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Journal articles on the topic "Iron ores – Geology – South Africa"
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O’Connor, Cyril, and Tatiana Alexandrova. "The Geological Occurrence, Mineralogy, and Processing by Flotation of Platinum Group Minerals (PGMs) in South Africa and Russia." Minerals 11, no. 1 (January 7, 2021): 54. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min11010054.
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Russia and South Africa are the world’s leading producers of platinum group elements (PGEs). This places them in a unique position regarding the supply of these two key industrial commodities. The purpose of this paper is to provide a comparative high-level overview of aspects of the geological occurrence, mineralogy, and processing by flotation of the platinum group minerals (PGMs) found in each country. A summary of some of the major challenges faced in each country in terms of the concentration of the ores by flotation is presented alongside the opportunities that exist to increase the production of the respective metals. These include the more efficient recovery of minerals such as arsenides and tellurides, the management of siliceous gangue and chromite in the processing of these ores, and, especially in Russia, the development of novel processing routes to recover PGEs from relatively low grade ores occurring in dunites, black shale ores and in vanadium-iron-titanium-sulphide oxide formations.
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Varentsov, I. M., and V. N. Kuleshov. "Rare Elements—Markers of the Formation Setting of Manganese and Iron Ores in the Kalahari and Postmasburg Manganese Fields (South Africa): Communication 2. Postmasburg Iron and Manganese Field." Lithology and Mineral Resources 54, no. 5 (September 2019): 412–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s0024490219050067.
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Long, Fang Yi, Sheng Li Wu, Juan Zhu, Yuan Du, and Guo Liang Zhang. "Experimental Research on Bonding Intensity of Iron Ores in the Sintering Process." Advanced Materials Research 391-392 (December 2011): 60–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.391-392.60.
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The bonding intensity of four kinds of ores from Brazil, Australia and South Africa is researched in this study, and the influence factors are analyzed. The results show that, the ores of different types have apparently differences in bonding intensity, ores from Brazil and South Africa have high bonding intensity, while ores from Australia have low bonding intensity; The foundation of generation of effective liquid is adequate liquid phase fluidity and the lower porosity of core ore; The ratio of porosity of core ore and the index of liquid phase fluidity has negative correlation with the bonding intensity.
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O’Connor, Cyril, and Tatiana Alexandrova. "The Geological Occurrence, Mineralogy, and Processing by Flotation of Platinum Group Minerals (PGMs) in South Africa and Russia." Minerals 11, no. 1 (January 7, 2021): 54. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min11010054.
Full textAbstract:
Russia and South Africa are the world’s leading producers of platinum group elements (PGEs). This places them in a unique position regarding the supply of these two key industrial commodities. The purpose of this paper is to provide a comparative high-level overview of aspects of the geological occurrence, mineralogy, and processing by flotation of the platinum group minerals (PGMs) found in each country. A summary of some of the major challenges faced in each country in terms of the concentration of the ores by flotation is presented alongside the opportunities that exist to increase the production of the respective metals. These include the more efficient recovery of minerals such as arsenides and tellurides, the management of siliceous gangue and chromite in the processing of these ores, and, especially in Russia, the development of novel processing routes to recover PGEs from relatively low grade ores occurring in dunites, black shale ores and in vanadium-iron-titanium-sulphide oxide formations.
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Varentsov, I. M., and V. N. Kuleshov. "Rare elements — setting markers of the formation of the manganese and iron ore deposits of Kalahari and Postmasburg areas (South Africa). Communication 2. Iron- and manganese ore of Postmasburg area." Литология и полезные ископаемые, no. 5 (October 20, 2019): 466–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s0024-497x20195466-485.
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In the world resources of manganese and iron ores, a significant place belongs to the Postmasburg ore field (South Africa), enclosed in rocks of the Transvaal Supegroup. Ore deposits have the nature of karst residual accumulations. A number of elements (B, Cr, Ni, Zn, Ge, As, Se, Mo, Ag, Cd, Sb, Te, W, Pb, REE) form a characteristic association that sheds light on the geochemistry of the ore formation processes. Of these, the most representative elements are: Mo, As, Ag and REE. Molybdenum is distinguished by the chemisorption incorporation nature of accumulation in the ores under consideration, often with the formation of epic growths of ferri molybdate-type minerals. Arsenic leached from substrate rocks and accumulated in karstic Mn-Fe- and Fe-ores reflects the total effect of the dominant iron oxide minerals on its mobility. The behavior of silver is controlled by the processes of hypergenic change of Archean-Early Proterozoic carbonate rocks and banded iron ores (BIF). Comparison of the distribution of REE in karst Fe-, Mn-Fe- and Mn-ores and in banded iron ores shows that they are characterized by similar values of cerium (C/Ce*) and europium (Eu/Eu*) anomalies, but differ in the fractionation of heavy and light REE (typical values: Ce/Ce* = 0.7‒1.0; Eu/Eu* = 0.8‒1.1). Strip iron ores and associated manganese ore deposits accumulated in the marginal anoxide-disoxide marine basin, which was limited to continental land. Anoxide and disoxide conditions were the result of intense hydrothermal activity.
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Gutzmer, J., and N. J. Beukes. "Mineralogy and mineral chemistry of oxide-facies manganese ores of the Postmasburg manganese field, South Africa." Mineralogical Magazine 61, no. 405 (April 1997): 213–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1180/minmag.1997.061.405.05.
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AbstractThe diagenetic to very low-grade metamorphic manganese ores of the Postmasburg manganese field provide a unique example of oxide-facies manganese ores in a Palaeoproterozoic palaeokarst setting. The ores are composed mainly of braunite group minerals, including braunite, partridgeite and bixbyite, with rare braunite II and Ca-poor, silica-depleted braunite. Iron-poor partridgeite is distinguished from Fe-rich bixbyite and the occurrence of Ca-poor, silica-depleted braunite is reported for the first time. Braunite and partridgeite formed during early diagenesis but remained stable under greenschist facies metamorphic conditions. In contrast, bixbyite is apparently a product of metasomatic remobilisation under peak metamorphic conditions. It is suggested that local variations of the metamorphic mineral association reflect variations of the host rock composition and that they are not related to changing P-T conditions of metamorphic alteration, a model promoted by previous authors. The phase chemistry of braunite, braunite II and bixbyite is explained by the existing polysomatic stacking model for the braunite group. However, the chemical composition of partridgeite and Ca-poor, silica-depleted braunite can only be explained by introducing a distinct module layer, with partridgeite composition, to the existing polysomatic stacking model.
