Academic literature on the topic 'Job insecurity'

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Journal articles on the topic "Job insecurity"

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Huang, Guohua, Tiffany Kriz, Changqin Lu, et al. "Job Insecurity, Job Insecurity Change, and Job Insecurity Climate: Exploring Moderators & Mediators." Academy of Management Proceedings 2019, no. 1 (2019): 11809. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2019.11809symposium.

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Latch, Gregory. "Job Insecurity." American Journal of Nursing 92, no. 4 (1992): 18. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3426677.

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Latch, Gregory. "JOB INSECURITY." AJN, American Journal of Nursing 92, no. 4 (1992): 18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00000446-199204000-00008.

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Smaglik, Paul. "Job insecurity." Nature 419, no. 6910 (2002): 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nj6910-03a.

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Kuvalekar, Aditya, and Elliot Lipnowski. "Job Insecurity." American Economic Journal: Microeconomics 12, no. 2 (2020): 188–229. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/mic.20190132.

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We examine the relationship between job security and productivity in a fixed wage worker­firm relationship facing match quality uncertainty. The worker’s action affects both learning and current productivity. The firm, seeing worker behavior and outcomes, makes a firing decision. As bad news accrues, the firm cannot commit to retain the worker. This creates perverse incentives: the worker strat egically slows learning, harming productivity. We fully characterize the unique equilibrium in our continuous time game. Consistent with some evidence in organizational psychology, the relationship betw
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Postelnicu, Maria Daniela, and Oana Maria Grigore. "Comparative Evaluations of Performance and Self-esteem as Determinants of Job Insecurity." Studia Doctoralia 9, no. 2 (2018): 117–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.47040/sd/sdpsych.v9i2.83.

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Job insecurity is a toxic stressor brought forward by the world’s financial crisis. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate that comparative judgements predict a unique percentage of job insecurity’s variance, above self esteem. Subsequently, questionnaires were applied via social media or via paper-pencil to 108 participants. Hierarchical regression results show that comparative judgements do not have any incremental effect in predicting job insecurity above self esteem. Self esteem predicts 21% variance in job insecurity. In conclusion, job insecurity is predicted by how individuals glob
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Postelnicu, Maria Daniela, and Oana Maria Grigore. "Comparative Evaluations of Performance and Self-esteem as Determinants of Job Insecurity." Studia Doctoralia 9, no. 2 (2018): 117–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.47040/sd0000064.

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Job insecurity is a toxic stressor brought forward by the world’s financial crisis. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate that comparative judgements predict a unique percentage of job insecurity’s variance, above self esteem. Subsequently, questionnaires were applied via social media or via paper-pencil to 108 participants. Hierarchical regression results show that comparative judgements do not have any incremental effect in predicting job insecurity above self esteem. Self esteem predicts 21% variance in job insecurity. In conclusion, job insecurity is predicted by how individuals glob
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Coupe, Tom. "Automation, job characteristics and job insecurity." International Journal of Manpower 40, no. 7 (2019): 1288–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijm-12-2018-0418.

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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to analyze whether specific jobs characteristics, which experts have identified as being more automation proof, are associated with reduced job insecurity. Design/methodology/approach Data come from a recent survey providing information on sources of job insecurity as well as on detailed job characteristics. The analysis is based on various regression models. Findings People who have jobs that involve lots of personal interaction are less likely to be concerned about losing their job because of automation, or because of other reasons, and are more likely to
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Yüce-Selvi, Ümran, Nebi Sümer, Yonca Toker-Gültaş, Lena Låstad, and Magnus Sverke. "Behavioral Reactions to Job Insecurity Climate Perceptions: Exit, Voice, Loyalty, and Neglect." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 9 (2023): 5732. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20095732.

