Academic literature on the topic 'Irrigation water demand, available water, Saxony'

Abstract. Growing water scarcity in agriculture is an increasing problem in future in many regions of the world. Recent trends of weather extremes in Saxony, Germany also enhance drought risks for agricultural production. In addition, signals of longer and more intense drought conditions during the vegetation period can be found in future regional climate scenarios for Saxony. However, those climate predictions are associated with high uncertainty and therefore, e.g. stochastic methods are required to analyze the impact of changing climate patterns on future crop water requirements and water availability. For assessing irrigation as a measure to increase agricultural water security a generalized stochastic approach for a spatial distributed estimation of future irrigation water demand is proposed, which ensures safe yields and a high water productivity at the same time. The developed concept of stochastic crop water production functions (SCWPF) can serve as a central decision support tool for both, (i) a cost benefit analysis of farm irrigation modernization on a local scale and (ii) a regional water demand management using a multi-scale approach for modeling and implementation. The new approach is applied using the example of a case study in Saxony, which is dealing with the sustainable management of future irrigation water demands and its implementation.

Irrigation water shortages have lately been a main area of concern for policymakers and planners in Pakistan. Current literature on the country’s water resources predicts an alarming situation regarding the availability of irrigation water in the future due to declining water tables and serious financial, environmental, and social constraints of developing big storage reservoirs. Since there is little room to augment water supplies by building new dams, the existing supply-driven surface irrigation system needs to be replaced by a demand-based system with special focus on water use efficiency through the introduction of an appropriate water pricing system. The present study aims to evaluate several alternative water pricing systems in the search for choosing one that will ensure efficient use of irrigation water in Pakistan. A related objective is to test the extent of sensitivity of the demand for irrigation water to a change in alternative water prices. A major conclusion that emerges from this research is that irrigation water shortages are the result of the inflexibility of the present irrigation water supply system for agricultural use and have little to do with the existing water pricing practice in the country. Furthermore, the results of our water price simulations exercise confirm the general perception that demand for irrigation water is less sensitive to changes in alternative irrigation water prices. Two findings from the pricing policy perspective are: (i) irrigation water is not available in adequate quantity to farmers in the nine sub-districts surveyed at almost all of the alternative prices in Pakistan’s irrigated agriculture sector since the predicted water usage at all prices is greater than the actual usage for all districts; and (ii) our empirical analysis indicates significant inefficiency of resource allocation in respect of irrigation water as shown by its positively large marginal value product to opportunity cost ratio.

This study employs the positive mathematical programming (PMP) approach to estimate groundwater derived demand for irrigation using a cross-sectional dataset of 200 predominantly groundwater irrigated farms from the Punjab province of Pakistan. First, we find that the PMP optimal solution uses less water than what is available (being extracted) in order to make farmers allocate all the available land to different crops. Second, when water supplies are constrained farmers allocate land to different crops based on their total returns, not on the irrigation water requirements. The study results suggest that the limiting/constraining groundwater extractions would induce farmers to reconsider their irrigation water demand. The study findings suggest an introduction of Rs. 0.04/m3 of groundwater would not decrease farm income rather it would make farmers aware of the economic value of water. We suggest that although water pricing can induce an efficient use of groundwater extractions, additional policies are also required that improve irrigation water use efficiency.

Market vis-à-vis command and control approaches have been widely adopted in natural resource and environmental management since the 1980s. Adoption of markets in managing irrigation water resources is also emerging. It has been argued that markets are ineffective in managing the demand for irrigation water due to very low price elasticity. Most studies have been based on mathematical models simulating water markets and not on observed prices and quantities in real water markets since such data are rarely available. In Oman, perhaps in response to the extreme scarcity of water, elaborate water demand management institutions emulating markets have evolved and have been used for centuries. Water entitlements are leased based on prices through a community auction. The traded quantities of water and related prices have been recorded. This study uses this unique data set to estimate the elasticity of irrigation water. A log function on quantity and price of irrigation water is used with dummy variables on time and type of irrigation system. The price elasticity varies from -0.10 to -0.28, depending on the specifications of the econometric model. These estimates are higher than most estimates reported in past studies, indicating the efficacy of the indigenous market-based irrigation water management institution adopted in Oman.