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Evdokimov, Aleksandr, and Benedict Pharoe. "Features of the mineral and chemical composition of the Northwest manganese ore occurrence in the Highveld region, South Africa." Journal of Mining Institute 248 (May 25, 2021): 195–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.31897/pmi.2021.2.4.
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The Northwest manganese ore mineralisation is located at a relative distance from traditionally known manganese mining areas in a new manganese-bearing region (Highveld) in the Northwest Province, Republic of South Africa. The ore occurrence was studied on farms: Buchansvale 61 IQ, Weltevreden 517 JQ, Rhenosterhoek 343 JP and Kafferskraal 306 JP. The data obtained from studying the geology of the area pointed out to interests regarding the development criterias for search of similar ore mineralisations in the northwest region of South Africa. The ore occurs predominantly in the form of powdered manganese wad, manganese nodules and crusts, confined to the karstic structures of the upper section of the dolomites. X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive link (SEM-EDS) and X-ray fluorescence were utilized to unveil the mineral and chemical composition of the ore samples. The present study therefore presents the results on both chemical and mineral composition of manganese ores, and their depth and longitudinal distribution. Karstic areas causing an increased local thickness of the ore body were identified. The geochemical and microspcopic study of the ores indicates their supergene nature. The main ore minerals includes cryptomelane, lithiophorite, purolusite, hollandite and romanechite associated with impurity components of Ba, Ce, Co, La, Cr, Zn and V.
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Bandama, Foreman, Shadreck Chirikure, and Simon Hall. "Ores Sources, Smelters and Archaeometallurgy: Exploring Iron Age Metal Production in the Southern Waterberg, South Africa." Journal of African Archaeology 11, no. 2 (November 11, 2013): 243–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.3213/2191-5784-10240.
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The Southern Waterberg in Limpopo Province is archaeologically rich, especially when it comes to evidence of pre-colonial mining and metal working. Geologically, the area hosts important mineral resources such as copper, tin and iron which were smelted by agriculturalists in the precolonial period. In this region however, tin seems to be the major attraction given that Rooiberg is still the only source of cassiterite in southern Africa to have provided evidence of mining before European colonization. This paper reports the results of archaeological and archaeometallurgical work which was carried out in order to reconstruct the technology of metalworking as well as the cultural interaction in the study area and beyond. The ceramic evidence shows that from the Eiland Phase (1000–1300 AD) onwards there was cross borrowing of characteristic decorative traits amongst extant groups that later on culminated in the creation of a new ceramic group known as Rooiberg. In terms of mining and metal working, XRF and SEM analyses, when coupled with optical microscopy, indicate the use of indigenous bloomery techniques that are widespread in pre-colonial southern Africa. Tin and bronze production was also represented and their production remains also pin down this metallurgy to particular sites and excludes the possibility of importing of finished tin and bronze objects into this area.
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Fairey, Brenton J., Martin J. Timmerman, Masafumi Sudo, and Harilaos Tsikos. "The Role of Hydrothermal Activity in the Formation of Karst-Hosted Manganese Deposits of the Postmasburg Mn Field, Northern Cape Province, South Africa." Minerals 9, no. 7 (July 3, 2019): 408. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min9070408.
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The Postmasburg Manganese Field (PMF), Northern Cape Province, South Africa, once represented one of the largest sources of manganese ore worldwide. Two belts of manganese ore deposits have been distinguished in the PMF, namely the Western Belt of ferruginous manganese ores and the Eastern Belt of siliceous manganese ores. Prevailing models of ore formation in these two belts invoke karstification of manganese-rich dolomites and residual accumulation of manganese wad which later underwent diagenetic and low-grade metamorphic processes. For the most part, the role of hydrothermal processes and metasomatic alteration towards ore formation has not been adequately discussed. Here we report an abundance of common and some rare Al-, Na-, K- and Ba-bearing minerals, particularly aegirine, albite, microcline, banalsite, sérandite-pectolite, paragonite and natrolite in Mn ores of the PMF, indicative of hydrothermal influence. Enrichments in Na, K and/or Ba in the ores are generally on a percentage level for most samples analysed through bulk-rock techniques. The presence of As-rich tokyoite also suggests the presence of As and V in the hydrothermal fluid. The fluid was likely oxidized and alkaline in nature, akin to a mature basinal brine. Various replacement textures, particularly of Na- and K- rich minerals by Ba-bearing phases, suggest sequential deposition of gangue as well as ore-minerals from the hydrothermal fluid, with Ba phases being deposited at a later stage. The stratigraphic variability of the studied ores and their deviation from the strict classification of ferruginous and siliceous ores in the literature, suggests that a re-evaluation of genetic models is warranted. New Ar-Ar ages for K-feldspars suggest a late Neoproterozoic timing for hydrothermal activity. This corroborates previous geochronological evidence for regional hydrothermal activity that affected Mn ores at the PMF but also, possibly, the high-grade Mn ores of the Kalahari Manganese Field to the north. A revised, all-encompassing model for the development of the manganese deposits of the PMF is then proposed, whereby the source of metals is attributed to underlying carbonate rocks beyond the Reivilo Formation of the Campbellrand Subgroup. The main process by which metals are primarily accumulated is attributed to karstification of the dolomitic substrate. The overlying Asbestos Hills Subgroup banded iron formation (BIF) is suggested as a potential source of alkali metals, which also provides a mechanism for leaching of these BIFs to form high-grade residual iron ore deposits.
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Hicks, N., and D. J. C. Gold. "Lithostratigraphy of the Sinqeni Formation, Pongola Supergroup, South Africa." South African Journal of Geology 123, no. 3 (September 1, 2020): 399–420. http://dx.doi.org/10.25131/sajg.123.0027.
