lately. Therefore, an improved method of estimating the ore quality in small working areas has become an attractive cost-cutting strategy in short-term mine plans. Estimated grades of different working areas of a mine form the basis of any short-term mine plan. The generally sparse exploration data obtained during the development phase is not enough to accurately estimate the grades of small working areas. Therefore, additional sample information is often required in any operating mine. The findings of this case study show that better utilization of all available exploration information at this mine would improve estimation of small working areas even without additional face samples. Through the use of kriging variance, this study also determined the optimum face sampling grid, whose spacing turned out to be approximately 100 meters as compared to 50 meters in use today. (Abstract shortened with permission of author.)

Thesis: S.M., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sloan School of Management, Operations Research Center, 2016.
This electronic version was submitted by the student author. The certified thesis is available in the Institute Archives and Special Collections.
Cataloged from student-submitted PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (pages 176-182).
In the context of a world flooded with data, the Internet of Things (IoT) is exploding. This thesis considers the problem of applying IoT technology to the reduction of costs in the iron ore mining industry, to compensate for the iron ore price slumping observed over the past years. More specifically, we focused on improving the quality of the output in a data-driven iron ore concentration factory. In this plant, mined iron ore goes through a series of complex physical and chemical transformations so as to increase the concentration in iron and reduce the concentration in impurities such as silica. In this thesis, we developed an IoT infrastructure comprising of machines, a network of sensors, a database, a random forest prediction model, an algorithm for adjusting its cutoff parameter dynamically, and a predictive maintenance algorithm. It can preventively detect and maybe fix poor quality events in the iron ore concentration factory, improving the overall quality and decreasing costs. The random forest model was selected among other anomaly detection techniques. It is able, on an independent test data set, with an AUC of about 0.92, to detect 90% of the poor quality events, with a false positive rate of 23.02%, lowered by the dynamic cutoff algorithm. These methods can be applied to any factory in any industry, as long as it has a good infrastructure of sensors, providing sufficiently precise and frequent data.
by Carl Elie Saroufim.
S.M.

Pelletizing is a size enlargement technique employed to process fine-grained iron-bearing concentrates and powder ores. Mechanical strength of fired pellets is important for handling. When the pellets undergo metallurgical processing, their mechanical strength is a measure of their resistance to degradation by breakage due to impacts and abrasion to which they are exposed in the upper part of the blast furnace. In this study, heat treatment of iron ore agglomerates with microwave energy is investigated. First drying and then heat hardening tests were performed. Two main properties of pellets were taken into consideration: percent moisture and magnetite content for the dried pellets and compressive strength and also magnetite content for the fired pellets. The tests were conducted with different particle sized pellets, in different durations. In order to increase the oxidation rate in heat hardening tests, Na2O2 is also added in different percentages. The results of the study showed that, magnetite pellets can indeed be dried and heated with microwave energy. However, the attained compressive strength and v the oxidation of the fired pellets were not sufficient as compared to pellets produced by conventional heating

Responsible and prudent use of natural resources has been identified as one of the most challenging globalissues, which makes using sustainability principles in mining an increasingly popular topic. Mining operationsare generally associated with a range of environmental and social impacts negatively affecting localcommunities. There is a growing importance to better understand the environmental, social, and commercialfactors that affect the development of new resources projects. Although innovative resource conservation inmining projects satisfies the aims of corporate sustainability principles, such capabilities are often bypassed infavour of tried and tested solutions that are recognized to have lower technical and financial risks. This is, inpart, a result of a lack of an appropriate methodical and strict framework in project management systems thatallows sustainability to be properly considered, analysed, and assessed in projects. While there are a number oftools and methodologies that incorporate sustainability in design, only rarely can one find a consistent,integrated, and robust method to support mineral projects by incorporating a high level of sustainabilityprinciple into the design process. In an attempt to resolve this issue, a research team has developed theSustainable Operations framework, SUSOP®. SUSOP® is an integrated and robust framework for projectmanagement system through which the sustainability concept can be applied effectively without compromisingfinancial rigor. To demonstrate the robustness of this framework and investigate the opportunities or risks thatcould emerge from applying the SUSOP® framework, a case study on the Fortescue Metals Group SolomonIron Ore Mine Project was conducted. This case study was chosen after investigation of numerous cases allaround Australia. This case study applies the SUSOP® framework retrospectively for integrating sustainabilityconcepts into Solomon Project in design, construction, and operation phases without workshop element. Theframework is applied to identify innovative opportunities and uncover additional risks that do not appear to havebeen identified or mentioned in the public domain and data have been applied on the project.

Mining activities will eventually deplete any deposit. In a sustainability perspective, the deposit should therefore be utilised optimally during production. A prerequisite to achieve this is the deliberate and consistent utilisation of the variations in the deposit.

In an ideal world everything is certain. In the real world nothing is certain. In the real world everything is more or less probable.

Therefore, the question asked is how an underground iron ore mining company like Rana Gruber AS can benefit from knowing and exploiting the uncertainty and variability of decisive ore parameters. The perspective is the value chain from in-situ ore to product, whereas the focus is on deposit characterisation and production.

In order to answer this question the existing database with geodata from the Kvannevann Iron Ore is reviewed and estimation techniques based on kriging and geostatistical simulation algorithms (Turning Band) are implemented to identify and assess the ore deposit uncertainties and variations and associated risks. Emphasise is on total iron in the ore (FeTot), total iron in the ore originating from magnetite (FeMagn), manganese oxide (MnO) and joint parameters. Due to insufficient number of assays of MnO, a geochemical MnO-signature is developed using cluster analysis. This geochemical signature is applied as input in the kriging with inequalities procedure. This procedure is based on soft data (lithologies) and a conditional expectation of the MnO level in the different lithologies.

A cut-off based on both hematite and magnetite is estimated. A process analysis is performed to visualise the working processes, related inputs, outputs and controlling-, supporting- and risk elements. The process analysis is based on the IDEF process modelling methodology. Given the identified deposit uncertainties and variations, systems to evaluate potential mining stope performance are developed and implemented for one of the mining stopes. To test the possibility to decrease the ore-related uncertainty, a method for collection of drill cuttings has been developed and tested. The correlation between magnetic susceptibility and FeMagn and the correlation between ore density and FeTot are both investigated.

The results show that an illustrative and useful overview can be won by using the IDEF-based process modelling methodology. A non-linear relationship between density and FeTot is established and it is shown that the density can be used as a FeTot indicator. This relationship is also used in the reserve and resource estimation. As expected a positive correlation between FeMagn and magnetic susceptibility measured on cores could be established. However, the deviation from other reported relationships is considerable. The importance of magnetite is emphasised and quantified by the cut-off estimation. The cluster analysis reveals that the MnO levels in the different lithologies are significantly different. This result is implemented into the kriging with inequalities procedure and immediate effects can be observed.

The development of the geodata collector and the collection of drill cuttings show that it is possible to obtain precise analysis of collected drill cutting material. Although high- and low assay values have been correlated with geological observation in the mine, the accuracy has been difficult to assess.

The estimation and the simulation of the ore properties illustrate and quantify the uncertainties and variations in the ore deposit well. The structural analysis performed prior to the estimation and the simulation reveals anisotropies for all ore decisive parameters. The quantification of ore variations provides a useful input into the a-priori assessment of stope performance. It is also shown that the probability that a SMU is above or below some cut-off value can be assessed using the simulation results and the systems developed in standard software.

It is concluded that the process analysis approach offers valuable input to gain an overview of the mining value chain. It is also an approach that constitutes an important step in the identification and assessment of IT-requirements, bottlenecks, input- and output requirements and role- and skill requirements along the value chain. However, the process analysis approach requires sufficient organisational resources, which also is the case regarding the implementation of the grade- and stability issues that are presented. Further it is concluded that the ore variations can be utilised to some extent by using standard software.

The ore in question is a Neoproterozoic (600 to 700 Ma) metasedimentary magnetite-hematite ore deposited under shallow marine conditions. Primary precipitate was probably ferric hydroxide.

Applied methods have been chosen to handle the uncertainty along the value chain of Rana Gruber AS. Every aspect of these methods may therefore not be directly applicable to other mining operations. However, the general aspects have a broad area of use.