AbstractThe looming water crisis in Libya necessitates taking immediate action to reduce the agricultural water demand that consumes more than 80% of the water supplies. The available information on water use efficiency and crop water productivity reveals that this proportion can be effectively reduced while maintaining the same, if not more, total agricultural production at the national level. Crop water productivity, which is depressingly low, can be doubled through implementing several measures including relocating all major agricultural crops among different hydroclimatic zones and growth seasons; crop selection based on comparative production advantages; realisation of the maximum genetically determined crop yields; and several other measures of demand water management. There is an urgent need to establish the necessary institutional arrangements that can effectively formulate and implement these measures as guided by agricultural research and extension services incorporating all beneficiaries and stakeholders in the process.

Abstract. In order to organize water for drought resistance reasonably, we need to study the relationship between irrigation water demand and meteorological drought in quantitative way. We chose five typical irrigation districts including the Qingtongxia irrigation district, Yellow River irrigation districts of Inner Mongolia in the upper reaches of the Yellow River, the Fen river irrigation district and the Wei river irrigation district in the middle reaches of the Yellow River and the irrigation districts in the lower reaches of the Yellow River as research area. Based on the hydrology, meteorology, groundwater and crop parameters materials from 1956 to 2010 in the Yellow River basin, we selected reconnaissance drought index (RDI) to analyze occurrence and evolution regularity of drought in the five typical irrigation districts, and calculated the corresponding irrigation water demand by using crop water balance equation. The relationship of drought and irrigation water demand in each typical irrigation district was studied by using grey correlation analysis and relevant analysis method, and the quantitative relationship between irrigation water demand and RDI was established in each typical irrigation district. The results showed that the RDI can be applied to evaluate the meteorological drought in the typical irrigation districts of the Yellow River basin. There is significant correlation between the irrigation water demand and RDI, and the grey correlation degree and correlation coefficient increased with increasing crops available effective rainfall. The irrigation water demand of irrigation districts in the upstream, middle and downstream of the Yellow River basin presented different response degrees to drought. The irrigation water demand increased 105 million m3 with the drought increasing one grade (RDI decreasing 0.5) in the Qingtongxia irrigation district and Yellow River irrigation districts of Inner Mongolia. The irrigation water demand increased 219 million m3 with the drought increasing one grade in the Fen river irrigation district and Wei river irrigation district. The irrigation water demand increased 622 million m3 with the drought increasing one grade in the downstream of Yellow River irrigation districts.

Water scarcity raises major concerns on the sustainable future of humanity and the conservation of important ecosystem functions. To meet the increasing food demand without expanding cultivated areas, agriculture will likely need to introduce irrigation in croplands that are currently rain-fed but where enough water would be available for irrigation. “Agricultural economic water scarcity” is, here, defined as lack of irrigation due to limited institutional and economic capacity instead of hydrologic constraints. To date, the location and productivity potential of economically water scarce croplands remain unknown. We develop a monthly agrohydrological analysis to map agricultural regions affected by agricultural economic water scarcity. We find these regions account for up to 25% of the global croplands, mostly across Sub-Saharan Africa, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia. Sustainable irrigation of economically water scarce croplands could feed an additional 840 million people while preventing further aggravation of blue water scarcity.

Water pumping for irrigation has a relatively high energy demand, depending on the applied irrigation method. At the same time, there is a considerable energy from the sun during the irrigation period. The solar PV (photovoltaic) technology may be suitable to ensure electric energy for pumping in many cases in agriculture, where the electric network is not available or reduction of the energy costs is wanted. There are some pilot plants for water pumping on the base of solar energy in the world and the spreading of these solar technologies is predictable. The solar energy based pumping process can be approached both in theoretical and experimental ways. In this paper, both the theoretical questions of the solar based pumping process and the experimental results of a model testing pump station powered by PV panels are shown.