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Abstract The Mesoarchaean Sinqeni Formation forms the lowermost unit of the predominantly sedimentary Mozaan Group (Pongola Supergroup) of southern Africa. The formation comprises a dominantly arenaceous succession, which can be subdivided into four members. A laterally discontinuous gold- and uranium-bearing conglomerate package (Denny Dalton Member) is commonly developed at the base of the formation. Overlying the basal conglomerates are two significant quartz arenite packages (Dipka, and Kwaaiman Members) which are separated by a ferruginous shale package (Vlakhoek Member) that locally hosts banded-iron formation. The formation is the most extensively exposed succession of the Mozaan Group, cropping out extensively in the Hartland region, as well as in multiple inliers from Amsterdam in the Mpumalanga to Nkandla in central KwaZulu-Natal, with further exposures in Eswatini. Subeconomic gold and uranium mineralisation occur sporadically within the conglomerates of the Denny Dalton Member, and have previously been mined from multiple occurrences in the White Mfolozi, Mhlatuze and Nkandla Inliers whilst many prospecting trenches are found in the conglomerates of the Hartland and Amsterdam areas. Gold has also briefly been exploited from ferruginous shales and iron formations of the Vlakhoek Member in the Altona area. Litho-correlative equivalents of the formation comprise the Mandeva Formation (White Mfolozi Inlier), Skurwerant Formation (Amsterdam region) and Mkaya Formation (Magudu region).
Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Iron ores – Geology – South Africa"
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Tsikos, Harilaos. "Petrographic and geochemical constraints on the origin and post-depositional history of the Hotazel iron-manganese deposits, Kalahari Manganese Field, South Africa." Thesis, Rhodes University, 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1005599.
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The giant Palaeoproterozoic manganese deposits of the Kalahari manganese field (KMF), Northern Cape Province, South Mrica, have been a world renowned resource of manganese ore for many decades. In recent years, the mineralogical composition, geochemistry and genesis of these deposits have been the objects of many geological investigations, yet their origin remains contentious up to the present day. A characteristic feature of the Kalahari deposits is the intimate association of manganese ore and iron-formation of the Superior-type, in the form of three discrete sedimentary cycles constituting the Hotazel Formation. This striking lithological association is an almost unique feature on a global scale. From that point of view, the present study is effectively the first attempt to shed light on the origin and post-depositional history of the Hotazel succession, using as prime focus the petrographic and geochemical characteristics ofthe host iron-formation. Petrographic and whole-rock geochemical information of iron-formation from the southern parts of the KMF, suggests that the Hotazel iron-formation is almost identical to other iron-formations of the world of similar age and petrological character. The rock exhibits essentially no high-grade metamorphic or low-temperature alteration effects. Mineralogically, it contains abundant chert, magnetite, subordinate amounts of silicate minerals (greenalite, minnesotaite, stilpnomelane) and appreciable concentrations of carbonate constituents in the form of coexisting calcite and ankerite. Such mineralogical composition is indicative of processes occurring in a diagenetic" to burial (up to very low-greenschist facies) metamorphic environment. Bulk-rock geochemical data point towards a simple composition with Si02, total Fe-oxide and CaO being the chief major oxide components. Whole-rock rare-earth element data suggest that the iron-formation precipitated from a water column with chemical signatures comparable to modern, shallow oceanic seawater. The virtual absence of positive Eu anomalies is a feature that compares well with similar data from Neoproterozoic, glaciogenic iron-formations of the Rapitan type, and suggests but only a dilute hydrothermal signal, poten!ially derived from distal submarine volcanic activity. Carbon and oxygen isotope data from iron-formation and Mn-bearing carbonates as well as overlying ferriferous limestone of the Mooidraai Formation, compare well with the literature. The former exhibit variable depletion relative to seawater in terms of both BC and 180, while the latter have signatures comparable to normal marine bicarbonate. Isotopic variations appear to be related to fluctuations in the amount of co-precipitated marine carbonate, in conjunction with processes of coupled organic matter oxidation - FelMn reduction in the diagenetic environment. Oxygen isotope data from quartz-magnetite-calcite triplets suggest that crystallisation took place under open-system conditions, with magnetite being the most susceptible phase in terms of fluid-rock isotopic exchange. Data also suggest that the calcite-magnetite pair may constitute a more reliable geothermometer than the quartz-magnetite one, mainly due to the interlinked diagenetic histories between calcite and magnetite. Iron-formation from the northern parts of the KMF can by categorised into three main classes, namely pristine, altered and oxidised. Pristine iron-formation is identical to the one seen in the southernmost parts of the field. Altered iron-formation corresponds to a carbonate-free derivative of intense oxidation and leaching processes at the expense ofpristine iron-formation, and contains almost exclusively binary quartz-hematite mixtures. The rock appears to have lost essentially its entire pre-existing carbonate-related components (i.e., Ca, Mg, Sr, most Mn and Ba) and displays residual enrichments in elements such as Cr, Th, V, Ni and Pb, which would have behaved as immobile constituents during low-temperature alteration. The low temperature origin of altered iron-formation is supported by oxygen isotope data from quartz-hematite pairs which indicate that isotopically light hematite would have derived from oxidation of magneftte and other ferroussilicate compounds in the presence of a low-temperature meteoric fluid, while quartz would have remained isotopically unchanged. Occasional occurrences of acmite-hematite assemblages suggest localised metasomatic processes related to the action ofNaCI-rich fluids at the expense of altered iron-formation. The conditions of acmite genesis are very poorly constrained due to the very broad stability limits of the mineral in environments ranging from magmatic to surface-related. Oxidised iron-formation constitutes a distinct rock-type and shares common attributes with both the pristine and the altered iron-formation. The rock contains hematite as an important constituent while the amount of magnetite is substantially reduced. With regard to carbonate nlinerals, calcite contents are clearly very low or absent, having being replaced in most instances by a single, Mgenriched, dolomite/ankerite:type species. Oxidised iron-formation contains somewhat higher amounts of iron and reduced amounts of Sr and Ba relative to pristine iron-formation, whereas enrichments in elements such as Ni, Th, Pb, Cr, and V are seen, similar to altered iron-formation. Oxidised iron-formation appears to have originated from processes of dissolution-mobilisationreprecipitation of solutes derived primarily from leaching that produced altered iron-formation. It is proposed that the Hotazel iron-formation and associated manganese deposits were formed as a result of episodic sea-level fluctuations in a stratified depositional environment that gradually evolved into a shallow carbonate platform. A critical parameter in the development of manganese sediment may include regional climatic patterns related to a glacial event (Makganyene diamictite) prior to deposition of the Hotazel strata. This suggestion draws parallels with processes that are believed to have led to the formation of worldwide iron-formations and associated manganese deposits subsequent to Neoproterozoic episodes of glaciation. Submarine volcanism related to the underlying Ongeluk lavas appears to have had very little (if any) metallogenic significance, while evidence for a sudden rise in the oxygen contents of the atmosphere and ambient waters is lacking. With regard to later alteration processes, combination of geological and geochemical data point towards the potential influence of surface weathering prior to deposition of rocks of the unconformably overlying Olifantshoek Supergroup, possibly coupled with fault- and/or thrustcontrolled fluid-flow and leaching of the Hotazel succession during post-Olifantshoek times.