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Past work has extensively documented that job insecurity predicts various work- and health-related outcomes. However, limited research has focused on the potential consequences of perceived job insecurity climate. Our objective was to investigate how the psychological climate about losing a job and valuable job features (quantitative and qualitative job insecurity climate, respectively) relate to employees’ exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect behaviors, and whether such climate perceptions explain additional variance in these behaviors over individual job insecurity. Data were collected through
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Zheng, Xingshan, Ismael Diaz, Ningyu Tang, and Kongshun Tang. "Job insecurity and job satisfaction." Career Development International 19, no. 4 (2014): 426–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/cdi-10-2013-0121.

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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine optimism and how facets of subordinates’ psychological characteristics, such as their attitudes and personalities, are similar to their direct supervisors’ (as person-supervisor deep-level similarity or P-S deep-level similarity) in order to understand their interactions with job insecurity in predicting employee job satisfaction. Design/methodology/approach – Empirical study had been conducted. Sample firms in this study consist of eight state-run electric power companies and 16 licensed chemical companies in central Hubei Province in China. I
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Job insecurity"

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Blackmore, Caroline Virginia. "Job Insecurity and its Antecedents." Thesis, University of Canterbury. Psychology, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/10092/6003.

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The current research aimed to develop a deeper understanding of the antecedents of job insecurity, and specifically focused on the perceived job insecurity; importance and probability of events likely to affect one’s total job. The aim of the current study was to explore relationships between the perceptions of perceived organisational support (POS), perceived employability, role ambiguity and role overload, and job insecurity. A questionnaire made up of seven separate scales investigated the perceptions of 100 employees from several different organisations experiencing change (e.g. recently b
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Van, Wyk Marié. "Setting a research agenda for job insecurity in South African organisations / Marié van Wyk." Thesis, North-West University, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/10394/1245.

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In the current South African context, job insecurity has become a phenomenon to be reckoned with. Although research on this phenomenon is still scarce, a growing interest in the perceived experience of job insecurity and its different underlying constructs is obvious from the increase of job insecurity research. A comprehensive summary of previous research studies and relevant outcomes is therefore relevant. Up to now, South African studies on job insecurity have accepted the assumptions and context of international research studies on job insecurity. It is now time to investigate the influenc
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Schmitz, Heidi Anne. "Degree of organizational change and job insecurity." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 1997. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/1402.

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Låstad, Lena. "Job insecurity climate : The nature of the construct, its associations with outcomes, and its relation to individual job insecurity." Doctoral thesis, Stockholms universitet, Psykologiska institutionen, 2015. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:su:diva-118979.

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Work is an essential part of most people’s lives. With increasing flexibility in work life, many employees experience job insecurity – they perceive that the future of their jobs is uncertain. However, job insecurity is not just an individual experience; employees can perceive that there is a climate of job insecurity at their workplace as well, as people collectively worry about their jobs. The overall aim of this thesis was to investigate the job insecurity climate construct and how it relates to work- and health-related outcomes and to individual job insecurity. Three empirical studies were
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Källebo, Helena. "Kan kontroll och socialt stöd på arbetsplatsen mildra negativa konsekvenser av anställningsotrygghet?" Thesis, Stockholms universitet, Psykologiska institutionen, 2012. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:su:diva-71070.

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Förändringar på arbetsmarknaden har medfört att anställda i allt större utsträckning upplever anställningsotrygghet. Syftet med föreliggande studie är att undersöka huruvida autonomi, deltagande i beslutsfattande och arbetsrelaterat socialt stöd kan moderera sambandet mellan anställningsotrygghet och framtida psykisk ohälsa samt bristande arbetstrivsel. En enkät besvarades av 181 anställda på en revisionsfirma vid två tillfällen. Resultatet av hierarkiska regressionsanalyser indikerar att kvantitativ och kvalitativ anställningsotrygghet predicerar bristande arbetstrivsel och att kvalitativ ans
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O’Neill, Patrick Brennan. "Testing a causal model of job insecurity and job satisfaction : do dispositions matter?" Thesis, Curtin University, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11937/1443.