The modern product development technique led this bachelor thesis forward with structure and finesse by using the Double Diamond theory. The bachelor thesis was carried out in collaboration with LKAB and NECAB with the aim of develop and design a two-parted mechanical attachment for their new mining system. The attachment should support a drill rig and enable the drill to tilt and also transfer the drill rig along its drilling direction. The attachment will be implemented into their new mining method with purpose to increase the safety and reduce the cost to extract iron ore. A prestudy was done to reduce time designing and dimensioning the final product by analyzing the mechanics of the attachment. Compendiums that analyze the mechanical design of the product has also been used in the prestudy. The prestudy addressed the safety aspect by following the European Parliaments directive 2006/42/EC. The final design was a concept that involved a hydraulic cylinder to tilt the drill and a set of rack and pinion to achieve the linear movement of the drill. The rack and pinion are powered by a hydraulic motor with a planetary gearbox. To generate enough torque to overcome the torque needed, two sets of planetary gearboxes with belonging rack and pinion are used on each side of the drill boom. A sledge is used to support the drill boom that is sliding on the sledge. To reduce the friction between the two, slide bushings are mounted to the sledge.
Modern produktutveckling ledde denna kandidatuppsats framåt med god struktur och finess genom att använda Double Diamond teorin. Denna kandidatuppsats utfördes i samarbete med LKAB och NECAB med målet att utveckla ett tvådelat mekaniskt fäste till deras nya gruvbrytningsmetod. Fästet ska stödja ett borraggregat och kunna möjliggöra borren att tilta och även möjliggöra en förflyttning av borraggregatet längs borriktningen. Fästet kommer att implementeras i deras nya metod för gruvbrytning med syftet att säkerställa en högre säkerhet vid borrningen men även att minska kostnaden för att utvinna järnmalmen.  En förstudie genomfördes genom att analysera mekaniken av fästet, detta minskade tiden att konstruera och dimensionera den slutliga produkten. Kompendier i konstruktiv utformning av en produkt har även studerats i förstudien. Förstudien lyfte även säkerheten i en produkt genom att följa Europaparlamentets maskindirektiv 2006/42/EC.  Den slutliga konstruktionen var ett koncept innehållande en hydraulcylinder för att styra lutningen av borren och en uppsättning av kuggstång med drev på sidan av borrbalken som sköter förflyttningen av borren. En hydraulmotor med en påkopplad planetväxel styr drivningen av drevet. För att klara av momentbehovet som krävs så har dubbla uppsättningar av planetväxlar med tillhörande kuggstång och drev använts på vardera sida av borrbalken. En släde användes för att stödja hela borrbalken som sedan glider på släden. För att minska friktionen mellan de två användes en uppsättning av glidlager monterade på släden.

Este trabalho propõe uma metodologia inovadora de seqüenciamento de lavra em minério de ferro a qual, além de considerar os parâmetros operacionais e econômicos das técnicas tradicionais, permite uma abordagem ambiental proativa para sequenciar a lavra de forma a antecipar a exaustão de parte da cava para disposição do estéril dentro da cava final. A metodologia proposta de seqüenciamento ordenado de lavra permite reduzir a área degradada a ser reabilitada na mina, com significativos benefícios associados à reducão do impacto ambiental, sem comprometer as metas de produtividade e competitividade econômica da lavra. A metodologia de seqüenciamento ordenado de lavra foi aplicada em um estudo de caso de projeto de lavra de minério de ferro, e os resultados alcançados comprovaram os benefícios esperados com a aplicação da metodologia proposta.
This paper presents a innovative approach for an environmentally pro-active mine scheduling process. The proposed methodology has been developed for identifying a mine sequence that meets all operational and economical constraints in iron-ore mining, and takes into account a pro-active approach for scheduling the mine according to environmental criteria. The proposed methodology allows a significant reduction of the environmental impact related to the mining operation without compromising productivity and the economical feasibility of the mine. The methodology has been applied to a case study of iron ore mining in Brazil, where the expected benefits have been proven.

The intention of the study was to find the preferred medium of communication and the preferred language for the dissemination of Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS) information among the unskilled employees of Kumba Iron Ore mining company, with an assumption that disseminating of appropriate information can influence positive behaviour change with respect to the HIV/AIDS disease. In this study company and clinic workshops came up as the most preferred media for receiving HIV/AIDS information and English came up as the most preferred language for all the media types except radio where Tswana-Sotho came up as the most preferred language. It also came up clearly in the findings that most women do not like to discuss HIV/AIDS issues with friends or relatives
Dissertation (MIT)--University of Pretoria, 2012.
Information Science
Unrestricted

Iron is the most important metal for modern industry and Sweden is the number one iron producer in Europe. The main sources for iron ore in Sweden are the apatite-iron oxide deposits of the "Kiruna-type", named after the iconic Kiruna ore deposit in Northern Sweden. The genesis of this ore type is, however, not fully understood and various schools of thought exist, being broadly divided into "ortho-magmatic" versus the "hydrothermal replacement" approaches. This study focuses on the origin of apatite-iron oxide ore of the Grängesberg Mining District (GMD) in Central Sweden, one of the largest iron reserves in Sweden, employing oxygen and iron isotope analyses on massive, vein and disseminated GMD magnetite, quartz and meta-volcanic host rocks. As a reference, oxygen and iron isotopes of magnetites from other Swedish and international iron ores as well as from various international volcanic materials were also analysed. These additional samples included both "ortho-magmatic" and "hydrothermal" magnetites and thus represent a basis for a comparative analysis with the GMD ore. The combined data and the derived temperatures support a scenario that is consistent with the GMD apatite-iron oxides having originated dominantly (ca. 87 %) through ortho-magmatic processes with magnetite crystallisation from oxide-rich intermediate magmas and magmatic fluids at temperatures of 600 °C to 900 °C. A minor portion of the GMD magnetites (ca. 13 %), exclusively made up of vein and disseminated ore types, is in equilibrium with a high-δ18O and low-δ56Fe hydrothermal fluid at temperatures below 400 °C, indicating the existence of a hydrothermal system associated with the GMD volcano.

The Hamersley Yandi Iron Ore Mine of Hamersley Iron Pty. Ltd. is located in the Pilbara region, Western Australia, approximately 90km north west of the town of Newman. The iron ore has accumulated in a palaeochannel as an enriched Channel Iron Deposit (CID). Mining in other parts of this palaeochannel has been practised since 1991. Named deposits in the province are, from west to east, Munjina, Pool, Meander, Western, Central, Eastern, Junction and the Billiard deposits.Presently the CID acts as an aquifer and transmits water through its fracture system. It is the main conduit for the regional groundwater. The Water and Rivers Commission of Western Australia considers the groundwater in the alluvial beds of the Weeli Wolli Creek overlying the CID to be a useful resource. The groundwater is currently used for stock watering so the quality should be preserved.Part of the four possible closure plans of the Yandi Mine is to backfill the excavated channel with waste rock from the mining operation. The waste material will consist of the uneconomic grade lateritic pisolite iron ore, together with colluvium and alluvium overburden. The closure plans will also leave behind two pit lakes.The impact of these closure plans vary but each plan will leave pit lakes containing water with high salinity and this may adversely affect the quality of the groundwater downstream of the lakes.The hydraulic conductivity of the shallow aquifer may be impaired by swelling clays found in parts of the waste material. This impact would be reduced if the chosen closure plan was one with hydrogeological flow management.The water quality downstream of the pit lakes will change and the environmental impact on the groundwater will depend on which closure plan is chosen. This thesis suggests a number of options for consideration.