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Latorre-Muzzio, Gina. "The influence of geological, genetic and economic factors on the ore reserve estimation of Kwaggashoek east iron ore deposit." Thesis, Rhodes University, 1993. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1005584.
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Tectonics plays an important role in the genesis and subsequent mlnlng development of the Kwaggashoek East ore body. Lithological key units control the effectiveness of the ore forming processes, affecting the in situ ore reserve, The Kwaggashoek East deposit is the product of primary and secondary processes. A genetic model focussed on the source, migration and deposition of iron suggests a possible original source of iron as the product of very dilute hydrothermal input into deep ocean waters, with subsequent migration through structural conduits. Supergene processes account for the upgrading of the ore and the phosphorus redistribution. A good correlation between samples in a preliminary geostatistical study reflects the effectiveness of this process in the high grade ore zone. A broad overview of the economic issues which affect the commercialization of iron, indicates a balanced supply-demand situation for the five next years. The reserve estimation procedure requires accurate scientific terminology and appropriate methodology. Documentation is essential and should be detailed enough to allow for future reassessment. The results of three estimation methods in Kwaggashoek East differ by less than 5%. The accuracy of the final results depends more on geological interpretation and assumptions than on the method applied. Although optimization of grade and tonnage in the Kwaggashoek East deposit seems to be met with the actual cut-off grade used in the Thabazimbi mine district, the grade-quality concept introduced in this thesis indicates a decrease in the estimated reserves for the deposit
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Badenhorst, Jaco Cornelis. "The precambrian iron-formations in the Limpopo belt as represented by the magnetite quartzite deposits at Moonlight, Koedoesrand area, Northern Transvaal." Thesis, Rhodes University, 1991. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1013309.
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This dissertation is based largely on data that was accumulated during the execution of an exploration program by Iscor Ltd in the Northern Transvaal. The program included geological mapping, geophysical surveys and drilling, on Precambrian iron-formations in the Central Zone of the Limpopo Belt. The structure, stratigraphy, metamorphism, and economic importance of the magnetite quartzites and associated lithologies of the Moonlight prospect are discussed. The lithologies underlying the Moonlight prospect area consist of various pink- and grey-banded gneisses and pink granulite, together with a variety of metasedimentary supracrustal rock-types and concordant serpentinite bodies. The gneissic rock-types consist of chlorite-quartz-feldspar gneiss, chlorite-quartz-feldspar augen gneiss, hornblende-quartz-feldspar gneiss, biotite-quartz-feldspar gneiss, felsic and mafic granulite, and foliated amphibolite. The metasedimentary lithologies are represented by calc-silicates and marble, white quartz-feldspar granulite, magnetite quartzite, metaquartzite and garnet-bearing granulite and gneiss (metapelites). The concordant ultramafic bodies consist of serpentinite with lesser amphibolite, dunite, and chromitite. Intrusive pegmatites and diabase dykes are also present in the prospect area. Metamorphism reached granulite-facies, and more than one retrqgrade metamorphic event is recognized . Amphibolite-facies assemblages are present, but it is uncertain whether they represent another retrograde event . Polyphase deformation has produced intense and complex folding , resulting in irregular magnetite quartzite orebodies. The high metamorphic grades have resulted in medium- grained recrystallization of the magnetite-quartzites with a loss of prominent banding often associated with these rock-types . The magnetite quartzite occurs as three seperate but related ore zones, consisting of one or more ore-bands seperated by other lithologies. All three zones form poor outcrops and suboutcrops in a generally flat lying and sand covered area. · Although representing a low-grade iron ore (32% total Fe), the magnetite quartzite deposits at Moonlight are regarded as potentially viable due to the large opencast tonnages available at low stripping ratios, and the relatively cheap and easy beneficiation process needed to produce a magnetite concentrate with 69-70% total Fe.
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Gapara, Cornwell Sine. "A review of the deposition of iron-formation and genesis of the related iron ore deposits as a guide to exploration for Precambrian iron ore deposits in southern Africa." Thesis, Rhodes University, 1993. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1005610.
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Iron-formations are ferruginous sedimentary rocks which have their source from fumarolic activity associated with submarine volcanism, with deposition of iron as oxides, hydroxides, and hydrous oxide-silicate minerals in shallow and/or deep marine sedimentary systems. The Precambrian ironformations of southern Africa have a wide age range, but are more prominently developed before 1.SGa. These iron formations occur in greenstone belts of the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwean cratons, in the Limpopo mobile belt, in cratonic basins and in the Damara mobile belt. The Archaean-Proterozoic sedimentary basins and greenstone belts host iron ore deposits in iron-formation. Iron formations have a lengthy geological history. Most were subjected to intense, and on occasions repeated, tectonic and metamorphic episodes which also included metasomatic processes at times to produce supergene/hypogene high grade iron ores. Iron-formations may be enriched by diagenetic, and metamorphic processes to produce concentrating-grade ironformations. Uplift, weathering and denudation, have influenced the mineral association and composition of the ores, within which magnetite, haematite and goethite constitute the major ore minerals. The iron resources of the southern Africa region include the Sishen deposits, hosting to about 1200 Mt of high grade direct shipping ore, at >63% Fe. Deposits of Zimbabwe have more than 33 000 Mt of beneficiable iron-formation. The evaluation of an iron ore prospect involves many factors which must be individually assessed in order to arrive at an estimate of the probable profitability of the deposit. Many of these are geological and are inherent in the deposit itself. Other factors are inherent aspects of the environment in which the ore is formed. Although the geological character of the ore does not change, technological advances in the processing techniques may have a great effect on the cost of putting the ore into marketable form. Geochemical, geophysical and remote sensing methods would be used for regional exploration. Chip sampling and drilling are useful for detailed exploration. Purely geological exploration techniques are applicable on a prospect scale in the exploration of iron ore deposits. Regional exploration targeting should choose late Archaean greenstone belts containing oxide facies iron-formation or Early Proterozoic basins located at craton margins as they are both known to host high-grade haematite orebodies formed by supergene/hypogene enrichment. Most types of iron ore deposits in southern Africa are described and classified. An attempt is made to emphasize the major controls on mineralisation, in the hope that these may be applicable to exploration both in the southern African region and within analogous settings around the world.