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In the context of widespread downsizing and restructuring, job insecurity has emerged as a prolific stressor in modern working life. While previous research has linked job insecurity to diminished job satisfaction, scholars rarely examine the role of personality dispositions and have yet to establish the strength and direction of causation. To address these gaps, the present research develops and tests a causal model describing the influence of dispositional positive and negative affect (PA and NA) on the relationship between job insecurity and job satisfaction. To test this model, the author
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Van, Zyl Lelanie. "Job insecurity : emotional- and behavioural consequences / L. van Zyl." Thesis, North-West University, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/10394/3089.

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Current day organisations must revert to many measures to survive in the very competing business environment. One of these measures is to reduce the number of employees. This leads to perceptions of job insecurity, not only in the employees who are not made redundant but also in employees in so-called stable organisations who are aware of these measures being implemented in other organisations. Researchers found conflicting results of job insecurity regarding performance of employees experiencing job insecurity. On the one hand it was reported that job insecurity leads to higher job performanc
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Palmcrantz, Maria. "Emotional Intelligence and Job Insecurity: Gender Differences Between Employees." Thesis, Linnéuniversitetet, Institutionen för psykologi (PSY), 2018. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-75049.

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Emotional intelligence and job insecurity are important to study because they can have an impact both on an individual’s professional and personal life; however, research on emotional intelligence and job insecurity is contradictory. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether there were gender differences in emotional intelligence and job insecurity in employees in a Swedish sample. The aim was also to investigate if emotional intelligence moderated gender differences in job insecurity. The sample consisted of 109 employees, with 33 males (30.30%) and 76 females (69.70%), from fou
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Nakamoto, Ichiro. "Essays on Health, Healthcare, Job Insecurity and Health Outcomes." Scholar Commons, 2019. https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/7865.

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This doctoral dissertation proposal is comprised of three separate chapters, all of which uses the nationally representative uniform survey Health and Retirement Survey (HRS) to examine the relationship between health, insurance, health care and health outcomes. Below, the brief introduction for each section is provided:  Chapter I: Medicare Part D and Patients' Well-being  Chapter II: Parent's Health Insurance and Informal Care  Chapter III: Job Insecurity and Health (with Dr. Ayyagari) In chapter I, I explore how Medicare Part D (MD) affects the well-being of the severely sick patients bo
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Quintini, Glenda. "'Lost in the myths of insecurity' : a study of job insecurity in the British Labour Force." Thesis, University of Oxford, 1999. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.322788.

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Books on the topic "Job insecurity"

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1953-, Hartley Jean, ed. Job insecurity: Coping with jobs at risk. Sage Publications, 1991.

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Balan, David J. Job insecurity isn't always efficient. Bureau of Economics, Federal Trade Commission, 2010.

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Brendan, Burchell, Ladipo David, and Wilkinson Frank, eds. Job insecurity and work intensification. Routledge, 2002.

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David, Smith. Job insecurity vs labour market flexibility. Social Market Foundation, 1997.

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Benito, Andrew. Does job insecurity affect household consumption? Bank of England, 2004.

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Kidanu, Aklilu, ed. Livelihood insecurity among urban households in Ethiopia. Forum for Social Studies, 2002.

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Burchell, Brendan. The unequal distribution of job insecurity, 1966-1986. ESRC Centre for Business Research, University of Cambridge, 1998.

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Roll, Lara Christina, Hans De Witte, and Sebastiaan Rothmann, eds. Global Perspectives on Job Insecurity in Higher Education. Springer Nature Switzerland, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-85772-0.

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Congress, Trades Union. All in the mind?: Job insecurity in Britain today. Trades Union Congress, 1996.

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Trades Union Congress. Economic and Social Affairs Department., ed. All in the mind?: Job insecurity in Britain today. TUC, 1996.

