Journal articles on the topic 'Kaitse Kodu!'

Dalam pemenuhan kebutuhan barang dan jasa konsumen, iklan merupakan sarana mewujudkanhak-hak konsumen, khususnya hak untuk mendapatkan informasi dan hak untuk memilih.Permasalahan yang kemudian muncul apabila hal-hal yang diiklankan bertentangan denganasas-asas umum kode etik periklanan. Misalnya, materi iklan tidak sesuai dengan kenyataan.Dalam kaitan ini, siapa yang bertanggung jawab atas kerugian yang dialami konsumendisebabkan iklan yang bertentangan dengan asas-asas umum kode etik tersebut? Persoalan tersebut dikaji datam artikel berikut ini.

Straipsnyje keliama Lietuvoje iki šiol labai mažai tirta kalbos domenų praradimo problema ir analizuojami anglų ir lietuvių kalbų santykiai televizijos reklamoje. Tyrimo tikslas – nustatyti anglų kalbos vartojimo apimtis ir plitimą, angliškų elementų funkcijas bei kodų kaitos pobūdį. Medžiaga rinkta 2003 m. ir 2009 m., vieną savaitę įrašinėjant Lietuvos televizijų transliuojamų žiūrimiausių laidų reklamas. Tyrimo medžiagą iš viso sudarė per 1200 reklamų. Dviejų laikotarpių palyginimas parodė, kad televizijos reklama Lietuvoje nėra prarandamas kalbos domenas ir situacija praktiškai nesikeičia. Vien anglų kalba transliuojamų reklamų beveik nepasitaikė, o didžiąją dalį korpuso sudarančiose mišriose reklamose vyravo angliški prekės pavadinimai. Pastebėta, kad daugiau informacijos anglų kalba pateikiama rašytine nei garsine forma, taip pat, kad reklamose panaudojama anglų kalbos simbolinė vertė ir prestižas.

Legal Opinion adalah dokumen yang dipersiapkan oleh seorang konsultan hukum untuk kliennya, yang berisi pemahamannya dari sudut hukum yang berlaku terhadap suatu fakta yang disampaikan kepadanya untuk itu. Legal Opinion ini dikeluarkan sebagai emit legal audit yang dilakukan berdasarkan prinsip-prinsip kewajaran dan dapat dilakukan. Dalam kaitan Legal Opinion untuk kegiatan pasar modal, kewajiban konsultan hukum untuk melaksanakan tugasnya adalah kode etiknya yang juga menjadi batas tanggung jawabnya.

A city is an open complex system. It should change in order to survive. Besides the need to change there is another one – to preserve stability of a valuable spatial structure. Two contradictory needs can create a problem, which is hard to solve. Concepts of urban genotype and phenotype help integrating both of the two above-mentioned needs. The same genotype can be expressed in different forms thus creating preconditions for evolution of an urban structure. On the basis of historical analogues, a conclusion was made that it is possible to describe an urban genotype in a utilitarian form in the article. The described research focuses on some aspects of urban genotype and investigation of code changes. As an experimental site for research, Kaunas downtown area was selected. This area is of crucial importance for preservation of Kaunas identity, which – at least at first glance – was protected from significant architectural and urban changes during the Soviet era… Results of the investigation reveal revolutionary changes of the genotype of the investigated area despite the fact that the street network and urban morphotype did not change much. It confirms the complex nature of the urban spatial structure and potential presence of the “butterfly effect”. Santrauka Miestas – atvira, kompleksiška sistema, kuri turi keistis tam, kad išliktų. Poreikis keistis ir išsaugoti miesto savitumui svarbias erdvines jo charakteristikas dažnai verčia rinktis vieną iš dviejų: kaitą ar stagnaciją. Urbanistinio genotipo ir fenotipo koncepcija leidžia išspręsti minėtą dilemą: keičiantis formai urbanistinis kodas ar genotipas gali išlikti nepakitęs ir taip užtikrinti evoliucinę urbanistinės struktūros kaitą. Straipsnyje, remiantis istoriniais analogais, teigiamai įvertinus urbanistinio kodo utilitaraus užrašymo galimybes, pagrindinis dėmesys skiriamas kai kuriems kodo aspektams tirti ir jų kaitai įvertinti. Kaip tyrimų poligonas naudojamas istorinis Kauno centras – miesto savasčiai svarbi ir architektūriniu požiūriu radikaliai nepakeista miesto dalis. Tyrimų rezultatai atskleidžia įvykusius didelius teritorijos urbanistinio genotipo pokyčius ir kartu patvirtina vieną iš tyrimo pradžioje padarytų prielaidų: miestui kaip kompleksiškai sistemai gali būti būdingas „drugelio efektas“ – ir nedideli pakeitimai fenotipe gali sukelti gana dideles mutacijas genotipe.