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Hammond, Napoleon Quaye. "The geochemistry of ore fluids and control of gold mineralization in banded iron-formation at the Kalahari Goldridge deposit, Kraaipan greenstone belt, South Africa." Thesis, Rhodes University, 2003. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1008370.
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The Kalahari Goldridge mine is located within the Archaean Kraaipan Greenstone Belt about 60 km SW of Mafikeng in the Northwestern Province, South Africa. Several gold deposits are located within approximately north - south-striking banded iron-formation (BIF). Current opencast mining operations are focused on the largest of these (D Zone). The orebody is stratabound and hosted primarily in the BIF, which consists of alternating chert and magnetite-chloritestilpnomelane-sulphide-carbonate bands ranging from mm to cm scale. The ore body varies in thickness from 15 to 45 m along a strike length of about 1.5 km. The BlF is sandwiched between a sericite-carbonate-chlorite schist at the immediate footwall and carbonaceous meta-pelites in the hanging-wall. Further west in the footwall, the schists are underlain by mafic meta-volcanic amphibolite. Overlying the hanging-wall carbonaceous metapeiites are schist units and meta-greywackes that become increasingly conglomeratic up the stratigraphy. Stilpnomelane-, chlorite- and minnesotaite-bearing assemblages in the BlFs indicate metamorphic temperatures of 300 - 450°C and pressures of less than 5 kbars. The BIF generally strikes approximately 3400 and dips from 60 to 75°E. Brittle-ductile deformation is evidenced by small-scale isoclinal folds, brecciation, extension fractures and boudinaging of cherty BIF units. Fold axial planes are sub-parallel to the foliation orientation with sub-vertical plunges parallel to prominent rodding and mineral lineation in the footwall. Gold mineralization at the Kalahari Goldridge deposit is associated with two generations of subhorizontal quartz-carbonate veins dips approximately 20 to 40°W. The first generation consists of ladder vein sets (Group lIA) preferentially developed in Fe-rich meso bands, whilst the second generation consists of large quartz-carbonate veins (Group lIB), which crosscut the entire ore body extending into the footwall and hanging-wall in places. Major structures that control the ore body are related to meso-scale isoclinal folds with fold axes subparallel to mineral elongation lineations, which plunge approximately 067°E. These linear structures form orthogonal orientation with the plane of the mineralized shallowdipping veins indicating stretching and development of fluid - focusing conduits. A second-order controlling feature corresponds to the intersection of the mineralized veins and foliation planes of host rock, plunging approximately 008°N and trending 341°. G0ld is closely associated with sulphides, mainly pyrite and pyrrhotite and to a lesser extent with bismuth tellurides, and carbonate gangue. The ore fluid responsible for the gold deposition is in the C-O-H system with increased CH₄ contents attributed to localized hydrolysis reaction between interbedded carbonaceous sediment and ore fluid. The fluid is characterized by significant C0₂ contents and low salinities below 7.0 wt % NaCl equivalent (averages of 3.5 and 3.0 wt % NaCl equivalent for the first and second episodes of the mineralization respectively) . Calculated values of f0₂. ranging from 10⁻²⁹·⁹⁸ to 10⁻³²·⁹⁶ bars, bracket the C0₂-CH₄ and pyrite-pyrrhotite-magnetite buffer boundaries and reveal the reducing nature of the ore fluid at deposition. Calculated total sulphur content in the ore fluid (mΣs), ranges from 0.011 to 0.018M and is consistent with the range (10⁻³·⁵ to 10⁻¹M) reported for subamphibolite facies ore fluids. The close association of sulphides with the Au and nature of the fluid also give credence that the Au was carried in solution by the Au(HS)₂ - complex. Extensive epigenetic replacement of magnetite and chlorite in BIF and other meta-pelitic sediments in the deposit by sulphides and carbonates, both on meso scopic and microscopic scales gives evidence of an interaction by a CO₂- and H₂S-bearing fluid with the Fe-rich host rocks in the deposit. This facilitated Au precipitation due to changes in the physico-chemical conditions of the ore fluid such as a decrease in the mΣs and pH leading to the destabilization of the reduced sulphur complexes. Local gradients in f0₂ may account for gold precipitation in places within carbonaceous sediments. The fineness of the gold grams (1000*Au/(Au + Ag) ranges from 823 to 921. This compares favourably with the fineness reported for some Archaean BIFhosced deposits (851 - 970). Mass balance transfer calculations indicate that major chemical changes associated with the hydrothermal alteration of BIF include enrichment of Au, Ag, Bi, Te, volatiles (S and CO₂), MgO, Ba, K and Rb but significant depletion of SiO₂ and minor losses of Fe₂O₃. In addition, anomalous enrichment of Sc (average, 1247%) suggests its possible use as an exploration tool in the ferruginous sediments in the Kraaipan greenstone terrane. Evidence from light stable isotopes and fluid inclusions suggests that the mineralized veins crystallized from a single homogeneous fluid source during the two episodes of mineralization under the similar physicochemical conditions. Deposition occurred at temperatures rangmg from 350 to 400°C and fluid pressures ranging from 0.7 to 2.0kbars. Stable isotope constraints indicate the following range for the hydrothermal fluid; θ¹⁸H₂O = 6.65 to 10.48%0, 8¹³CΣc = -6.0 to -8.0 %0 and 8³⁴SΣs = + 1.69 to + 4.0%0 . These data do not offer conclusive evidence for the source of fluid associated with the mineralization at the Kalahari Goldridge deposit as they overlap the range prescribed for fluid derived from devolatization of deep-seated volcano-sedimentary piles near the brittle-ductile transition in greenstone belts during prograde metamorphism, and magmatic hydrothermal fluids.KMBT_363
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Land, Jarred. "Genesis of BIF-hosted hematite iron ore deposits in the central part of the Maremane anticline, Northern Cape Province, South Africa." Thesis, Rhodes University, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1020905.