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Book chapters on the topic "Job insecurity"

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De Witte, Hans, Tinne Vander Elst, and Nele De Cuyper. "Job Insecurity, Health and Well-Being." In Aligning Perspectives on Health, Safety and Well-Being. Springer Netherlands, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9798-6_7.

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Newell, Helen, and Caroline Lloyd. "Pharmaco: Organisational Restructuring and Job Insecurity." In Human Resource Management in Context. Macmillan Education UK, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-91364-0_9.

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"Job Insecurity." In Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer Netherlands, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_102156.

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"Job Insecurity." In Encyclopedia of Corporate Social Responsibility. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28036-8_100952.

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De Witte, Hans. "Job insecurity." In Elgar Encyclopedia of Organizational Psychology. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.4337/9781803921761.00072.

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Green, Francis. "Job insecurity." In Elgar Encyclopedia of Labour Studies. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.4337/9781800377547.ch21.

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"Job Insecurity." In Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer International Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-17299-1_302302.

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Paugam, Serge, and Ying Zhou. "Job Insecurity." In Employment Regimes and the Quality of Work. Oxford University Press, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199230105.003.0006.

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Portovedo, Ligia, Ana Veloso, and Miguel Portela. "Job Insecurity and Performance." In Developing Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Policies for Promoting Employee Sustainability and Well-Being. IGI Global, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-6684-4181-7.ch004.

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Based on published literature between 2000 and 2020 and applying a systematic review, the authors reflect on the theoretical bases that describe the effects of psychological moderating and mediating variables in the relationship between job insecurity and performance. An aggregating theoretical model is proposed, anchored on the conservation of resources theory, social exchange theory, and trust to describe the process in which job insecurity impacts performance, through or in the presence of the variables found.
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Tomas, Jasmina, and Darja Maslić Seršić. "Job insecurity and job performance: Why do job-insecure employees not perform better?" In Job Insecurity, Precarious Employment and Burnout. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.4337/9781035315888.00010.

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Conference papers on the topic "Job insecurity"

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Zhang, Zhenduo, Junwei Zheng, Zhigang Li, and Li Zhang. "Job Insecurity and Daily Emotional Exhaustion." In ICMSS 2020: 2020 4th International Conference on Management Engineering, Software Engineering and Service Sciences. ACM, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3380625.3380651.

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D Pitri, Angela, M. Rofii, and Luky Dwiantoro. "MENGATASI JOB INSECURITY MELALUI PENDEKATAN TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP." In Regulasi Peran Tenaga Perawat Dalam Mendukung Program indonesia Sehat Dengan Pendekatan Keluarga (PIS - PK). Universitas Muhammadiyah Jember, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.32528/psn.v0i0.1731.

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Abid, Mirza Adikresna Jaka, Haris Munandar, Peri Akbar Manaf, and Derian Osmond. "Job Insecurity Dilemma, a Post-Pandemic Phenomenon." In 2023 8th International Conference on Business and Industrial Research (ICBIR). IEEE, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icbir57571.2023.10147703.

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Arsenijević, Olja, and Polona Šprajc. "The Impact of Job Insecurity on Employee Attitudes." In Organizations at Innovation and Digital Transformation Roundabout: Conference Proceedings. University of Maribor Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-388-3.3.

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The purpose of the article is a theoretical and empirical analysis of the job insecurity due its influence on the employee job attitudes. Design. The design of the study was longitudinal. The empirical results were collected in 2018–2019. The empirical basis of the research is the separate structural department of the bank. The organization has realized downsizing project during the collection of empirical data. It has made possible to analyze the job satisfaction and work engagement before, during and after the downsizing project. The measures used in the present study are: 1) the “Utrecht Wo
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Udović, Ugo. "Application of Business Intelligence in the Post-Industrial Period." In Values, Competencies and Changes in Organizations. University of Maribor Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-442-2.70.