Water distribution for open-channel irrigation networks is more and more complex due to increasing constraints on water resources and changing demand patterns, whereas the performance of such systems is expected to increase. In this regard, an optimization approach is developed in order to schedule a fair scenario of water distribution among different users, where water demand is formulated in term of start time, duration and flow rate. This study investigates how to optimize the water distribution over a finite scheduling horizon while respecting the constraints linked to the system. The optimization approach forces the scheduled start time and the volume to be closer to the demanded ones, to minimize water losses and to reduce manpower. The constraints take into account the flow routing processes, the physical infrastructure, the available water resource, and the gate keeper timetable. The numerical resolution is done by using an optimization software IBM-Ilog Cplex. The method is then illustrated with the scheduling of off-take withdrawals for a typical traditional open-channel network: a lateral canal of the Gignac canal, in southern France.

Climate change is expected to affect crop production worldwide, particularly in rain-fed agricultural regions. It is still unknown how irrigation water needs will change in a warmer planet and where freshwater will be locally available to expand irrigation without depleting freshwater resources. Here, we identify the rain-fed cropping systems that hold the greatest potential for investment in irrigation expansion because water will likely be available to suffice irrigation water demand. Using projections of renewable water availability and irrigation water demand under warming scenarios, we identify target regions where irrigation expansion may sustain crop production under climate change. Our results also show that global rain-fed croplands hold significant potential for sustainable irrigation expansion and that different irrigation strategies have different irrigation expansion potentials. Under a 3 °C warming, we find that a soft-path irrigation expansion with small monthly water storage and deficit irrigation has the potential to expand irrigated land by 70 million hectares and feed 300 million more people globally. We also find that a hard-path irrigation expansion with large annual water storage can sustainably expand irrigation up to 350 million hectares, while producing food for 1.4 billion more people globally. By identifying where irrigation can be expanded under a warmer climate, this work may serve as a starting point for investigating socioeconomic factors of irrigation expansion and may guide future research and resources toward those agricultural communities and water management institutions that will most need to adapt to climate change.