Full textAbstract:
The Paleoproterozoic Transvaal Supergroup in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa is host to high-grade BIF-hosted hematite iron-ore deposits and is the country’s most important source of iron to date. Previous work has failed to provide a robust and all-inclusive genetic model for such deposits in the Transvaal Supergroup; in particular, the role of hydrothermal processes in ore-genesis has not been adequately clarified. Recent studies by the author have produced evidence for hydrothermal alteration in shales (Olifantshoek Supergroup) stratigraphically overlying the iron-ore intervals; this has highlighted the need to reassess current ore-forming models which place residual supergene processes at the core of oregenesis. This thesis focuses on providing new insights into the processes responsible for the genesis of hematite iron ores in the Maremane anticline through the use of newly available exploration drill-core material from the centre of the anticline. The study involved standard mineralogical investigations using transmitted/reflected light microscopy as well as instrumental techniques (XRD, EPMA); and the employment of traditional whole-rock geochemical analysis on samples collected from two boreholes drilled in the centre of the Maremane anticline, Northern Cape Province. Rare earth element analysis (via ICP-MS) and oxygen isotope data from hematite separates complement the whole-rock data. Iron-ore mineralisation examined in this thesis is typified by the dominance of Fe-oxide (as hematite), which reaches whole-rock abundances of up to 98 wt. % Fe₂O₃. Textural and whole-rock geochemical variations in the ores likely reflect a variable protolith, from BIF to Fe-bearing shale. A standard supergene model invoking immobility and residual enrichment of iron is called into question on the basis of the relative degrees of enrichment recorded in the ores with respect to other, traditionally immobile elements during chemical weathering, such as Al₂O₃ and TiO₂. Furthermore, the apparently conservative behaviour of REE in the Fe ore (i.e. low-grade and high-grade iron ore) further emphasises the variable protolith theory. Hydrothermally-induced ferruginisation is suggested to post-date the deposition of the post-Transvaal Olifantshoek shales, and is likely to be linked to a sub-surface transgressive hydrothermal event which indiscriminately transforms both shale and BIF into Fe-ore. A revised, hydrothermal model for the formation of BIF-hosted high-grade hematite iron ore deposits in the central part of the Maremane anticline is proposed, and some ideas of the author for further follow-up research are presented.
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Polteau, Stéphane. "The early proterozoic Makganyene glacial event in South Africa : its implication in sequence stratigraphy interpretations, paleoenvironmental conditions and iron and manganese ore deposition." Thesis, Rhodes University, 2005. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1007612.
Full textAbstract:
The Makganyene Formation forms the base of the Postmasburg Group in the Transvaal Supergroup in the Griqualand West Basin. It consists of diamictites, sandstones, banded iron-formations (BIFs), shales, siltstones and carbonates. It is generally accepted that the Makganyene Formation rests on an erosive regional unconformity throughout the Northern Cape Province. However this study demonstrates that this stratigraphic relationship is not universal, and conformable contacts have been observed. One of the principal aims of this study is to identify the nature of the Makganyene basal contact throughout the Griqualand West Basin. Intensive fieldwork was carried out from Prieska in the south, to Danielskuil in the north. In the Sishen and Hotazel areas, only borehole material was available to assess the stratigraphy. The Griquatown Fault Zone delimits the boundary between the deep basin and platform facies. The Koegas Subgroup is only present south of the Griquatown Fault Zone, where it pinches out. However, the transition Griquatown BIFs-Koegas Subgroup occurs in lacustrine deposits on the Ghaap platform (Beukes, 1983). The Griquatown Fault Zone represents the edge of the basin, which corresponds to a hinge rather than a fault zone. The Makganyene Formation rests with a conformable contact on the Koegas Subgroup south of the Griquatown Hinge Zone, and north of it the Makganyene Formation lies unconformably on the Asbestos Hills Subgroup. The Makganyene Formation displays lateral facies changes that reflect the paleogeography of the Griqualand West Basin, and the development of ice sheets/shelves. The Ghaap platform is characterised by coarse immature sand interbedded with the diamictites. The clasts in this area contain local Asbestos Hills material and no dropstones are present. Such settings are typical of sediments that are being deposited below a grounded ice mass. At the Griquatown Hinge Zone, the sandstone lenses are smaller, and the clasts consist of chert, of which a great number are striated and faceted. In the Matsap area, the presence of dropstones is strong evidence for the presence of a floating ice shelf that released its material by basal melting. Further south, the Makganyene Formation contains stromatolitic bioherms that only form if clastic contamination is minimal and therefore the ice that transported the detritus to the basin did not extend far into open sea conditions. The base of the Hotazel Formation also contains diamictite levels. Dropstones have been identified, implying a glacial origin. The Hotazel diamictites are interbedded with hyaloclastites and BIFs. The Makganyene glacial event, therefore, was not restricted to the Makganyene Formation, but also included the Ongeluk Formation, through to the base of the Hotazel Formation. Petrographic studies of the Makganyene Formation and the base of the Hotazel Formation reveal mineral assemblages that are diagnostic of early to late diagenetic crystallisation and of low-grade metamorphism not exceeding the very low green-schist facies. The facies identified display the same sense of basin deepening, from shallow high-energy Hotazel area on the Ghaap platform, to the deep basin in the Matsap area. Whole-rock geochemical analyses reveal that the elemental composition of the Makganyene Formation is very similar to that of the Asbestos Hills BIFs, which were the most important source of clastic detritus for the Makganyene Formation. However, minor amounts of carbonates of the Campbellrand Subgroup, as well as a felsic crustal input from the Archean granitoid basement, made contributions. On the Ghaap platform, the Makganyene diamictite is enriched in iron, calcium, and magnesium, while in the deeper parts of the basin the diamictites are enriched in detrital elements, such as titanium and aluminium, which occur in the fine clay component. The Hotazel diamictite displays a distinct mafic volcanic input, related to the extrusion of the Ongeluk basaltic andesites, which was incorporated in the glacial sediments. Sequence stratigraphy is based on the recognition of contacts separating the different systems tracts that compose a depositional sequence. However, because the basal contact of the Makganyene Formation has not been properly identified in previous work, no correct model has been proposed so far. Therefore correlations between the Griqualand West and the Transvaal basins, based on lithostratigraphic similarities and extrapolations of unconformities, have to be reviewed, especially since the publication of new radiometric ages contradict all previously proposed correlations. It is proposed here that the Transvaal Supergroup in the Griqualand West Basin represents a continuous depositional event that lasted about 200 Ma. The Makganyene glacial event occurred during changing conditions in the chemistries of the atmosphere and ocean, and in the continental configuration. A Snowball Earth event has been proposed as the causative process of such paleoenvironmental changes. However, evidence presented here of less dramatic glacial conditions, with areas of ice-free waters, implies an alternative to the Snowball Earth event. The paleoenvironmental changes are thought to represent a transition from an anaerobic to aerobic atmosphere, that was responsible for the global cooling of the surface of the Earth, Such a glacial event may have aided in the large-scale precipitation of iron and manganese in areas of intense upwellings.