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The purpose of the article is a theoretical and empirical analysis of the job insecurity due its influence on the employee job attitudes. Design. The design of the study was longitudinal. The empirical results were collected in 2018–2019. The empirical basis of the research is the separate structural department of the bank. The organization has realized downsizing project during the collection of empirical data. It has made possible to analyze the job satisfaction and work engagement before, during and after the downsizing project. The measures used in the present study are: 1) the “Utrecht Wo
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Kentoš, Michal. "The Causes and Context of Job Insecurity in Slovakia." In Konference psychologie práce a organizace 2019. Masaryk University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.5817/cz.muni.p210-9488-2019-12.

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Chuykova, Tatiana. "BASIC BELIEFS IN THE CONTEXT OF JOB INSECURITY EXPERIENCE." In 6th SWS International Scientific Conference on Social Sciences ISCSS 2019. STEF92 Technology, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.5593/sws.iscss.2019.3/s11.015.

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Xiao, Linsheng, and Jian Chen. "Psychological Contract Breach, Job Insecurity, and Job Engagement: The Moderating Effect of Employment Type." In 7th International Conference on Economy, Management, Law and Education (EMLE 2021). Atlantis Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.2991/aebmr.k.220306.034.

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Chuykova, Tatiana. "EXPLORING THE CONSEQUENCES OF JOB INSECURITY ON EMPLOYEES IN RUSSIA." In 5th SGEM International Multidisciplinary Scientific Conferences on SOCIAL SCIENCES and ARTS SGEM2018. STEF92 Technology, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.5593/sgemsocial2018/3.2/s11.020.

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Silverman, Eric, Nic Geard, and Ian Wood. "Job Insecurity in Academic Research Employment: An Agent-Based Model." In Proceedings of the Artificial Life Conference 2016. MIT Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/978-0-262-33936-0-ch074.

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Reports on the topic "Job insecurity"

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Manski, Charles, and John Straub. Worker Perceptions of Job Insecurity in the Mid-1990s: Evidence from the Survey of Economic Expectations. National Bureau of Economic Research, 1999. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w6908.

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Mykyta, Laryssa. Work Conditions and Serious Psychological Distress Among Working Adults Aged 18–64: United States, 2021. National Center for Health Statistics (U.S.), 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.15620/cdc:126566.

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This report uses 2021 National Health Interview Survey data to examine differences in serious psychological distress in working adults in the past 30 days by working conditions, including shift work, monthly earnings variation, perceived job insecurity, and schedule flexibility.
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Thorsen, Dorte, and Affoué Philomène Koffi. Imagined Futures: Gaps in Support for Rural Youth in Côte d’Ivoire. Institute of Development Studies (IDS), 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.19088/ids.2021.041.

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Lack of employment opportunities for young people is a major concern across Africa, and involves many policy areas. In Côte d’Ivoire, the situation is challenging because of political and economic crises that have beset the country in recent decades, impacting negatively on education and accentuating job insecurity, particularly among rural youth. Tackling the problem in rural areas requires a youth-centred approach that builds long-term, well-targeted and coordinated interventions based on young people’s lived experience.
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Nguyen, Thi Dien, Thi Minh Hanh Nguyen, Thi Minh Khue Nguyen, and Ayako Ebata. Policies to Improve Migrant Workers’ Food Security in Vietnam. Institute of Development Studies (IDS), 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.19088/ids.2022.019.

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Migrant workers in Vietnam make up 7.3 per cent of the population. Despite rapid economic growth, they suffer from precarious working conditions and food insecurity, which Covid-19 control measures have exacerbated. Urgent action is needed to improve migrant workers’ access to nutritious food during crises and increase resilience to future economic shocks through: (1) short-term responses that provide nutritious food; (2) improving living conditions through effective enforcement of existing policies; (3) expanding coverage of the government social safety net; and (4) progressive reform of labo
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Alcaíno, Manuel, Analia Jaimovich, Carolina Méndez, and Diana Vásquez. Open configuration options Government fragmentation and educational outcomes: evidence on the creation of municipalities in Chile. Inter-American Development Bank, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.18235/0003977.