A city is an open complex system. It should change in order to survive. Besides the need to change there is another one – to preserve stability of a valuable spatial structure. Two contradictory needs can create a problem, which is hard to solve. Concepts of urban genotype and phenotype help integrating both of the two above-mentioned needs. The same genotype can be expressed in different forms thus creating preconditions for evolution of an urban structure. On the basis of historical analogues, a conclusion was made that it is possible to describe an urban genotype in a utilitarian form in the article. The described research focuses on some aspects of urban genotype and investigation of code changes. As an experimental site for research, Kaunas downtown area was selected. This area is of crucial importance for preservation of Kaunas identity, which – at least at first glance – was protected from significant architectural and urban changes during the Soviet era… Results of the investigation reveal revolutionary changes of the genotype of the investigated area despite the fact that the street network and urban morphotype did not change much. It confirms the complex nature of the urban spatial structure and potential presence of the “butterfly effect”. Santrauka Miestas – atvira, kompleksiška sistema, kuri turi keistis tam, kad išliktų. Poreikis keistis ir išsaugoti miesto savitumui svarbias erdvines jo charakteristikas dažnai verčia rinktis vieną iš dviejų: kaitą ar stagnaciją. Urbanistinio genotipo ir fenotipo koncepcija leidžia išspręsti minėtą dilemą: keičiantis formai urbanistinis kodas ar genotipas gali išlikti nepakitęs ir taip užtikrinti evoliucinę urbanistinės struktūros kaitą. Straipsnyje, remiantis istoriniais analogais, teigiamai įvertinus urbanistinio kodo utilitaraus užrašymo galimybes, pagrindinis dėmesys skiriamas kai kuriems kodo aspektams tirti ir jų kaitai įvertinti. Kaip tyrimų poligonas naudojamas istorinis Kauno centras – miesto savasčiai svarbi ir architektūriniu požiūriu radikaliai nepakeista miesto dalis. Tyrimų rezultatai atskleidžia įvykusius didelius teritorijos urbanistinio genotipo pokyčius ir kartu patvirtina vieną iš tyrimo pradžioje padarytų prielaidų: miestui kaip kompleksiškai sistemai gali būti būdingas „drugelio efektas“ – ir nedideli pakeitimai fenotipe gali sukelti gana dideles mutacijas genotipe.

Šio straipsnio dėmesio centre – hermeneutinė vertimo teorija ir jos taikymo aspektai. Hermeneutinė vertimo teorija išsivystė, kaip atskleidžiama darbe, iš pažinimo, t. y. hermeneutinės, filosofijos krypties, ypač iš Hanso Georgo Gadamerio (1900–2002) pažinimo interpretacijos, ir buvo pritaikyta vertimui kaip specifinei pažinimo sričiai. Vokietijos hermeneutinės vertimo teorijos mokykla, išaugusi šalia funkcionalizmo krypties, ir jos ryškiausi atstovai – Hansas Georgas Gadameris (2006), Fritzas Paepcke (1986), Radegundis Stolze (1992, 2003, 2011), Sigrida Kupsch-Losereit (2008) – suformulavo teorinę nuostatą, kad vertimas yra visų pirma pažinimas ir supratimas, taip pat interpretacija. Kadangi vertimas – tai teksto ir jo reprezentuojamos kultūros interpretacija, taigi ir socialinė paslauga, kurios užduotis – sėkmingas bendravimas tarp kultūrų, o ne lingvistinis žinios ar fakto perdavimas. Laikantis tokios nuostatos, itin didelę reikšmę įgyja vertėjo interpretacinis teksto supratimas, hermeneutinio pažinimo nulemtas vertėjo santykis su tekstu. Šiame darbe atlikta teisinių tekstų analize siekiama tai patvirtinti ir atskleisti. Straipsnyje remiamasi R. Stolze aptariamais kalbos specialiesiems tikslams (dalykinės kalbos) interpretacijos aspektais, be to, jie sujungiami su funkcionalizmo atstovės Christiane’s Nord (2005) išskirtais ekstratekstiniais veiksniais, pagal kuriuos mokslininkė siūlo analizuoti visus tekstus, nepriklausomai nuo žanro, mokslo srities ir kt. – tai leidžia pailiustruoti, kaip sąveikaujant dviem teorijoms atsiskleidžia vertėjo pasirengimas versti tekstą dar nė nepradėjus tradiciškai suvokiamo vertimo darbo – kodų kaitos.