Der Gegenstand des Projektes SAPHIR war die Untersuchung von Trockenstress, Wasserproduktivität und Bewässerungsbedarf landwirtschaftlicher und gemüsebaulicher Nutzpflanzen mit Hilfe von Bewässerungsexperimenten und Simulationswerkzeugen (virtuelles Feld). Das Hauptziel war die Bereitstellung relevanter Informationen, Schlußfolgerungen und Handlungsoptionen für wesentliche Akteure (Landwirte und Entscheidungsträger auf regionaler Ebene) aus der sächsischen Landwirtschaft. Einen einfachen Zugang zu den entwickelten Werkzeugen und Ergebnissen liefert ein webbasiertes Entscheidungshilfesystem mit maßgeschneiderten Schnittstellen für die verschiedenen Akteure, dass die Ermittlung der Bewässerungswürdigkeit beliebiger Standorte und angepasster Anbaumuster für Sachsen für gegenwärtige und zukünftige Klimabedingungen ermöglicht. Die Bestimmung der dafür wichtigen Datengrundlagen, nämlich kulturspezifische Ertragskurven erfolgte auf zwei Wegen: durch konkrete Feldversuche sowie simulationsbasierte Optimierung. Durch die Verwendung von prognostischen Simulationsmodellen ist die Übertragung der Ergebnisse auf andere klimatische Standorte möglich und wurde wird zur Zeit für die Vereinigte Arabische Emirate und den Oman erprobt. Im Rahmen von SAPHIR fand eine intensive Qualifizierung der Nachwuchsforscher statt. Dies umfaßte nicht nur eine umfassende Vermittlung von Spezialwissen über Bewässerungslandwirtschaft inklusive der Teilkomponenten Messung, Modellierung, Analyse und Darstellung sondern auch der Erwerb von Fähigkeiten in Projektmanagement und Kommunikation für eine erfolgreiche Zusammenarbeit innerhalb der interdisziplinär zusammengesetzten Forschergruppe. Die von uns durchgeführten Arbeiten erfolgten in zwei grundsätzlichen Richtungen. Zum einen entwickelten wir die Werkzeuge zur Entscheidungshilfe in der Reihenfolge: experimentelle Untersuchung → Modellierung und Simulation des Bewässerungssystems → simulationsbasierte Optimierung des Bewässerungssystems → Mikro- und Makroökonomische Bewertung und Optimierung. Zum anderen wurden die Arbeiten auf unterschiedlichen räumlichen Skalen durchgeführt: Mikroskala, Feldskala, Betriebsebene sowie regionale (Meso-) Skala.:1 Ziele/Teilziele des Projektes 1 1.1 Bewässerungsversuche und Übertragung von Ergebnissen 1 1.2 Informationserweiterung durch Modellierung 1 2 Regionale Einordnung 3 3 Angaben zur Teilnehmerstruktur 5 4 Durchgeführte Arbeiten 7 4.1 Feld- und Vegetationshallenversuche 7 4.1.1 F2012 Durchführung von spezifischen Feldversuchen 2012 7 4.1.2 F2013 Durchführung von spezifischen Feldversuchen 2013 7 4.1.3 F2014 Durchführung von spezifischen Feldversuchen 2014 7 4.1.4 G2014 Untersuchungen zu Unterschieden in der Strahlungsexposition bei Containerexperimenten in einer Vegetationshalle im Vergleich zu Feld- beständen 7 4.2 Arbeitspaket A1 8 4.2.1 A1.1 Sichtung und Analyse vorhandener Daten (Klima, Boden, Pflanzen, Bewirtschaftung) 8 4.2.2 A1.2 Modellwahl (Pflanzenwachstum, Bodenwasserhaushalt) 9 4.2.3 A1.3 Auswahl relevanter Leitböden und Kulturpflanzen 9 4.2.4 A1.4 Generierung langjähriger Klimazeitreihen 10 4.3 Arbeitspaket A2 10 4.3.1 A2.1 Modellerstellung und -kalibrierung 10 4.3.2 A2.2 Umfangreiche Simulations- und Optimierungsrechnungen10 4.3.3 A2.3 Optimales Bewässerungsmanagement 11 4.3.4 A2.4 Kosten-Nutzen-Analysen 11 4.4 Arbeitspaket A3 11 4.4.1 A3.1 Anwendung prognostischer Klimaszenarienrechnungen 11 4.4.2 A3.2 Erstellung von stochastischen Ertragsfunktionen 12 4.4.3 A3.2 Erstellung von stochastischen Bodenkennfunktionen 12 4.4.4 A3.3 Erstellung des Entscheidungshilfesystems 12 5 Methoden 13 5.1 Messexperimente Freising 13 5.1.1 Bewässerungsversuche F2013 13 5.1.2 Bewässerungsversuche F2014 14 5.1.3 Strahlungsmessungen F2014 16 5.2 Messexperimente Brandis 18 5.3 Messexperimente Pillnitz 21 5.4 Modellierung auf der Mikroskala 25 5.4.1 Einfluss des Wurzelmodells auf den Wurzelwasserentzug 25 5.4.2 Lysimetermodell 27 5.5 Modellierung auf der Feldskala 29 5.5.1 Klimadaten in Dresden Pillnitz 30 5.5.2 Modellanalyse und Modellkalibrierung 31 5.5.3 Modellkalibrierung für den Standort Pillnitz 34 5.5.4 Stochastische Ertragsfunktionen – SCWPF 35 5.6 Modellierung auf der Regionalskala 36 5.6.1 Klimadaten 36 5.6.2 Regionale Pflanzenmodellierung 37 5.6.3 Ableitung des Wasserdargebotes 39 5.7 Agrarökonomische Bewertung 41 5.7.1 Spline-Interpolation der SCWPF 42 5.7.2 Feldskala 44 5.7.3 Regionalskala 45 5.7.4 Optimierung 46 5.8 Prototypische Umsetzung des Entscheidungshilfesystems 49 5.8.1 Konzept des Entscheidungshilfesystems 49 5.8.2 IT-Konzept 50 5.8.3 Software 50 6 Ergebnisse und deren Dokumentation 53 6.1 Messexperimente Freising 53 6.2 Feldexperimente in Brandis 59 6.3 Feldexperimente in Pillnitz 62 6.4 Auswertung von Klimadaten 67 6.4.1 Projizierte Niederschlagsänderung 67 6.4.2 Trockenheitsindizes – Methode für eine erste Gefährdungsanalyse 67 6.4.3 Beispielhafte Entwicklung von Temperatur und Niederschlag 69 6.5 Einfluss des Wurzelmodells auf den Wurzelwasserentzug 70 6.6 Modellierungsergebnisse auf der Feldskala 76 6.7 Stochastische Ertragsfunktion – dateninduzierte Unsicherheit 79 6.8 Modellierungsergebnisse auf der Regionalskala 80 6.8.1 Ertrag und Wasserbedarf 80 6.8.2 Wasserdargebot 83 6.8.3 Gegenüberstellung von Wasserdargebot und -bedarf 83 6.8.4 Erträge weiterer Kulturen 85 6.8.5 Wasserproduktivitäten 87 6.9 Agrarökonomie 87 6.10 Entscheidungshilfesystem 90 6.10.1 Restriktionen 94 6.11 Dokumentation der Ergebnisse 96 7 Nachhaltigkeit 99 7.1 Technologieentwicklung und -transfer 99 7.2 Persönliche Qualifikation der Mitarbeiter 99 A Anhang: Durchgeführte Arbeiten 103 B Anhang: Ergebnisse 105 B.1 Messexperimente 105 B.2 Ertragssicherheit 106 B.3 Wasserproduktivität 111 B.4 Entscheidungshilfesystem 116 Abbildungsverzeichnis 119 Tabellenverzeichnis 125 Literaturverzeichnis 127