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Whitfield, Derek. "The genesis and controls of gold mineralization south of Rehoboth, Namibia." Thesis, Rhodes University, 1991. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1005560.
Full textAbstract:
Gold mineralization is hosted within gossanous quartz-haematite veins in volcano-sedimentary lithologies of the Klein Aub - Rehoboth basin of the Irumide Belt, Namibia. Mineralization and hydrothermal alteration are restricted to deformed lithologies particularly the metasediments. Lithological relationships, geochemistry and metallogenic characteristics of the Irumide Belt suggest an intra-continental rift setting. Copper mineralization is well known along the length of the belt, from Klein Aub in the southwest to Ghanzi in the northeast, whereas gold mineralization appears restricted to the Klein Aub Rehoboth basin. The gold is envisaged as having being leached initially from graben fill sequences during rift closure and basin dewatering. Location of the mineralization is strongly controlled by structure and lithological contact zones. Such zones are percieved as having acted as conduit zones for escaping mineralized fluids during basin closure and deformation. Apart from the lack of an effective mineralizing trap, all features consistent with the development of an ore deposit are present. The largest mineralization traps within the area studied are shear zones followed by lithological contact zones. The Mebi and Blanks gold mines are developed over large shear zones while the Swartmodder and Neuras gold mines are situated over mineralized lithological contacts. The Swartmodder copper mine yielded ore from a mineralized schist enclave within granite. Copper and gold occurrences are attributed to two contrasting styles of mineralization. Copper mineralization is suggested to have developed during initial rifting of the belt (ie. stratabound sedimentary exhalative type), while the gold and minor copper resulted from rift closure and basin dewatering. Although no economical orebody was realized during the course of this study a model is proposed for the development of mineralization within the Irumide basement lithologies as a working hypothesis for future exploration.
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Franey, N. J. "A geological model of shear zone gold deposits in the Pietersburg Greenstone Belt, South Africa." Thesis, Rhodes University, 1987. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1007190.
Full textAbstract:
The Pletersburg greenstone belt Is located In South Africa, about 300 km northeast of Johannesburg. It hosts a significant amount of gold mineralization and just over 1000 kg of gold have been produced from Its various reefs and secondary deposits. The greenstone belt is interpreted as an Archean ophiolite complex. It comprlses a volcano-sedimentary succession (the Pletersburg Group) which Is subdivided Into a basal greenstone sequence, interpreted as oceanic crust, and an upper sedimentary cover sequence. A number of major shear zones, which are thought to represent thrusts that developed during the subduction of the greenstone sequence, form an integral part of the stratigraphy . Four stages of deformation (D₁-D₄) and four phases of metamorphism (H₁-H₄) (three of which are correlatable with the peak stages of deformation) are recognized. The primary gold deposits are all shear zones related. but they are subdivided into greenstone, sedimentation and granIte-hosted types. Geographically, they occur In three distinct goldfields: Eerstellng, Roodepoort and Marbastad. The greenstone-hosted · Plenaar-Doreen shear complex Is In the Eersteiing goldfield and hosts eight gold occurrences. Within the complex, Girlie North Reef is the 640m-long "pay" section of the Girlie North shear zone. This reef is characterized, macroscopically, by a Quartz-carbonate-chlorite-sulphlde assemblage and, mlcroscoplcally, by the presence of tourmaline, arsenopyrlte and Au. Geochemical evidence Indicates that mineralizing fluids were H₂O and CO₂-bearing and rich In S, K and Al. The wall rock alteratlon was Isochemlcal but Is manifest as a change In mineralogy from a hornblende + plagioclase assemblage to an actlnollte/tremollte + Quartz + clay assemblage. This Is best developed In the hangIng wall of the reef and is thought to have been caused by hydrogen ion metasomatism. The Arsenopyrite Reef was one of the main sediment-hosted shear zone gold producers In the Harabastad goldfield. This reef Is Interpreted as the basal margin of a shear zone whose top contact Is probably represented by the Quartz Vein Reef. The shear zone consists predomonantly of quartz and carbonate, and the two "pay" reefs are characterized by tourmallne. arsenopyrite and Au. No wall rock alteration was identified In this study, Based on the mineralogy and geochemical signature of the Girlie Nortn Reef and the Arsenopyrite Reef, It Is proposed that both were formed at the $The Pletersburg greenstone belt Is located In South Africa, about 300 km northeast of Johannesburg. It hosts a significant amount of gold mineralization and just over 1000 kg of gold have been produced from Its various reefs and secondary deposits. The greenstone belt is interpreted as an Archean ophiolite complex. It comprlses a volcano-sedimentary succession (the Pletersburg Group) which Is subdivided Into a basal greenstone sequence, interpreted as oceanic crust, and an upper sedimentary cover sequence. A number of major shear zones, which are thought to represent thrusts that developed during the subduction of the greenstone sequence, form an integral part of the stratigraphy . Four stages of deformation (D₁-D₄) and four phases of metamorphism (H₁-H₄) (three of which are correlatable with the peak stages of deformation) are recognized. The primary gold deposits are all shear zones related. but they are subdivided into greenstone, sedimentation and granIte-hosted types. Geographically, they occur In three distinct goldfields: Eerstellng, Roodepoort and Marbastad. The greenstone-hosted · Plenaar-Doreen shear complex Is In the Eersteiing goldfield and hosts eight gold occurrences. Within the complex, Girlie North Reef is the 640m-long "pay" section of the Girlie North shear zone. This reef is characterized, macroscopically, by a Quartz-carbonate-chlorite-sulphlde assemblage and, mlcroscoplcally, by the presence of tourmaline, arsenopyrlte and Au. Geochemical evidence Indicates that mineralizing fluids were H₂O and CO₂-bearing and rich In S, K and Al. The wall rock alteratlon was Isochemlcal but