Penelitian ini mengkaji tentang permasalahan populisme sebagai ‘thin ideology' dan taktik politik yang menjadi salah satu pengaruh terhadap terjadinya intoleransi di Indonesia. Hal ini didorong oleh adanya disrupsi teknologi di abad ke-21 yang semakin masif, khususnya dalam media komunikasi berupa media sosial yang berujung pada efektifnya pengumpulan massa untuk membuat kubu politik dan menciptakan sekat-sekat sosial diantara masyarakat digital multikultural Indonesia. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui bahaya populisme bagi masyarakat digital serta menawarkan solusi untuk menekan ancaman dari populisme itu sendiri. Peneliti menggunakan metode penelitian deskriptif-kualitatif, dengan cara menganalisis data-data sekunder seperti jurnal ilmiah, artikel dan kanal berita elektronik serta komponen lain yang mendukung penelitian. Hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan, bahwa populisme memiliki kaitan yang sangat erat dengan adanya intoleransi dalam masyarakat digital Indonesia. Dampak dari pengumpulan massa politik dimanfaatkan untuk membangun orasi citra ‘pahlawan’ yang peduli terhadap nasib rakyat disemati pesan-pesan berbau apokaliptik dan pesimistis yang merujuk kepada otoritas yang disebut elite melalui berita-berita hoax sebagai perantara. Karakteristik yang berupa populisme agama di Indonesia menjadi dominasi dalam kasus intoleransi serta isu radikalisme saat ini. Adapun solusi untuk mengurangi dampak buruk dominasi tersebut adalah meningkatkan literasi masyarakat digital, menerapkan strategi kebudayaan secara tepat sasaran, menegakkan kode etik jurnalistik, serta membangun sebuah regulasi yang jelas sesuai dengan teori efektivitas hukum oleh Soerjono Soekanto.

In this paper three dimensional nonlinear finite element analysis is performed for the optimization of an overhead crane box girder for capacity (50~120ton) and span (10 ~ 32 m) for safe bending stress and deflection with minimum mass and volume. A customized optimization code is developed using interpolative relations and correction factors to achieve optimized results with and without considering industrial constraints. A cutting and welding plan is developed to provide a standard operating procedure for the manufacturing of the box girder. Bill of materials, box girder design dimensions, and cutting and welding lengths are recorded with considerable time saving. ABSTRAK: Kertas ini mengkaji tentang analisis tidak linear tiga dimensi unsur terhingga bagi mengoptimumkan kotak kren galang atas kepala bagi kapasiti (50 ~ 120 tan) dan pada kadar (10 ~ 32 m) bagi takat lentur selamat dan pesongan dengan jisim minimum dan isipadu. Kod optimum penyesuaian telah direka mengguna pakai kaitan interpolatif dan faktor-faktor pembetulan bagi mencapai keputusan yang optimum, dengan dan tanpa mengambil kira kekangan industri. Pelan pemotongan dan kimpalan telah dicipta bagi menyediakan prosedur operasi biasa bagi pembuatan kotak galang. Rang undang-undang bahan, dimensi reka bentuk kotak galang, pemotongan dan panjang kimpalan telah direkodkan dengan penjimatan masa yang besar.