Der Gegenstand des Projektes SAPHIR war die Untersuchung von Trockenstress, Wasserproduktivität und Bewässerungsbedarf landwirtschaftlicher und gemüsebaulicher Nutzpflanzen mit Hilfe von Bewässerungsexperimenten und Simulationswerkzeugen (virtuelles Feld). Das Hauptziel war die Bereitstellung relevanter Informationen, Schlußfolgerungen und Handlungsoptionen für wesentliche Akteure (Landwirte und Entscheidungsträger auf regionaler Ebene) aus der sächsischen Landwirtschaft. Einen einfachen Zugang zu den entwickelten Werkzeugen und Ergebnissen liefert ein webbasiertes Entscheidungshilfesystem mit maßgeschneiderten Schnittstellen für die verschiedenen Akteure, dass die Ermittlung der Bewässerungswürdigkeit beliebiger Standorte und angepasster Anbaumuster für Sachsen für gegenwärtige und zukünftige Klimabedingungen ermöglicht. Die Bestimmung der dafür wichtigen Datengrundlagen, nämlich kulturspezifische Ertragskurven erfolgte auf zwei Wegen: durch konkrete Feldversuche sowie simulationsbasierte Optimierung. Durch die Verwendung von prognostischen Simulationsmodellen ist die Übertragung der Ergebnisse auf andere klimatische Standorte möglich und wurde wird zur Zeit für die Vereinigte Arabische Emirate und den Oman erprobt. Im Rahmen von SAPHIR fand eine intensive Qualifizierung der Nachwuchsforscher statt. Dies umfaßte nicht nur eine umfassende Vermittlung von Spezialwissen über Bewässerungslandwirtschaft inklusive der Teilkomponenten Messung, Modellierung, Analyse und Darstellung sondern auch der Erwerb von Fähigkeiten in Projektmanagement und Kommunikation für eine erfolgreiche Zusammenarbeit innerhalb der interdisziplinär zusammengesetzten Forschergruppe. Die von uns durchgeführten Arbeiten erfolgten in zwei grundsätzlichen Richtungen. Zum einen entwickelten wir die Werkzeuge zur Entscheidungshilfe in der Reihenfolge: experimentelle Untersuchung → Modellierung und Simulation des Bewässerungssystems → simulationsbasierte Optimierung des Bewässerungssystems → Mikro- und Makroökonomische Bewertung und Optimierung. Zum anderen wurden die Arbeiten auf unterschiedlichen räumlichen Skalen durchgeführt: Mikroskala, Feldskala, Betriebsebene sowie regionale (Meso-) Skala.