Is manifest as a change In mineralogy from a hornblende + plagioclase assemblage to an actlnollte/tremollte + Quartz + clay assemblage. This Is best developed In the hangIng wall of the reef and is thought to have been caused by hydrogen ion metasomatism. The Arsenopyrite Reef was one of the main sediment-hosted shear zone gold producers In the Harabastad goldfield. This reef Is Interpreted as the basal margin of a shear zone whose top contact Is probably represented by the Quartz Vein Reef. The shear zone consists predomonantly of quartz and carbonate, and the two "pay" reefs are characterized by tourmallne. arsenopyrite and Au. No wall rock alteration was identified In this study, Based on the mineralogy and geochemical signature of the Girlie Nortn Reef and the Arsenopyrite Reef, It Is proposed that both were formed at the same time. Textural evidence Indicates that tourmaline, arsenopyrite and Au were all very late In the paragenesis of minerallzatlon. The presence of tourmaline also Indicates a probable granite association. It Is proposed that the maln gold mineralizing event was synchronous with the Intrusion of granitoids (and therefore also with (D₁-D₄) and (H₁-H₄) and that most of the Au was derived from felsic magma. Gold was partitioned Into a magmatic hydrothermal fluid and then transported into the greenstone belt as a chlorIde complex. These magmatiC fluids were channelled up shear zones whIch had already been mineralized with a quartz-carbonate-chlorlte - sulphide assemblage by previous metamorphic fluidS. generated during the dynamic (D₂-related) H₂-phase of metamorphism. The Au was then deposIted as the result of a change In a fluid variable, such as temperature, pH, f0₂, or the activity of Cl (some Au may have been transported In a sulphur complex and so the activity of reduced 5 could also have been Important).
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Tinney, Christopher Bruce. "The surface geology of the Lavino Chrome Mine of the farm Grootboom 336KT, eastern Transvaal." Thesis, Rhodes University, 1992. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1013404.
Full textAbstract:
A mapping project of the surface geology of the Lavino chrome mine and its surroundings was initiated in order to establish the surface geological relationships in the area. In so doing the chromitite layer presently being mined has been identified and potential exploration targets in the area have been outlined. The Lavino Chrome mine field area is situated within the eastern lobe of the Bushveld Igneous Complex. The area is bounded by in the north by the Steelpoort Lineament, in the west by the Dwars River fault and in the east by the contact with the Transvaal Sequence floor rocks. Layered igneous rocks (pyroxenites, norites and anorthosites) of the Rustenburg Layered Suite dominate the geological landscape at the Lavino mine. The fact that outcropping igneous rocks of the Critical Zone abut directly against the quartzite floor rocks on the mine property makes this area unique in the Bushveld Complex. The hills in the field area are capped by mafic/ultramafic iron-rich sheet - like bodies. Extensive strike-slip faulting is seen in outcrop in the area to the north/northwest of present mining operations. On the basis of field relationships, the main chromitite layer presently being mined at Lavino is identified as the Middle Group chromitite layer MG 1. Three other prominent chromitite layers stratigraphically associated with MG 1 are identified as the Middle Group chromitites MG 2, MG 3 and MG 4. Several other less prominent outcropping chromitite layers are tentatively identified as those belonging to the Lower and Upper group of chromitites. The disconformable nature of the contact between the layered igneous rocks and the Transvaal Sequence floor rocks has resulted in the development of a wedge of undifferentiated pyroxenites in the north of the field area. The economically important LG 6 chromitite layer may be developed in subcrop within this wedge.
Books on the topic "Iron ores – Geology – South Africa"
1
Harley, M. The mineralisation at Elandshoogte Gold Mine, Eastern Transvaal, South Africa. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand, 1990.
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2
Bowles, M. Tungsten mineralisation in the Namaqualand-Bushmanland region, northwestern Cape, South Africa. [Pretoria]: Republic of South Africa, Dept. of Mineral and Energy Affairs, Geological Survey, 1988.
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3
Pretorius, Desmond A. The sources of Witwatersrand gold and uranium: A continued difference of opinion. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand, 1989.
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4
Pretorius, Desmond A. The sources of Witwatersrand gold and uranium: A continued difference of opinion. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand, 1989.
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5
Rudolf, Saager, Köppel V. H, and University of the Witwatersrand. Economic Geology Research Unit., eds. Uranium distribution and redistributiom in a suite of fresh and weathered pre-Witwatersrand and Witwatersrand conglomerates from South Africa. [Johannesburg: Economic Geology Research Unit, University of the Witwatersrand, 1985.
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6
Myers, R. E. A tectono-sedimentary reconstruction of the development and evolution of the Witwatersrand Basin, with particular emphasis on the Central Rand Group. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand, 1989.
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7
Myers, R. E. A tectono-sedimentary reconstruction of the development and evolution of the Witwatersrand Basin, with particular emphasis on the Central Rand Group. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand, 1989.
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8
International Atomic Energy Agency; IAEA. Correlation of Uranium Geology Between South America and Africa. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 1987.
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9
Agency, International Atomic Energy, ed. Correlation of uranium geology between South America and Africa. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 1986.
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10
W, Caddey Stanton, ed. The Homestake Gold Mine, an Early Proterozoic iron-formation-hosted gold deposit, Lawrence County, South Dakota. [Washington, D.C.]: U.S. G.P.O., 1991.
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