City form conveys two images – the experiential and the remembered. The urban environment therefore is a cacophony of complex visual stimuli experienced with the often conflicting memory associations we attribute to them. Our appreciation of the rapidly changing built environment is therefore relative rather than absolute. In this sense the temporal and spatial components of the city merge to form our interpretation of city space. This paper presents emerging retrogressive landscape analysis, from the domains of landscape planning and heritage, to examine the possibility of a city-wide assessment of its potential to create ‘double exposure’ – walking simultaneously in the past and the present. This is not simply derived from our experience of individual architectural structures (urban form), but also our interpretation of past movement routes, boundaries and morphology (urban code). For this reason it may be necessary to look beyond a heritage which focuses on distinct ‘special’ places and protected buildings and look toward a heritage of temporal change processes and ubiquitous urban evolution; since it is also our interpretation and understanding of these which contributes to our full appreciation of city ‘character’. Santrauka Miestas turi du vaizdus – tiesiogiai suvokiamą ar patiriamą ir besiformuojantį atmintyje, o urbanistinės aplinkos kompleksiškų vizualinių stimulų kakofonija dažnai konfliktuoja ar nesutampa su atmintyje iškylančiomis asociacijomis. Galima teigti, kad mums būdingas urbanizuoto kraštovaizdžio pokyčių suvokimas yra daugiau sąlyginis negu absoliutus, nes trumpalaikiai ar pastovūs erdviniai elementai ir atminties fragmentai susilieja į vieną visumą formuodami konkrečios miesto erdvės interpretaciją. Šiame straispnyje pristatoma retrogresinė kraštovaizdžio analizė, žvelgiant iš kraštovaizdžio planavimo ir paveldo apsaugos pozicijų – jame siekiama įvertinti miestovaizdžio „dvigubos ekspozicijos“ potencialą, t. y. galimybę vienu metu vaikštant po miestą judėti dabartyje ir praeityje. Ši galimybė sukuriama ne tik patiriant atskiras architektūrines ar urbanistines formas, bet suvokiant bei interpretuojant ir individualius buvusius judėjimo kelius, ribas ir morfostruktūras (urbanistinį kodą). Saugant kultūros paveldą ir atsižvelgiant į miesto aplinkos suvokimo kompleksiškumą yra būtina ne tik susitelkti į atskirų objektų ar vietų apsaugą, bet ir skirti dėmesio aplinkos naudojimo ir kaitos procesams bei urbanistinės evoliucijos respektavimui. Šie aspektai svarbūs išsamiam miesto charakterio suvokimui.

Notary/PPAT is public official who has the authority make authentic deed evidence. Based on trust in Notary/PPAT, all interests in making deed fully entrusted. Included management of BPHTB tax payments authorized to Notary/PPAT. Deposit of tax money by clients based on customary practices aimed at facilitating transaction process. It becomes problem if the original action to help client become act embezzlement money. Based on interviews with Notaries/PPAT in different places stated evidence used sufficient with deposit money. Rules and sanctions have been firmly regulated, but such actions have always taken place in carrying out their duties. Bring up two problems, namely type evidence used in the case of client tax money embezzlement carried out by Notary/PPAT, as well as relation between these actions in carrying out their duties. Purpose of this study is make evidence has legal strength in event of embezzlement, and behavior of the Notary/PPAT to comply with the code of ethics. This study uses empirical legal research based on literature studies and interviews and analyzed using deskripif analysis techniques. The results of the study show important evidence in event of tax evasion cases is proof of receipt which is classified as a proof private deed. However, private deed not yet legal and perfect so the truth can still be denied. Additional legalization is required receipt form of affixing notary stamp and guarantee date and signature receipt. In relation implementation office duties there need for moral and ethics guidance code of ethics so it leads to better behavior. Notaris/PPAT merupakan pejabat umum yang memiliki kewenangan membuat alat bukti akta otentik. Berdasarkan kepercayaan terhadap Notaris/PPAT, maka segala kepentingan dalam pembuatan akta dipercayakan seluruhnya. Termasuk dalam kepengurusan pembayaran pajak BPHTB yang dikuasakan kepada Notaris/PPAT. Penitipan uang pajak oleh klien didasarkan atas kebiasaan praktik yang bertujuan untuk memudahkan proses transaksi. Menjadi permasalahan apabila tindakan yang semula hanya untuk membantu klien menjadi kasus penggelapan uang. Berdasarkan wawancara dengan Notaris/PPAT di tempat yang berbeda menyatakan bahwa alat bukti yang dipergunakan cukup dengan kwitansi penitipan uang. Aturan dan sanksi telah tegas mengatur, tetapi selalu terjadi tindakan demikian dalam melaksanakan tugas jabatannya. Memunculkan dua permasalahan yaitu jenis alat bukti yang digunakan dalam kasus penggelapan uang pajak klien yang dilakukan oleh Notaris/PPAT, serta kaitan tindakan tersebut dalam menjalankan tugas jabatannya. Tujuan penelitian ini agar alat bukti penitipan uang memiliki kekuatan hukum apabila terjadi penggelapan, serta prilaku Notaris/PPAT agar sesuai dengan kode etik. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode penelitian hukum empiris berdasarkan studi kepustakaan dan wawacara serta dianalisis menggunakan teknik analisis deskripif. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa alat bukti penting apabila terjadi kasus penggelapan uang pajak adalah alat bukti kwitansi yang di golongkan sebagai alat bukti surat dibawah tangan. Pembuktian dengan alat bukti surat dibawah tangan belum sah dan sempurna sehingga masih bisa disangkal kebenarannya. Guna menciptakan kepastian hukum diperlukan adanya tambahan legalisasi berupa pembubuhan cap notaris serta menjamin tanggal dan tanda tangan di dalam kwitansi. Kaitannya dengan pelaksanaan tugas jabatan diperlukan adanya pembinaan moral dan etika di dalam kode etik sehingga menuju kearah prilaku yang lebih baik.