The Blötberget mining area, the focus of this MSc project, is located about 230 km northwest ofStockholm and 12 km southwest of the city of Ludvika (central Sweden). The mining area has beenknown since 1600 for its various types of mineralization particularly iron-oxide deposits (magnetite andhematite) with the mining commenced in 1944. Previous geoscientific research in the area providesdetailed information about lithological variations and structure of the bedrock near the surface.However, knowledge of the depth extent of the mineral deposits and their host rocks is limited. To shedlights on these issues and support deep mineral exploration potential in the study area, within the recentlylaunched StartGeoDelineation project, new ground gravity data, 180 data points on average 150 m apart,were collected during two field campaigns in 2015 and 2016. Aeromagnetic data were obtained fromthe Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU) to complement the ground gravity measurement interpretationsand modelling. After a careful inspection of the field gravity data, they were reduced to completeBouguer anomaly with a maximum error estimate of about 0.6 mGal due to uncertainty in theinstrumental drift, slab density, geodetic surveying, diurnal variations and terrain (or topography)correction. The Bouguer gravity data after separation of regional field (second order polynomial at theend was used) were used (~ 8 mGal range) for interpretation and 3D inverse modelling. Clear anomalouszones are noticeable in the gravity data particularly due to mineralization and a major boundaryseparating a gravity low from gravity high in the southern part of the study area likely representing afault boundary separating two different lithological units. In my study, both forward and inversemodelling using rudimentary objects/shapes and voxel-type (mesh) approach were carried out. Effect ofinitial and reference models were tested on both gravity and magnetic datasets. While the constrainedmodels have still significant ambiguity, they help to suggest structural control on the location ofmineralization and may allow estimating an excess tonnage due to the presence of mineralization in thestudy area. Due to access limitations (e.g., unable to measure on the water-filled pit) the gravity modelis sensitive to the measuring positions and constraints using known shape of mineralization was not atthe end successful to overcome this. Collecting more gravity data on the target area and repeated test of3D inversion by adjusting the inversion parameters might help to improve the final result.
Gruvområdet Blötberget som denna MSc avhandling är fokuserat kring ligger 230 km från Stockholm,12 km från Ludvika, i Bergslagen. Mineralförekomster, framförallt järnmalm (magnetit och hematit)har varit kända i området sedan 1600-talet, och storskalig brytning inleddes år 1944. Tidigare geologiskaundersökningar i området har gett detaljerad information om fyndighetens ytnära litologi och struktur.Hur långt ner förekomsten och moderbergarten sträcker sig har dock varit okänt. Som del av detnystartade projektet StartGeoDelineation utfördes marknära gravimetrimätningar. Totalt 180 mätpunkter,med ett medelavstånd av 150 m, samlades in under två fältkampanjer under 2015 och 2016.Vid modellering komplementades gravimetridata med magnetometridata, insamlad under flygmätningarutförda av Sveriges geologiska undersökningar (SGU). Efter noggrann bearbetning av gravimetridatatogs den kompletta bougeranomalin fram. Det uppskattade felet är ca 0.6 mGal och är till följd avosäkerhet i korrigeringar för drift hos instrument, dygnsvariation, geodesi och topografi. Efter korrigeringav regional trend (uppskattad från 2:a ordningens pylonom, och med satt skala av 8 mGal somresultat) gjordes en 3D modell, via inversionsalgoritmer, samt en tolkning. Det står klart av framförallti gravimetridatan att det finns två avvikande zoner. Dessa indikerar mineraliseringen och en gräns i densödra delen av undersökningsområdet med gravimetridata i låg respektive höga värde. Detta återspeglartroligtvis också en förkastningszon mellan två lithologiska enheter. I denna studie har enkla geometriskaformer och voxlar (mesh) använts för bådadera forward modellering och inversionsalgoritmer. Deursprungliga och referensmodellerna testades på både dataset för gravitmetri och magnetometri. Trotsatt modellerna fortfarande visar tvetydiga resultat så kan de ändå användas för att ge förslag på struktureroch läge för mineraliseringen, och skall även kunna användas för att uppskatta tonnage. Det sistnämndakunde dock inte uppnås då punktäthet i mätdatan, till följd av att det numera vattenfyllda dagbrottet intekunde inkluderas i mätområdet, och att formen av mineraliseringen inte kunde avgränsar på etttillfredsställande sätt. För en förbättring av resultaten bör fler mätpunkter till gravimetridata samlas in iområdet så att 3D-modelleringen kan förbättras genom upprepade justeringar av inversionsparametrarna
StartGeoDelineation

The significant increase in metal mining and the inevitability of the continuation of this trend suggests that environmental pressures, as well as related impacts, have become an issue of global relevance. Yet the scale of the impact remains, to a large extent, unknown. This paper examines the mining sector's demands on CO2 emissions, water use, as well as demands on land use focusing on four principal metals: iron, aluminium (i.e., bauxite ore), copper, and gold. These materials represent a large proportion of all metallic materials mined in terms of crude tonnage and economic value. This paper examines how the main providers of mining data, the United Nations, government sources of some main metal producing and consuming countries, the scientific literature, and company reports report environmental pressures in these three areas. The authors conclude that, in the global context, the pressure brought about by metal mining is relatively low. The data on this subject are still very limited and there are significant gaps in consistency on criteria such as boundary descriptions, input parameter definitions, and allocation method descriptions as well as a lack of commodity and/or site specific reporting of environmental data at a company level.

PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO
COORDENAÇÃO DE APERFEIÇOAMENTO DO PESSOAL DE ENSINO SUPERIOR
PROGRAMA DE SUPORTE À PÓS-GRADUAÇÃO DE INSTS. DE ENSINO
O presente estudo aborda o planejamento operacional de lavra de minério de ferro com alocação dinâmica de caminhões, em um complexo de minas, no Estado do Pará. O objetivo é balancear as taxas de utilização dos recursos logísticos utilizados em operações de extração e transporte de minério de ferro, considerando aumento ou diminuição em suas unidades de uso. Inicialmente, é feita uma revisão da literatura que apresenta como a logística e seus componentes de desempenho se associam a produção de minério de ferro no estado, identificando as principais incertezas dos processos logísticos considerados, além de apresentar o problema operacional de lavra com alocação dinâmica de caminhões e técnicas de simulação e de otimização individualmente, ressaltando seu melhor desempenho em conjunto. Esta revisão respalda a fase de aplicação da Simulação-Otimização, que ocorre em um sistema dinâmico, estocástico e de eventos discretos. A análise consistiu no diagnóstico do sistema produtivo, avaliação dos relacionamentos entre os processos envolvidos, construção de um modelo de simulação a partir dos dados coletados e otimização, verificando-se seus outputs como origem dos cenários a serem propostos na nova simulação, para avaliar as potenciais modificações na utilização dos recursos. A Simulação- Otimização foi executada utilizando-se o pacote de simulação ProModel, que inclui um software de Otimização baseado em Algoritmos Genéticos, o SimRunner. Como resultado, o modelo de Simulação-Otimização foi construído para apoiar decisões estratégicas e operacionais da empresa em estudo, apresentando resultados satisfatórios para o balanceamento das taxas de utilização dos recursos logísticos envolvidos na operação.
The present study highlights the operational mining planning of iron ore with dynamic allocation of trucks in a mining complex in the State of Pará. The goal is to balance the utilization rates of logistical resources used in mining operations and transportation of iron ore, considering the increase or decrease of the number of resources in use. Initially, a literature review presents how the logistics and its performance components are associated with the iron ore production in the State of Pará, identifying uncertainties on key logistics processes, also presenting the operational mining planning with dynamic allocation of trucks and techniques of simulation and optimization individually, highlighting the best setting when considered together. This review endorses the implementation of the Simulation-Optimization phase, which occurs in a dynamic, stochastic and discrete events system. The analysis consisted in the diagnosis of the production system, the evaluation of the relationships between the logistics processes involved, the construction of a simulation model based on the collected data and optimization, verifying their outputs as the source for the scenarios to be proposed in the new simulation to evaluate the potential changes in resource utilization. The Simulation-Optimization was performed using the ProModel simulation package, which includes an optimization software based on Genetic Algorithms, the SimRunner. As a result, the Simulation-Optimization model was built to support strategic and operational decisions of the studied company, presenting satisfactory results to balance the utilization rates of all logistical resources involved in the operation.