The East Asian economic turmoil of 1997 and its lingering effects belie the decade of unprecedented economic growth in the Southeast Asian region. This economic boom saw a significant increase in the per capita income of the population of the respective countries and a corresponding rise in the standards of living. The decade also saw increased government spending on infrastructural development of basic amenities, including irrigation extension and rural water supply. The demand for and consumption of water increased significantly in both cities and the rural areas. In contrast to the escalating demand for water by the economies of the Southeast Asian countries, available resources remain limited despite the fact that the region generally receives more rainfall than it loses through evaporation annually. Annual, seasonal, and spatial variations in the rainfall within and between countries on the one hand, and accelerated demands for water from the various sectors of the economy on the other, put a severe strain on the available water resource base. In addition, natural resources in the form of rivers, groundwater storage, and lakes are rapidly diminishing in quality as a result of domestic, agricultural, and industrial waste discharges. In the coastal plains, excessive groundwater abstraction resulting in salt-water intrusion has affected groundwater resources. Inland, and in the watershed areas, rapid and extensive development has been at the expense of forested land, which has given way to new urban centres and residential and industrial complexes, while uncontrolled logging and shifting agriculture have caused the deterioration of the remaining forested ecosystem and natural watersheds. Given these factors, the future water resources scenario of the region seems bleak unless urgent steps are taken to manage seriously the resources in a judicious and sustainable way. Water will certainly feature as an important issue of development in the region in the decades ahead, given that large population concentrations and economic development are located in the lower parts of river basins. This chapter describes the hydrological conditions of the Southeast Asian region and examines the nature and extent of water resources that have been put to use for rural and agricultural development.

Biomass-based energy has characteristics that could help Maui Island meet multiple long-term goals, including decreasing reliance on oil for electricity and transportation fuels, increasing use of local resources that do not need to be shipped long distances, and diversifying the island economy beyond tourism by preserving agriculture. Biomass can be used for liquid fuel production and for electricity production. On Maui, sugarcane has been grown at plantation scale for over a century. Accordingly, sugarcane-derived ethanol and combustible sugarcane bagasse have long been of interest as energy sources for the island. State and county level focus on increasing renewable energy utilization on Maui have renewed study of potential crops and available land, with a special emphasis on sugarcane. However, there is some concern about the water requirements associated with biomass-based energy. A primary motivation for using local, renewable energy sources is that Maui is an island with limited resources, fresh water among them: thus, exploring ways to increase energy sustainability without compromising water availability is of interest to many. This work examines the water needs associated with growing sugarcane for ethanol and combustible biomass on Maui Island. Virtually all sugarcane on Maui is irrigated because soil and sunlight resources do not generally coincide with natural precipitation patterns. Growing sugarcane for energy represents a large water demand that is limiting under certain development scenarios on Maui, such as a scenario where environmental streamflows are highly prioritized. By comparing the irrigation demand of Maui’s currently grown sugarcane with published figures for ethanol yield from cane, this work finds that 700 to 1,500 gallons (gal) of irrigation water are needed per gallon of sugarcane-based ethanol (from fermentable sugars and fiber; 0.7 to 1.5 cubic meters, m3, per liter, L). More water is needed for processing. However, combustible waste streams could provide additional energy return per unit of water. This paper discusses how water demand for sugarcane-based energy interacts with other island water demands, given that about 37,000 acres (150 km2) of sugarcane land are potentially available for bioenergy production. Though seawater cannot be successfully directly used for irrigation, sugarcane can tolerate some salinity and other contamination, so this paper also considers brackish water and treated wastewater — for which there is little other demand — as potential irrigation resources. Notably, the range of tolerable water quality expands significantly when sugarcane is not intended for human ingestion or when biomass yield, not sugar content, is targeted (as for cellulosic ethanol or combustible biomass production).