Postmoderniojo filosofavimo lauke išplito kūno ir su kūnu susijusių sąvokų tinklas, nužymintis esminius dabarties būvio bruožus. Kūnas tapo kultūros ekonomikos vaizdinių generatoriumi, o sykiu kūnas žymi naują kapitalizmo raidos stadiją: globalizacinė geografinė ir kultūrinė kapitalizmo ekspansija pereina į informacinę genetinę ekspansiją. Kūno " teritorijoje" nustatomi kaitūs suprekinimo galios santykių riboženkliai, tačiau tie patys santykiai peržengia visokias kultūrines teritorines apibrėžtis ir kreipia į neišsemiamų biogenetinių turtų klodus, kuriems nusavinti ir įsisavinti pasitelkiamos informacinių, nanoinžinerijos ir genų inžinerijos technologijų pagrindu kuriamos protingomis vadinamos mašinos. Privačios nuosavybės santykiams apėmus gamtos genetinius turtus ir pavertus juos ištekliais, pažinimo subjektas įvykdo išsikeltą Visatos sekuliarizavimo tikslą - jis pats, kaip genų savininkas ir gamintojas, vilioja žmones amžinais jų genetinių informacinių klonų pavidalais, kuriuos bus galima išlaikyti bet kurioje Visatos vietoje. žmogaus suprekinimas ir suišteklinimas - tai du vienas kitą palaikantys ir vienas kitą skatinantys kapitalizmo saviraidos procesai, kurie visuotiniu būdu apsireiškia postmodernybėje. Gundymas "nemirtingumu", kuris nepaprastai sustiprės įvaldžius genetinį kodą (pažymėtina kodo tema meninėje gamyboje), yra postmodernioji galios valdyti apraiška, neišvengiamai išskirstanti žmoniją pagal individų galimybes siekti "nemirtingumo" ir jį įgyti.

Tyrimo tikslas. Ivertinti sunkia galvos smegenu trauma (GST) patyrusio asmens ankstyvos stacionarines reabilitacijos veiksminguma. Tyrimo metodika. Taikytas kokybinis atvejo tyrimo metodas. Tyrimo duomenys buvo surinkti iš paciento ligos istorijos, analizuojamas kompleksines reabilitacijos poveikis. Rezultatai. Tiriamosios savarankiškumo pokyciams didele reikšme turejo ankstyvoji reabilitacija. Jos metu sumažejo kaires ranku ir koju kontrakturos, sustiprejo kaires kojos raumenu jega nuo 0 iki 2 balu, dešines kojos – nuo 3 iki 5 balu, kaires rankos – nuo 0 iki 1 balo, dešines rankos – nuo 3 iki 5 balu. Pagerejo artikuliacine motorika ir ekspresyvioji kalba. Reabilitacijos metu savarankiškumas pagal Barthel indeksa padidejo iki 20 balu. Išvados. Ankstyva sunkia galvos smegenu trauma patyrusio asmens stacionarine kompleksine reabilitacija, intensyviai taikant multisensorines stimuliacijos programa, gali žymiai pagerinti funkcini savarankiškuma. Tai rodo ir šis klinikinis atvejis: padidejo tiriamosios galuniu raumenu jega, pagerejo atmintis, demesys, artikuliacine motorika ir ekspresyvioji kalba, išaugo savarankiškumas.