Bentonite is the most preferred silicate-based binder in iron ore pelletizing. However, it is considered as an impurity due to its high SiO2 and Al2O3 content. The iron-making economy is adversely affected by the addition of bentonite or other silicate-based binders. In recent years, impurity-free alternative binders have been tested in order to replace bentonite or to lower the bentonite dosage. Organic binders yield good quality green and dry pellets. However, they fail to impart enough mechanical strength to the preheated and fired pellets as a result of insufficient slag bonding. Thus, they have not found widespread application in the industry. The addition of boron compounds into pellet mix is proposed as a potential solution to overcome the insufficient compressive strengths of preheated and fired pellets produced with organic binders. During the experiments, some organic binders and boron compounds were tested as alternative binders to bentonite either alone or in combination, for both magnetite and hematite pellets. The performances of the tested binders on pellet qualities: balling, wet pellet moisture content, drop number, pellet compressive strengths (wet - dry - preheated - fired), dustiness, porosity, mineralogy, morphology, chemical contents, reducibility and swelling index have been compared with the performances of reference bentonite binder. The results of the tests showed that, the quality of pellets are insufficient when organic binders or calcined colemanite used as binder alone. The former failed to provide sufficient preheated and fired pellet strengths, the latter failed in terms of wet and dry pellet quality. However, good quality wet, dry, preheated and fired pellets could be produced with combination of these two binders. Calcined colemanite addition into pellets made with organic binders was tested in different dosages (0.25-1.00%). Results showed that with increasing dosage of calcined colemanite both strengths of preheated and fired pellets increased linearly. It was found that as low as 0.50% calcined colemanite addition equally-performed on magnetite fired magnetite pellets at 1300oC when compared with the performance of the reference bentonite binder. However, its performance was better on hematite pellets in order to improve the pellet compressive strengths. In addition, stronger pellets could be produced at lower firing temperatures like 1100oC with the addition of calcined colemanite. The reason of the improved preheated and fired compressive strengths of pellets bonded with calcined colemanite was due to the physical melting of calcined colemanite at the contact point of iron oxide grains during thermal treatment. It was found that bentonite bonded pellets fired at 1300oC were more reducible than those of produced with calcined colemanite addition. Swelling indices of these pellets were determined in the industrially acceptable limits. The chemical and mineralogical analyses results showed that the combined binders did not contaminate the pellet composition since the organic binders burnt-out without residue and colemanite does not contain much impurity.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2007.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Human resources budgeting at Sishen mine had been done, for as long as the researcher has been employed at the mine, according to history as well as according to the demands of the financial situation. Consequently, human resources shortages have been corrected by external labour which is often more expensive than internal labour. During the annual budgeting period when top management applies pressure to cut costs, the operations budget is easy to defend. With the help of Excel spreadsheets or maintenance management systems, maintenance managers can present strong arguments for not cutting the operations budget. Budget deficits are then easily corrected by means of negative adjustments to the human resources budget. This research will explore the issue of whether a tool exists to calculate the human resources budget scientifically. A target was set to develop a tool or model for human resources budgeting or to investigate whether such a tool does not already exist. A literature survey was done to determine world best practices regarding the calculation of human resources budgeting. The literature studied guided the researcher to a computerised maintenance management system (CMMS) and it was found that Sishen already has one of the best (SAP) in place. Sishen even has a process (Routine Work Management or RWM) in place which helps to get all maintenance information into SAP to make the necessary information available for effective maintenance. It was further found that SAP, which has been used by the mine for several years, can already provide the human resources requirements for any future period. The RWM process which helps to get information in and out of SAP has been in use for some time already. Unfortunately the process was poorly executed and the information is not reliable. This statement is supported by the internal (Kirstein, 2006) and external (Aurea, 2006) audits done at the mine during 2006. The external audit was done by Aurco (2006). The author concluded that Sishen has a tool but not a strategy to utilise RWM successfully. One of the reasons why RWM was poorly executed was the fact that there is a lack of support from the people in the workplace. These individuals claim that they were not consulted when RWM was introduced at the mine and as a result they did not buy in. A proper change management process was not followed and the employees suspected that RWM was implemented to play policeman or to measure how much spare time they have and reduce the workforce accordingly, as in the case of the Prometheus project. Consequently they admit to manipulating RWM's measured outcomes, ignoring it or deliberately undermining it. They added that RWM is easy to manipulate and perceived it as a farce by many of the participants, A decision was taken to use the Kotter change management process to run a project to get RWM to the required level. Kotter's eight steps for successful large-scale change can be utilised with great success to achieve the required changes. After a brainstorming session and from the recommendations of the two audits a list of ideas was compiled. These ideas should help to get RWM to a level where human resources requirements can be drawn from SAP for any period in the future. Although the research was aimed at getting human resources budgeting from SAP, it will also have other advantages. The ratio between planned and unplanned maintenance will be better because RWM will ensure better maintenance
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Mannekragbegroting op Sishen-myn is, vir solank die navorser deel is van die myn, gedoen volgens die behoeftes van die verlede asook volgens wat deur die finansiele situasie toegelaat is. Gevolglik het dit dikwels gebeur dat die tekorte aan mannekrag aangevul is met huurarbeid wat dikwels duurder is as eie mannekrag. Tydens die begrotingsrondte kan die geld wat aangevra word vir die instandhouding van die toerusting goed beveg word omdat die instandhoudingspersoneel waterdigte argumente kan aanvoer oor hoe die begroting bereken is. Begrotingstekorte word gevolglik maklik reggestel met negatiewe aanpassings op die mannekragbegroting. Hierdie studie gaan die bestaan ondersoek van 'n gereedskapstuk of model om die mannekragbegroting wetenskaplik te kan bereken. Daar is 'n doelwit gestel om 'n model te ontwikkel vir mannekragberekening of om vas te stel of daar nie reeds iets bestaan nie. 'n Literatuurstudie is gedoen om vas te stel wat wereldwye beste standaarde ten opsigte van mannekragberekening is. Dit het die navorser gelei na gerekenariseerde instandhoudingsbestuurstelsels (CMMS) en daar is bevind dat Sishen reeds een van die beste stelsels gebruik (SAP). Sishen het selfs 'n proses ("Routine Work Management" of RWM) om alle instandhoudingsinligting in SAP te kry sodat die regte inligting weer beskikbaar kan wees vir effektiewe instandhouding. Daar is verder bevind dat SAP, wat reeds vir verskeie jare in gebruik is, enige tydperk in die toekoms se mannekragbehoeftes kan bepaal. Die RWM-proses wat moet help om inligting in en uit SAP te kry, is ook reeds geruime tyd in gebruik, maar ten spyte daarvan word die proses afgewater en is die inligting nie betroubaar nie. Hierdie stelling is bewys deur middel van twee ouditte wat in 2006 op RWM gedoen is. Die een audit was 'n interne audit terwyl die ander deur die maatskappy Aurea gedoen is. Die afleiding kon dus gemaak word dat daar wel 'n gereedskapstuk is, maar dat geen strategie bestaan om dit effektief te gebruik nie. Een van die redes waarom RWM as 'n afgewaterde proses beskryf kan word, is 'n gebrek aan ondersteuning deur die mense in die werksplek. Die mense beweer dat hulle nie geken is ten tye van die bekendstelling van RWM nie en hulle het dus nie ingekoop nie. Die afleiding is gemaak dat daar nie goeie veranderingsbestuur toegepas is toe RWM aan die myn bekendgestel is nie. Die werknemers het vermoed dat RWM ingestel is om hulle te polisieer of te bepaal hoeveel vrye tyd hulle het en die werksmag dienooreenkomstig af te skaal, soos in die geval van die Prometheusprojek. Gevolglik het hulle erken dat hulle die RWM se uitkomste gemanipuleer het, dit geignoreer het, of doelbewus ondermyn het. Hulle het bygevoeg dat RWM maklik gemanipuleer kan word en dat baie dit as 'n klug beskou. Daar is besluit om die Kotter-model te gebruik om 'n projek te loods om RWM op die vereiste standaard te kry. Dit word as die geskikste model beskou om die nodige veranderingsbestuur toe te pas. 'n Lys van idees is opgestel na aanleiding van 'n dinkskrumsessie met die werknemers asook van voorstelle wat in die twee ouditverslae gemaak is. Herdie idees moet RWM in plek kry sodat mannekragbehoeftes vir enige tydperk in die toekoms vanuit SAP verkry kan word. Alhoewel die navorsing daarop gemik was om mannekragbegroting vanuit SAP te bekom, hou dit ook 'n ander voordeel in, naamlik 'n beter verhouding van beplande tot onbeplande instandhouding omdat goeie RWM-prosedures beter instandhouding en gevolglik beter beskikbaarheid gaan verseker.