This paper contains an analysis of withdrawal data for North West Indiana to compute consumptive-use coefficients and to describe monthly variability of withdrawals and consumptive use. Concurrent data were available for most water-use categories from 1990 through 2008. Average monthly water withdrawals are discussed for a variety of water-use categories, and average water use per month is depicted graphically. Water quality analysis is presented and historic water quality data of Northwest Indiana, (Lake, Porter and LaPort Counties) were downloaded from USEPA website and they were examined for the trends in different water quality constituents. Individual station based analysis and regional analysis were conducted using MK Test. Water quality data indicated an improvement trend. Water withdrawals data were analyzed using regression and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) models. The ANN model performed a better forecasting while compared to a linear regression model. For most water-use categories, the summer months were those of highest withdrawal and highest consumptive use. For public supply, average monthly withdrawals ranged from 2,193 million gallons per day (Mgal/d) (February) to 3,092 Mgal/d (July). North West Indiana energy production had large increases in average monthly withdrawals in the summer months (17,551 Mgal/d in February to 26,236 Mgal/d in July, possibly because of increased electricity production in the summer, a need for additional cooling-water withdrawals when intake-water temperature is high, or use of different types of cooling methods during different times of the year. Average industrial withdrawals ranged from 31,553 Mgal/d (February) to 36,934 Mgal/d (August). The North West Indiana irrigation data showed that most withdrawals were in May through October for golf courses, nurseries, and crop irrigation. Miscellaneous water withdrawals ranged from 12.2 Mgal/d (January) to 416.3 Mgal/d (October), commercial facilities that have high water demand in Indiana are medical facilities, schools, amusement facilities, wildlife facilities, large stores, colleges, correctional institutions, and national security facilities. Consumptive use and consumptive-use coefficients were computed by two principal methods in this study: the return-flow and withdrawal method and the winter-base-rate method (WBR). The WBR method was not suitable for the industrial and miscellaneous water-use categories. The RW method was not used for public-supply facilities. The public-supply annual average consumptive-use coefficient derived by use of the WBR methods is 8 percent from 1990 to 2008 for North West Indiana; the summer average consumptive-use coefficient was considerably higher with the amount of 20 percent. The energy production annual consumptive-use coefficient was 13 percent by the WBR method, which increased to 28 percent for summer. In terms of maximum accuracy and minimal uncertainty, use of available withdrawal, return-flow, and consumptive-use data reported by facilities and data estimated from similar facilities are preferable over estimates based on data for a particular water-use category or groups of water-use categories. If monthly withdrawal, return flow, and consumptive use data are few and limited, monthly patterns described in this report may be used as a basis of estimation, but the level of uncertainty may be a greater than for the other estimation methods.

It is estimated that the global population will reach approximately 10 billion people by 2050 and 66% of the world population will live in urban areas. This growth in cities creates demand for fresh products to maintain a healthy population, a product that often exposed to a long journey to reach the consumer, not only losing quality and nutritive value in the process, but also requiring a significant cost of fossil fuel for transportation and storage. However, the world’s agricultural land among being limited, is also facing major problems such as pollution, salinization and drought that do not favor crop production. The need for food security has paved the way for landless agriculture, becoming more popular in the urban area and becoming a part of urban farming. This article aims to examine hydroponic technologies to help expand the knowledge of their application in terms of science, origin, dynamics and farming systems. Among the benefits of soilless cultures; reservation of cultivated land for main crops; saving at least 90% of irrigation water; use of almost constant amount of recycled water; successfully growing almost every vegetable crops and having highest productivity compared to conventional agriculture. Therefore, it is an indispensable solution in areas where arable land is not available or in saline-prone areas, in short, wherever there is competition for land and water. The purpose of this study is an overview of soilless farming systems, explaining the most widely used hydroponic system, the importance of water quality, nutrient content, grown crops and ultimately cost benefit in terms of economics.