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We explore how government fragmentation affects public education provision by examining the case of Chile, which created 11 municipalities between 1994 and 2004. Using territories that sought, but failed to, achieve independence as controls, we find that schools in newly created municipalities, on average, experienced a standard deviation decline of 0.2 in elementary school mathematics performance. In addition, fragmentation led to a high turnover and increased job insecurity of classroom teachers and school management teams in newly created municipalities. In contrast, we found that reducing
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Jacobs, Britney, Kate Babineau, and Daniel Parker. From Childcare to Educare: Inspiring Change in Early Childhood Education for Rural Tennessee. Digital Promise, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.51388/20.500.12265/222.

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The expansion of early childhood education (ECE) and increased funding have positively impacted children and families. However, inequities within the ECE workforce continue to persist, particularly in rural areas, causing ECE providers to face inadequate compensation and benefits. This project, in partnership with the Tennessee State University Early Childhood Training Alliance (TECTA), seeks to understand the experiences of ECE providers, highlight the benefits of the TECTA program, identify key challenges and barriers in their educational pathways, and advocate for program expansion to suppo
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Gikandi, Levi. COVID-19 and Vulnerable, Hardworking Kenyans: Why it's time for a strong social protection plan. Oxfam, Kenya Red Cross Society, Concern Worldwide, ACTED, IMPACT Initiatives, The Centre for Rights, Education and Awareness (CREAW), Wangu Kanja Foundation, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.21201/2020.6591.

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Seven NGOs, the Kenyan government, the European Union and the Danish and German governments are working together to implement a ’Safety Nets’ programme targeting Kenya’s millions of informal workers. With rising food insecurity and sexual and gender-based-violence, mounting job losses, poor access to water and sanitation, and a lack of formal safety nets, the Kenyan informal sector has suffered the brunt of the COVID-19 pandemic. The Safety Nets programme has revealed that cash transfers which support the most vulnerable people, and are implemented safely, transparently and accountably, have t
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Badets, Nadine. Food Insecurity and Family Finances During the Pandemic. The Vanier Institute of the Family, 2020. https://doi.org/10.61959/okoz6994e.

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The COVID‑19 lockdown and ensuing economic repercussions have created a significant amount of financial stress for families in Canada. Between February and April 2020, about 1.3 million people in Canada were unemployed, with approximately 97% of the newly unemployed on temporary layoff, meaning they expect to go back to their jobs once the pandemic restrictions are relaxed.1 Research has shown that financial insecurity can severely limit access to food for low income families and exacerbate socio-economic inequities.2 Other factors, such as health and disability status, level of social support
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Rohwerder, Brigitte. Equitable Support for Livelihoods and Food. Institute of Development Studies, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.19088/core.2023.008.

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The Covid-19 pandemic and policy responses to contain its spread had severe impacts on people’s livelihoods and food security. It exposed weaknesses and inequities in social protection systems, food production and distribution, job security, and economic policies, with those already marginalised and vulnerable most affected (Bolton and Georgalakis 2022; Thompson et al. 2021; Rohwerder 2020). Lockdowns, the closure of borders, and the shutting or scaling down of businesses and public offices led to economic recessions, loss of livelihoods, and pushed millions of people to the brink of poverty a
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Lazonick, William, Philip Moss, and Joshua Weitz. The Unmaking of the Black Blue-Collar Middle Class. Institute for New Economic Thinking Working Paper Series, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.36687/inetwp159.

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In the decade after the Civil Rights Act of 1964, African Americans made historic gains in accessing employment opportunities in racially integrated workplaces in U.S. business firms and government agencies. In the previous working papers in this series, we have shown that in the 1960s and 1970s, Blacks without college degrees were gaining access to the American middle class by moving into well-paid unionized jobs in capital-intensive mass production industries. At that time, major U.S. companies paid these blue-collar workers middle-class wages, offered stable employment, and provided employe
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