Esta pesquisa trata da produção do espaço geográfico pela indústria mineral de ferro através do processo de industrialização brasileiro, utilizando a categoria da Formação Social e a Teoria dos Ciclos Juglarianos. A industrialização brasileira ocorreu através da substituição escalonada de importações, transferindo recursos de áreas com capacidade ociosa para áreas deficitárias. A partir da Segunda Guerra Mundial, o desenvolvimento tecnológico ampliou a capacidade de transporte das embarcações, barateando os custos de frete e isso fez com que a produção das minas localizadas em países não-tradicionais na exploração de minério de ferro fossem inseridas no mercado internacional. Os investimentos na expansão da capacidade encontraram limites na fase depressiva da década de oitenta. Na década de noventa, as grandes empresas de mineração participaram de investimentos nos serviços públicos (infra-estrutura de transportes e energia). Na década de noventa também, tem início a expansão do uso do gás natural como matriz energética para a indústria brasileira. Esse fator encaminha para a superação de parte das deficiências na infra-estrutura instalada na região Noroeste do Estado de Mato Grosso do Sul, onde reservas de minério de ferro e manganês são conhecidas desde a segunda metade do século XIX e onde estão localizadas duas empresas, Urucum Mineração e Mineração e Mineração Corumbaense Reunida, de propriedade, respectivamente da Companhia Vale do Rio Doce e da Rio Tinto, duas das maiores empresas de mineração do mundo.
This research deals with the production of geographic space by iron mineral industry, by means of the brazilian process of industrialization utilizing the category of Social Formation and the theory of Juglarian Cycles. The brazilian industrialization occured athwart the scaled substitution of imports transferring resources from areas of idle capacity to areas in deficit. From the Second World War on, tecnological development amplified the transport capacity of ships, cheapining freight costs and it made the production of mines localized in non-traditional countries in iron ore exploration to be inserted in the international commerce. Investments on capacity expansion encountered limits on the depressive phase in the eighty’s decade. In the ninety’s decada large mining companies participated on investments in public services (transport and energy infrastructure). In the ninety’s, it also began the expansin of natural gas use as energetic matrix for the brazilian industry. This fact leads to the overcoming of part of the infrastructrure deficis installed in the north west of Mato Grosso do Sul, where reserves of iron ore and manganese are known since the second part of the nineteenth century, and where are localized two companies of Urucum Mineração and Mineração Corumbaense Reunidas, properties of Compania Vale do Rio Doce and Rio Tinto, respectivamente, the two largest mining companies of the world.

The objective of this thesis has been to analyze whether booms in the iron ore market has any significant effects on local labor markets in certain municipalities in Norrbotten County during the time period 2000-2016. Previous research has established that certain types of booms and busts influenced local labor markets. The analysis was done by using panel data and regression models where the results where compared over non-mining and mining municipalities. The results gave a vague response with both conclusive and inconclusive results over the variables investigated. The main conclusion is that although the mining industry is a big part of local labor markets in Norrbotten County, it is important for firms and policymakers to understand that the mining industry is not the only important factor and that decisions should not be entirely based on the mining industry and its markets.
Målet med denna uppsats var att analysera ifall booms i järnmalmsmarknaden har någon signifikant påverkan på lokala arbetsmarknader i utvalda kommuner i Norrbotten under tidsperioden 2000–2016. Tidigare forskning har fastställt att vissa booms och busts kan influera lokala arbetsmarknader. Analysen har genomförts med paneldata och regressionsmodeller där resultat jämförts mellan gruvkommuner och ickegruvkommuner. Resultaten gav otydliga resultat då vissa var konklusiva medan andra inte var konklusiva. Den huvudsakliga slutsatsen som nåtts är att även om gruvindustrin är en viktig del av de lokala arbetsmarknaderna, är det viktigt för företag och beslutsfattare att förstå att gruvindustrin inte är den enda påverkande faktorn och att framtida beslut och satsningar inte enbart ska baseras kring gruvindustrin och dess marknad.

O minério de ferro produzido no complexo de Carajás traz consigo características mineralógicas que conferem um elevadíssimo teor de Fe em todas as suas frações granulométricas. Dessa forma, ao final da cadeia produtiva, tanto os produtos comerciais mais grosseiros quanto os finos contem cerca de 62% de Fe contido na sua composição. Importante destacar que em Carajás as fases no processamento desse minério são apenas para cominuição e classificação por tamanho. Não existem etapas de concentração e os produtos são diferenciados por suas respectivas curvas granulométricas: o “granulado” - mais grosseiro (> 13 mm), o “Sinter-Feed” (< 13 mm e > 0,5 mm) e o “pellet feed” (< 0,15 mm). Garantir a correta distribuição granulométrica da matéria prima é uma premissa de mercado. A ultima etapa da classificação é feita através de hidrociclones e gera um overflow ultrafino de altíssima superfície específica maior que 6.500 Blaine e com 45% até 95 % < 7 μm. E ainda possui um elevado teor de Fe - cerca de 62 %. Dessa forma os objetivos gerais dessa pesquisa buscaram a solução para essa oportunidade de recuperar e vender esses rejeitos. O estudo sugeriu através de ensaios com tecnologias capazes de desaguar os ultrafinos gerados para 9,00 % de umidade, que é o valor que permite a movimentação e o manuseio desses rejeitos, além de permitir sua incorporação na blendagem de produtos mais grossos. Desse modo, foram realizados experimentos em diversos laboratórios externos e em escala piloto na Usina de Carajás com amostras dos dois rejeitos ultrafinos das duas fases de hidrociclonagem: o natural e o moído. Ficou evidente que o equipamento tem de combinar necessariamente e de forma eficiente dois fatores essências ao desaguamento: elevadíssimas pressões e altas temperatura na operação desses ultrafinos. A produtividade atingida foi da ordem de 50 t/h x m² para o rejeito da hidrociclonagem do Sinter Feed e 40 t/h x m² para o rejeito dos hidrociclones da Moagem.
The Iron ore that is produced in Carajás mining complex brings mineralogical characteristics that give a very high Fe content in all its size fractions. Thus, at the end of the production chain both coarser and fine contains about 62% Fe contained in its composition. Importantly, in Carajás stages in the processing of this ore are for reduction and classification by size. There is thus no concentration steps and products are differentiated by their respective size distribution curves: the "grain" - coarser (> 13 mm), the "Sinter-Feed" (<13 mm and > 0.5 mm) and the "pellet feed" (<0.15 mm). Ensure proper particle size distribution of the raw material is a market premise. The last step of classification is made using hydrocyclones and generates an overflow ultrafine high specific surface area greater than 6.500 Blaine and with 45% to 95% <7 μm. And has a high Fe content - about 62%. The overall objectives of this research sought the solution to this opportunity to recover and sell these “tailings”. The study suggested by testing with technologies capable of flowing into the ultrathin generated to 9.00% of moisture, which is the value that allows movement and handling these wastes, and allows their incorporation into the blending of thicker products. Thus, experiments were carried out in several external laboratories and pilot-scale plant in the Carajás with samples of both ultrafine “tailings” of the two phases of hydrocycloning: the natural and the ground. It was evident that the equipment must necessarily match and two efficiently factors essences to dewatering: very high pressure and high temperature operation of these “tailings”. The productivity achieved was around 50 t/h x m² in reject of the Sinter Feed hydrocycloning and 40 t/h x m² to reject of the grinding hydrocyclones.

Energia é um insumo estratégico na mineração, pois é fundamental na viabilidade das operações mineiras e importante na manutenção de custos operacionais baixos e competitivos. Por esse motivo, toda iniciativa que visa a busca por eficiência no consumo de energia é importante para a competitividade das mineradoras. Vários insumos energéticos são utilizados nas operações unitárias de mineração. Os exemplos mais comuns são diesel, eletricidade, gás natural, carvão e explosivos. O objetivo desse trabalho é estudar, do ponto de vista energético, as atividades realizadas no processo de desmonte de rochas, em um complexo minerador de minério de ferro, visando a melhor utilização da energia no desmonte de rocha para aperfeiçoar as operações unitárias subsequentes de processamento de minérios. Um foco maior foi dado à economia de energia nas moagens de bolas da planta de beneficiamento e concentração, provocada pelas modificações e melhorias realizadas no desmonte de rocha. A metodologia consistiu na análise de diversos desmontes de rocha variando a razão de carga de explosivos no complexo minerador alvo desse trabalho. Os produtos desses desmontes foram acompanhados até a sua entrada na planta de beneficiamento. Durante o processamento desses materiais nas moagens da planta, foram coletadas e analisadas as grandezas elétricas resultantes e comparadas com uma linha de base gerada antes do início do trabalho. Os dados foram analisados com o objetivo de visualizar a influência do aumento da razão de carga na performance energética da operação de moagem. Em paralelo, também, foram analisadas as situações operacionais e dificuldades existentes nas medições de campo e nos acompanhamentos de consumos energéticos dos processos unitários, assim como a infraestrutura necessária para que uma variável tão importante como energia elétrica possa ser monitorada de forma adequada. Por fim, foi abordada a importância, a metodologia e os resultados da redução de emissões de CO2 provenientes da economia de energia de todo o trabalho realizado em campo. Os resultados apresentados mostram que mesmo com um aumento significativo da alimentação de material compacto (maior WI) nas moagens, o consumo energético total dessa operação unitária não aumentou. Isso gerou uma potencial economia específica de energia e a consequente redução de emissões de CO2 na atmosfera, além de viabilizar o processamento de material mais compacto nas mesmas linhas de processo. Esse comportamento sugere que uma melhor energia gasta no desmonte de rocha pode impactar positivamente na produtividade e nos custos de produção do minério ao longo de sua cadeia produtiva.
Energy is a mining strategic source, critical in mining operations feasibility and important to maintain low operational costs in a competitive level. For this reason, any initiative aimed at searching for energy efficiency is important for mining companies’ competitiveness. Mining operations need several energy sources. Most common examples are diesel, electricity, natural gas, coal and explosives. This text aims to address, from an energy perspective, a study carried out in an iron ore mining complex, which had as main objective to reach a better rock blasting energy utilization to improve subsequent mining operations. A greater focus was given to energy savings in ball mills operations of a beneficiation and concentration plant, impacted by modifications and improvements made in rock blasting. Methodology consisted in monitoring several rock blasting, carried out in this mining complex, varying explosive charge ratio. Products of those rock blasting were monitored until they entered the processing plant. During ore processing in plant´s ball mills, electrical variables were collected and analyzed, comparing to a baseline generated before the beginning of this research. All data were analyzed to show influence of explosive charge ratio increase on energy performance of the milling operation. In parallel, operational issues and difficulties in field measurements of energy consumptions were described, as well as the necessary infrastructure that allows the variable electricity to be adequately monitored. Besides, the methodology and results of CO2 emissions reduction from energy savings of all fieldwork were discussed. The research data shows that even with a significant increase in compact feed (higher Work Index), total energy consumption of mill operation did not increase. This scenario generate a potential specific energy savings and consequent reduction in CO2 emissions in the atmosphere. In addition, enables more compact material to be processed in the same process lines. This behavior suggests that a better energy spent on rock blasting can positively affect productivity and ore production costs along its production chain.