World is now endangered by the threat of fuel source scarcity and environmental degradation. Researchers all over the world are searching for the alternative energy resources to supplement the present energy needs and to conserve the conventional resources from depletion which are less costly and environmentally friendly. Harnessing the wind power and its utilization is one of the best possible answers. Investigations for recent years have revealed that wind energy has been the great deals to the rural farmers for their water pumping. Wind power can be used effectively in maintaining livestock, water supply, fish & ice farming, water desalination, sawing wood, irrigation, electrification, agricultural operations etc. If all possible considerations are given in exploiting wind energy, in the coming 4 to 5 decades it can meet 30% to 45% of the world’s total energy demand contributing no unwanted emissions into the atmosphere. It can adjust more jobs and occupies fewer lands. It is cheaper than any other sources. Bangladesh possesses flat terrain, hilly & mountainous regions, open river banks & harbors, and a vast lengthy coastal belt by the sea “the Bay of Bengal” where reasonable wind flow round the year available. For most of the said areas, electricity supply from the mother grid is almost inaccessible due to various difficulties and limitations. Moreover, a total of 2105 MW national generation capability absolutely unable to meet the present suppressed peak demand of 2114 MW for the consumers already in the grid. This continuously causing a severe regular load shedding up to 30% of the peak demand. The large sized population of the above areas is being maintained over decades mostly from fuel wood, charcoal plant & agricultural residues, dung and very few from imported petroleum and derivatives as the only energy sources. The energy scarcity let the locality remained economically backward and noncontributing to the GDP. In some of the areas namely Chittagong Harbor, Coastal belts & City periphery, from recent observations the monthly mean wind speeds (m/s) ranging between 4.5 and 8.5 are recorded which show the genius prospect of reaping wind power in Bangladesh. Despite a promising future of this free fuel, benefits for utilizing this energy in Bangladesh are being missed because too little is known about either the resource or the technology. Wind energy can successfully be utilized in utility for supplementing our generation and to meet decentralized needs or wind-solar hybrids for Bangladeshi modern multistory buildings which are now meeting their energy deficit by individual diesel generators at higher money and environmental costs. In the context of Bangladesh, wind power to come to use, this paper is an attempt to describe the methodologies for site selection; wind data collection & regime modeling; power availability, conversion & storage; turbine performance monitoring & augmenting wind speed using cloth scoops including costs and environmental impact Assessment. This paper also discusses Bangladesh energy scenario and strategies for meeting deficit demand and summarizes global wind development and proposes that Bangladesh government and other agencies must take immediate initiatives towards implementing wind projects.

About 2 billion people of the world, mostly in rural areas of the developing countries, do not have access to grid-based electricity. The most critical factor affecting their livelihoods is access to clean, affordable and reliable energy services for household and productive uses. Under this backdrop, renewable and readily available energy from the nature can be incorporated in several proven renewable energy technology (RET) systems and can play a significant role in meeting crucial energy needs in these remote far flung areas. RETs are ideal as distributed energy source and they can be incorporated in packages of energy services and thus offer unique opportunities to provide improved lighting, health care, drinking water, education, communication, and irrigation. Energy is also vital for most of the income-generating activities, both at the household or commercial levels. Access to energy is strongly connected to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which set targets for poverty reduction, improved health, and gender equality as well as environmental sustainability. Environmentally benign renewable energy systems can contribute significantly in the above-mentioned unserved or underserved areas in the developing countries to achieve both local and global environmental benefits. This is important in the context of sustainable development in: (i) poverty alleviation, (ii) education, (iii) gender equity and empowerment, (iv) health including other benefits like improved information access through Information and Communication Technology (ICT) centers, (v) better security, and (vi) increase in social or recreational opportunities. It is evident that proliferation of renewable energy resources through implementing their applications for meeting energy demand will promote all the three dimensions namely, social, economic and environmental of sustainable development in the developing countries. Several small scale enabling RET systems have been suggested in this paper in the light of above-mentioned issues of energy sustainability and they can significantly contribute to the improvement of the livelihood of the remote impoverished rural communities of the developing countries. With the current state of technology development, several RET systems (such as wind, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal, biomass and microhydro) have become successful in different parts of the world. In this paper, an exhaustive literature survey has been conducted and several successful and financially viable small-scale RET systems were analyzed. These systems have relevance to the economies of the developing countries that can be utilized for electrification of domestic houses, micro enterprises, health clinics, educational establishments and rural development centers.