Experimental and analytical investigations were conducted to evaluate the overall stability for the final slope of the Pit Number One at El Encino mine, an iron ore property in Jalisco, Mexico. Shear strength of the intact rock and fractures was estimated from laboratory tests and back-analyses of previous slope failures. Back-analysis estimates were found to be more appropriate to represent the shear strength of fractures. Equal-area stereoplots were used to analyze geological structure data to differentiate structural domains with similar structural characteristics within the final slope. A kinematic analysis was performed for each structural domain using average joint set orientations and major discontinuities projected onto the final slope. The final pit walls were found to be stable, except for a 36,000 ton wedge and a 12,000 ton plane shear slide. These geometries and other potentially unstable areas were analyzed, and control measures and additional work suggested.

Abstract At least 30 gold deposits verified by means of one or more notable diamond drill hole results have been discovered in Central Lapland in the last 20 years, and these can be divided spatially into groups, between which the metal composition varies. The deposits contain varying amounts of sulphides and sulpharsenides as well as gold. Pyrite is the most common sulphide mineral in the gold deposits associated with volcanic rocks, and usually pyrrhotite in those associated with sedimentary rocks. The principal sulphide minerals in those connected with banded iron formations are pyrite and arsenopyrite. A separate group of formations consists of the palaeoplacer gold deposits associated with the molasse-like quartzites and conglomerates of Central Lapland. The iron oxide-copper-gold deposits of Central Lapland, which are a significant potential source of copper and gold, are mostly associated with skarn rocks at the eastern contact of the acidic intrusive rocks of Western Lapland and with skarn rocks occurring as interlayers in metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks. The gold deposits that have led to actual mining activities in Central Lapland are Saattopora in Kittilä and Pahtavaara in Sodankylä. Apart from the Laurinoja iron oxide-copper-gold ore body in Kolari, copper concentrate has been produced from the Saattopora gold ore deposit and the Pahtavuoma copper ore deposit. Only one gold ore in Central Lapland is being actively exploited at present, that of the Pahtavaara mine, which was worked in 1995–2000 and reopened in 2003. The best starting point for successful gold ore exploration in Central Lapland can be achieved through a thorough knowledge of the deformation zones and their structures and alteration processes and the application of geochemical methods. Magnetic surveys can be of help in identifying and locating deformation zones of interest for exploration purposes and the majority of the associated shear zones and faults. Ore-critical zones usually feature graphite-bearing schists and iron sulphide-bearing sequences that can be traced by electrical methods and used as marker zones to verify the results of geological mapping. Geological, geophysical and geochemical techniques have been used in great diversity, and in particular till geochemistry and bedrock drilling have been methods by which the gold and copper deposits in Central Lapland have been discovered. A total of 7.6 million tonnes of gold and copper ores, including the Laurinoja iron oxide-copper-gold ore, were extracted in Central Lapland over the period 1982–2000. The resulting production of gold during this period was 10 800 kg, together with 21 000 tonnes of copper in concentrates and 4500 kg of silver. The gold and copper ores have been concentrated by gravity separation and/or flotation, since the ores so far taken into production has been of the free milling type. However, a substantial proportion of the deposits in the area contain copper, nickel, cobalt and arsenic as well, in the form of sulphides or sulpharsenides, so that the achievement of commercially saleable products calls for the use of different leaching processes. Deposits have also been found in Central Lapland that have consisted partly or entirely of refractory gold ore in which gold is lying in the crystal lattice of pyrite and/or arsenopyrite, the processing of which by the above-mentioned methods is not economic, as it requires pre-treatment by bio-oxidation or pressure oxidation in order to convert the gold to a cyanide-soluble form.

Im Osterzgebirge sowie im nordöstlich daran angrenzenden Elbtalschiefergebirge wurde mit Unterbrechungen über mehrere Jahrhunderte Bergbau auf Eisen betrieben. Für die Besiedlung, den Bergbau auf andere Metalle, die Landwirtschaft und das Handwerk in der Region hatte der Eisenerzbergbau eine gewisse Bedeutung. Im Gegensatz zum Silber- und Buntmetallbergbau ist über den Eisenerzbergbau allerdings nur relativ wenig bekannt. Das Ziel dieser Diplomarbeit bestand deshalb darin, eine zusammenfassende geologisch-geographische Darstellung, die sowohl den historischen Eisenerzbergbau im Osterzgebirge als auch den historischen Eisenerzbergbau im Elbtalschiefergebirge beinhaltet, zu erarbeiten. Um ein hohes Maß an Vollständigkeit zu gewährleisten, wurden die Erkenntnisse aus Archiven, Bibliotheken und Sammlungen zusammengetragen. Überdies wurde auch auf das Fachwissen von Heimatvereinen, Bergbaumuseen und Hobbyhistorikern zurückgegriffen. Ferner wird im Rahmen dieser Arbeit untersucht, welche Typen von Eisenerzlagerstätten es im Osterzgebirge und im Elbtalschiefergebirge gab, wie diese entstanden sind, um welche Mineralisation und um welche Art von Eisenerztypen es sich dabei handelt. Mit den gegenwärtig zur Verfügung stehenden Methoden der Analytik (REM-EDX) werden zudem die Mineralparagenese und die chemische Zusammensetzung von historischen und neuen Eisenerzproben aus dem Osterz- und Elbtalschiefergebirge untersucht. Ferner wird den Fragestellungen nachgegangen, wann diese Eisenerzlagerstätten erschlossen wurden, über welchen Zeitraum sie unter Abbau standen und wie viel Eisenerz aus den jeweiligen Gruben gefördert wurde. Hierfür erfolgte eine detaillierte Dokumentation der wichtigsten ehemaligen Eisenerzlagerstätten mit den dazugehörigen Zeugnissen des historischen Eisenerzbergbaus. Darauf aufbauend werden die Bedeutung des Eisenerzbergbaus und des daran angeschlossenen Eisenhüttenwesens für die wirtschaftliche und kulturelle Entwicklung des Gebietes untersucht. Des Weiteren werden die regionalen Beziehungen zu anderen Bergbau- und Wirtschaftszweigen aufgezeigt. Der Prozess des Aufbrechens der regionalen Wirtschaftsstrukturen im Zuge der Industrialisierung wird eingehend erläutert. Und die Gründe für den Niedergang des Eisenerzbergbaus und Eisenhüttenwesens werden ebenfalls genannt. Danach erfolgt eine Betrachtung darüber, welche bergbauhistorischen Zeugnisse heute im Gelände noch auffindbar bzw. welche Nachfolgenutzungen an den Standorten des historischen Eisenerzbergbaus und des Eisenhüttenwesens gegenwärtig vorhanden sind. Abschließend wird erläutert welche Schlussfolgerungen für die Nutzung des geotouristischen Potenzials sich daraus ergeben.

Im Osterzgebirge sowie im nordöstlich daran angrenzenden Elbtalschiefergebirge wurde mit Unterbrechungen über mehrere Jahrhunderte Bergbau auf Eisen betrieben. Für die Besiedlung, den Bergbau auf andere Metalle, die Landwirtschaft und das Handwerk in der Region hatte der Eisenerzbergbau eine gewisse Bedeutung. Im Gegensatz zum Silber- und Buntmetallbergbau ist über den Eisenerzbergbau allerdings nur relativ wenig bekannt. Das Ziel dieser Diplomarbeit bestand deshalb darin, eine zusammenfassende geologisch-geographische Darstellung, die sowohl den historischen Eisenerzbergbau im Osterzgebirge als auch den historischen Eisenerzbergbau im Elbtalschiefergebirge beinhaltet, zu erarbeiten. Um ein hohes Maß an Vollständigkeit zu gewährleisten, wurden die Erkenntnisse aus Archiven, Bibliotheken und Sammlungen zusammengetragen. Überdies wurde auch auf das Fachwissen von Heimatvereinen, Bergbaumuseen und Hobbyhistorikern zurückgegriffen. Ferner wird im Rahmen dieser Arbeit untersucht, welche Typen von Eisenerzlagerstätten es im Osterzgebirge und im Elbtalschiefergebirge gab, wie diese entstanden sind, um welche Mineralisation und um welche Art von Eisenerztypen es sich dabei handelt. Mit den gegenwärtig zur Verfügung stehenden Methoden der Analytik (REM-EDX) werden zudem die Mineralparagenese und die chemische Zusammensetzung von historischen und neuen Eisenerzproben aus dem Osterz- und Elbtalschiefergebirge untersucht. Ferner wird den Fragestellungen nachgegangen, wann diese Eisenerzlagerstätten erschlossen wurden, über welchen Zeitraum sie unter Abbau standen und wie viel Eisenerz aus den jeweiligen Gruben gefördert wurde. Hierfür erfolgte eine detaillierte Dokumentation der wichtigsten ehemaligen Eisenerzlagerstätten mit den dazugehörigen Zeugnissen des historischen Eisenerzbergbaus. Darauf aufbauend werden die Bedeutung des Eisenerzbergbaus und des daran angeschlossenen Eisenhüttenwesens für die wirtschaftliche und kulturelle Entwicklung des Gebietes untersucht. Des Weiteren werden die regionalen Beziehungen zu anderen Bergbau- und Wirtschaftszweigen aufgezeigt. Der Prozess des Aufbrechens der regionalen Wirtschaftsstrukturen im Zuge der Industrialisierung wird eingehend erläutert. Und die Gründe für den Niedergang des Eisenerzbergbaus und Eisenhüttenwesens werden ebenfalls genannt. Danach erfolgt eine Betrachtung darüber, welche bergbauhistorischen Zeugnisse heute im Gelände noch auffindbar bzw. welche Nachfolgenutzungen an den Standorten des historischen Eisenerzbergbaus und des Eisenhüttenwesens gegenwärtig vorhanden sind. Abschließend wird erläutert welche Schlussfolgerungen für die Nutzung des geotouristischen Potenzials sich daraus ergeben.

Student Number : 9506626A - MSc (Eng) research report - School of Mining - Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment
Significant research has been carried out over the years into what effect blast designs and techniques have on the final product in the mining process. There are numerous parameters that can be altered to deliver downstream benefits – the key is to determine which changes are appropriate for the rock body in question. A project is currently underway at Thabazimbi Iron Ore Mine (Northern Province, South Africa) to improve the operational efficiency through attention to the blasting operation. Previous research suggests changing fragmentation will have an effect on mining efficiency, but no definitive model has been developed directly linking the two. Using data collected during the project, the author developed a sensitivity analysis tool, which defines the effect of changing fragmentation on overall mine efficiency. This prediction model was based partly on theory and partly on empirical information gathered from mine databases and personnel. Over the course of this project, this model was validated through the practical implementation of the theory behind its development. This involved decreasing powder factors through increasing the drilling pattern, thus changing the resulting fragmentation of the muckpile. Subsequently, downstream effects on mining efficiency were monitored and these results were recorded in the model. The proven model was then used to identify areas of opportunity for improvement. In this report two areas are discussed, firstly, the implementation of a doped emulsion replacing ANFO across the mine, and secondly the introduction of electronic detonators. The second option would require further test work to develop confidence in the assumptions made in the model, concerning the effect of timing accuracy on fragmentation. This research report covers the background to the project, an explanation of the model and the final results obtained.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg, 2013.
Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) has been a crucial industry in Africa for centuries. In Burkina Faso approximately 95 kms northeast of the capital city Ouagadougou near the village of Dem and on a ferricrete capped ridge to the west of the village, it is possible to find a number of opencast workings and underground mines that show evidence of extensive artisanal mining for iron. Iron mining worked quartz-vein hosted and lateritic ore. Nearby, waste piles, processing sites and at least eleven (11) Bloomery furnaces are exposed on the alluvial plain. Petrographically the ore bearing rocks consist of goethite-hematite as the dominant oxides with silica. Geological and ethnographic studies conducted in 2011 focussed on detailing and mapping the mine site and host rocks (including ore rocks), and establishing the age of mining, processing and forging of ore. Selected charcoal samples were collected from furnaces sites. Limited AMS radiocarbon dating of six (6) samples was performed at Beta Analytic laboratory in Miami, Florida, USA and suggested that iron forging may have begun in the 15th century, which could also be the age of mining and processing of ore. The site has characteristics such as impure slag, eleven (11) large furnaces, hundreds of tuyeres, and crucibles, and clay fragments. Remnant slag samples were collected for petrographic and mineralogical study to deduce the mineral composition of the slag. The slag samples contained high concentration of fayalite, quartz, magnetite and hematite and low concentration of iron metal and ulvospinel suggesting an iron silicate slag of low melt temperature was formed in the furnaces.

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Engineering Johannesburg 2017
The study assesses the drilling, loading and trucking stages of the mining cycle of an iron ore mine situated in the Northern Cape province of South Africa for the period of 1 January to 30 June 2011. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of increasing reliability and maintainability of mining equipment in an effort to increase throughput of iron ore. The data processing indicated that both availability and utilisation are contributing to the sub-optimal performance of the mine. Data regarding reliability (MTBF), maintainability (MTTR), planned and unplanned maintenance was analysed, and this provided input for the simulation model. The intention of the simulation model is to simulate scenarios of proposed improvement in MTBF and MTTR through increasing planned maintenance activities. A simulation model provides insight regarding where to invest in interventions. It is determined that the drilling equipment is the problem area.
MT2018

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Engineering.
South Africa hosts vast mineral resources that it has a great global comparative advantage in terms of mineral resources endowment. The mining industry continues to be a key contributor to the country’s economy. However, since the end of the 2008 global economic crisis, the industry has faced multiple global and local economic and operational challenges that together threaten the survival and sustainability of the industry. This study investigated the effects these challenges had on the financial performance and health of the South African mining industry for the period 2012 to 2016. The research focussed on the performance of platinum, gold, coal and iron ore mining companies listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange. To determine the companies’ financial performance, financial ratios were used to measure the profitability, liquidity, solvency, activity and market performance of the companies. Validation of the findings of ratio analysis was done using the Altman Z”-score analysis model that also classified the companies’ financial health over the period. As commodity price is a key driver of mining companies’ value, a Pearson coefficient correlation analysis was done to determine the influence commodity price had on the performance of the mining companies during the period. The study found that the overall financial performance and health of mining companies was declining over the course of the analysis period. Profitability was low for all commodity sectors except iron ore, liquidity was good for the platinum and iron ore sectors but poor for the gold and coal sectors. All commodity sectors had good activity ratios but, had poor solvency and market ratios except the iron ore sector. Only the iron ore mining sector performed well in all the ratio categories. Declining commodity prices for most commodities, increasing operating costs, declining productivity were found to be the main factors that affected the performance of mining companies. In addition, the impact on the mining sector of government and policy uncertainty such as the Mining charter, resulted in wholesale decline in the value of mining stocks as investor confidence waned. The Altman Z”-score analysis showed that most analysed companies were in a safe zone, but a few were in a distress zone during the analysis period. Because mining Page | companies are price takers, it is important that they improve on their efficiencies to remain viable and sustainable against a constrained economic and operational challenges.
E.R. 2019

An advanced coursework and a project submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements of MSc. Engineering (Mining), November 2015
General For mining operations, both underground and open cast, there are generally accepted criteria used to arrive at the optimum mining method with which to exploit the ore body economically. Having selected the optimum mining method, mining companies should then make the decision to also select the optimum technology to apply given the various options that are now available. In the case of a shallow massive ore body where open-pit mining has been selected as the optimum mining method, the use of conventional trucks and shovels has been the popular choice but over the years, as pit become deeper, and stripping ratios increase, growing interest and adoption of in-pit crushing and conveying for both ore and waste has been gaining ground with several mining sites currently now operating, testing the systems or conducting studies at various stages for In-pit Crushing and Conveying (IPCC) in its different configurations (Chadwick, 2010). Open pit mining general involves the movement of pre-blasted or loose waste ahead of underlying ore out of the pit or to a previously mined part of the pit. This is then followed by the drilling and blasting or loosening of the ore and transportation to the processing plant or stockpiles. The conventional Truck and Shovel open pit operation involves the use of shovels – electric rope shovels, diesel or electric hydraulic shovels or excavators or front-end loaders to load the blasted, or loose waste and ore material in the pit onto mining trucks which haul the material to crushers or stockpiles if it is ore or to waste dumps in the case of waste. In a Fully Mobile IPCC (FMIPCC) system, the broken or loose material in the pit is loaded into a crusher or sizer by a shovel, continuous miner or dozer, crushed to a manageable size and transported by conveyor belts to the waste dump where it is deposited in place using spreaders if it is waste or onto stockpiles if it is ore. A combination of the two systems is where trucks dump material loaded at the face into a semi mobile crusher or sizer located in the pit close to the loading points N BANDA 392438 before conveying to destination thereby reducing truck haulage distance. In the semi-mobile configuration, the crusher is relocated closer to the loading points to minimise the hauling distance. Other various configurations are also employed depending on the various considerations. Although the Truck and Shovel system is considered as the convention in open pit mining, the IPCC system is not a new concept and has been operational on a number of mines worldwide for quite a number of years (Szalanski, 2010). Loading and hauling receive great attention especially in a high volume open pit mines due to the high cost contribution to the overall operation and therefore, if optimised, good cost savings can be realised (Lamb, 2010). Figure 1: Sishen Mining Cost Breakdown In the case of Sishen Loading and Hauling costs constituted 67% of the mining costs including labour mining support services in 2013 (Kumba Iron Ore, 2013). This picture remains unchanged to a large extent. In some cases the hauling cost alone can make up as much as 60% of the mining operating cost (Meredith May, 2012) Selection of a materials handling system between Truck and Shovel (T/S) and In-pit Crushing and Conveying (IPCC) has proven to be difficult due to limited understanding of the IPCC system especially its advantages and disadvantages relative to the Truck and Shovel system. The aim of this research was to unpack these two systems in terms of their applicability using studies conducted at Sishen 6,5% 8,8% 29,1% 22,7% 9,7% 0,6% 1,3% 0,4% 7,0% 4,2% 3,7% 5,9% Sishen Mining Cost 2013 Blasting Drilling Hauling L&H Contractors Loading Maintenance Other Mining Manangement Mining Engineering Mining Other Resource Management SHEQ Mining Support N BANDA 392438 Mine as well as develop some scorecard that could be used to select one over the other one. Sishen Case Study Sishen Mine is an iron ore open pit mine located in the Northern Cape province of South Africa and is part of Kumba Iron Ore Company which is Anglo American PLC. The mine has been in operation since 1953 with the current life of mine going up to 2030. It produces 44Mt tonnes of product from a 56Mt mine ore at a life of mine strip ratio of 4. One of the planned expansion the north part of the mine known as the GR80 and GR50 areas. Mining in these areas will require pre-stripping of 290Mt of clay material over the life of mine to expose the ore in pre volume phases. Figure2: Sishen Pit –Sishen Mine 2014. Sishen mine is constantly evaluating various technologies in its mining operations aimed at improving its bottom line by way of increasing productivity and efficiency, reducing costs and improving safety, however, the last time that the mine considered evaluating a technology that significantly could have resulted in a totally different operational philosophy was i contracted to institute a study to evaluate technology options for mining and moving majority owned by a minimum of 437Mt of calcrete and the underlying pre- g in 2007 when Snowden Mining Consultants run-ofmine areas is in -planned time and were N BANDA 392438 55 Mt of the calcrete/clay material per year from the waste pushback area in the GR80/GR50 area of the mine from 2009 till 2030. Snowden completed the Prefeasibility study in early 2008 in which they evaluated a conventional Truck and Shovel operation as well as IPCC. Economic viability of both systems in various configurations was demonstrated with the use of larger trucks and shovels ranked as the most economic option in terms of Net Present Cost (NPC), unit owning and operating cost per mined tonne and, to a less extent, in terms of risk and other considerations. In this case, the Truck and Shovel option was more economic than both IPCC configurations. However the small difference in the cost figures gave rise to interest in further evaluations. Following the Snowden study, Sishen engaged Sandvik Mining and Construction in 2008, to review the work done by Snowden and provide more detail and practical input to the IPCC system at scoping level. In the review, the IPCC system was shown to be the economic approach for the waste removal from the target area in terms of owning and operating cost. Practicality was also demonstrated and the case for the consideration of the IPCC system was put forward to Sishen. A further consultant, Sinclair Knight Merz (SKM) of Australia, was engaged, in the later part of 2008, to further evaluate and optimise the IPCC option to further demonstrate practically in detail at a feasible study level and strengthen its case by mitigating perceived risk. This included equipment specifications, mine and equipment layout per period per bench and risk assessment on the IPCC options. The mine, however, implemented the conventional truck and shovel option using larger equipment. The final decision was to stick with the current set up of Truck and Shovel system and gradually replace the current fleet of 730E Komatsu (190 tonne payload) trucks with the 930E or equivalent ( 320 tonne payload) and the current XPB 2300 P& H electric rope shovels and CAT 994/Komatsu WA1200 front end loaders with XPC 4100 P&H electric rope shovels, Komatsu PC8000/Liebherr 996 diesel hydraulic shovels and LeTournea L-2350 front end loaders to reduce the number of equipment and manage the operational cost. This decision was based on issues around initial capital investment, flexibility of the system to suit changing mining plans, ability of current personnel to run the system and general low risk appetite for change. The adopted option has its own challenges N BANDA 392438 such as supporting infrastructure requirements, labour intensity and associated low productivity and high cost, fleet management challenges to achieve required productivity constantly, supplies such as fuel and tyres and safety issues due to traffic density. A high level recalculation of the costs using current information was done as part of this research. For simplicity, no escalations or discounting were applied on future expenditure. The estimated unit owning and operating costs in 2014 terms for the study area were as follows:- Fully Mobile IPCC (FMIPCC) option ZAR 10.38/t, Semi Mobile IPCC (SMIPCC) option ZAR 13.12/t, Truck and Shovel option ZAR 15.80/t. The objective of this research is to use lessons from the Sishen case as well as other operations and gather expert views with the aim of establishing criteria that could be applied in a preliminary evaluation that would determine the suitability of either of the materials handling options. General Approach The costs were recalculated using as much current information as possible. Other considerations including advantages and disadvantages of either of the systems were examined in more detail, with real life examples examined where possible. This resulted in the establishment of generalized criteria for the selection of mining and transport technology for a large open pit mine with focus on conventional Truck and Shovel systems on one hand and IPCC systems, in their various formats, on the other. These criteria which identify conditions necessary for the successful adoption and implementation of either of the systems could then be used as input into the decision to carry out any further detailed studies of the options. The previous study reports on the Sishen mine case were examined, input parameters to the calculations checked and the general approached analyzed for practicality. The relative costs were also viewed for comparative purposes. Literature on these two main systems was reviewed including that from conferences. Other large operations running either one or both systems were looked at to gain N BANDA 392438 further insight. Original Equipment suppliers’ views on these systems were also looked at through many articles in the public domain. Sishen mine has previously had the IPCC system running in the same part of the mine in a semi mobile configuration, crushing and conveying waste. It was then changed to become a supplementary system for the ore handling system and the in pit crusher has never been relocated. The Truck and Shovel system took over the movement of all the waste and most of the ore at the mine. Lessons from these experiences were incorporated in this study.