Perwakilan kod rantai ialah salah satu daripada Bahasa Penghuraian Gambar yang digunakan untuk mewakili garisan. Kertas kerja ini menfokuskan kepada terjemahan lukisan garisan dengan menerapkan algoritma kod rantaai dalam mendapatkan dua entiti geometri, iaitu simpang–T dan kawasan, bagi lakaran lukisan garisan dua dimensi. Algoritma kod rantai tertutup ini mengandaikan bahawa lakaran mewakili objek padu tiga dimensi. Algoritma ini ialah berasaskan kod rantai Freeman 8–kaitan dalam tetingkap 3×3. Terdapat dua faktor yang menentukan kejayaan algoritma ini. Pertama ialah arah penjelajahan sama ada ikut jam atau lawan jam. Kedua ialah lokasi permulaan bagi penjelajahan dalam tetingkap 3×3 tersebut. Kertas kerja ini menerangkan faktor-faktor ini dan aplikasi mereka dalam mendapatkan entiti geometri tersebut. Perbincangan ini dibantu oleh contoh lakaran objek blok–L untuk memudahkan pemahaman terhadap algoritma. Kertas kerja ini diakhiri dengan kesimpulan dan cadangan pembaikan. Kata kunci: Terjemahan lukisan garisan, kod rantaian, objek blok-L, Bahasa Penghuraian Gambar Chain code scheme is one of the Picture Description Languages used to represent lines. This paper focuses on the line drawing interpretation by utilising closed loop chain code algorithm as a tool in deriving two geometric entities, i.e. T–junction and region, of a two–dimensional line drawing sketch. The closed loop chain code algorithm assumes that the sketch represents a three–dimensional solid object. The algorithm is based on 8–connected 3×3 windows of Freeman chain code. Two factors determine the success of the algorithm. The first factor is the direction of traverses either clockwise or anti–clockwise. The other is the start location of the 3×3 window traverse. This paper explains these factors and their applications in deriving the geometric entities. The discussion is supported with an example of L–block object for clarification in the presentation of the algorithm. This paper is concluded with conclusion and future works. Keywords: Line drawing interpretation, chain code, L-block object, Picture Description Languages

Introduction“From every kind of man obedience I expect; I’m the Emperor of Japan.” (“Miyasama,” from Gilbert and Sullivan’s musical The Mikado, 1885)This commentary is facilitated by—surprisingly resilient—oriental stereotypes of an imagined Japan (think of Oscar Wilde’s assertion, in 1889, that Japan was a European invention). During the Victorian era, in Britain, there was a craze for all things oriental, particularly ceramics and “there was a craze for all things Japanese and no middle class drawing room was without its Japanese fan or teapot.“ (V&A Victorian). These pastoral depictions of the ‘oriental life’ included the figures of men and women in oriental garb, with fans, stilt shoes, kimono-like robes, and appropriate headdresses, engaging in garden-based activities, especially tea ceremony variations (Landow). In fact, tea itself, and the idea of a ceremony of serving it, had taken up a central role, even an obsession in middle- and upper-class Victorian life. Similarly, landscapes with wild seas, rugged rocks and stunted pines, wizened monks, pagodas and temples, and particular fauna and flora (cranes and other birds flying through clouds of peonies, cherry blossoms and chrysanthemums) were very popular motifs (see Martin and Koda). Rather than authenticity, these designs heightened the Western-based romantic stereotypes associated with a stylised form of Japanese life, conducted sedately under rule of the Japanese Imperial Court. In reality, prior to the Meiji period (1868–1912), the Emperor was largely removed from everyday concerns, residing as an isolated, holy figure in Kyoto, the traditional capital of Japan. Japan was instead ruled from Edo (modern day Tokyo) led by the Shogun and his generals, according to a strict Confucian influenced code (see Keene). In Japan, as elsewhere, the presence of feudal-style governance includes policies that determine much of everyday life, including restrictions on clothing (Rall 169). The Samurai code was no different, and included a series of protocols that restricted rank, movement, behaviour, and clothing. As Vincent has noted in the case of the ‘lace tax’ in Great Britain, these restrictions were designed to punish those who seek to penetrate the upper classes through their costume (28-30). In Japan, pre-Meiji sumptuary laws, for example, restricted the use of gold, and prohibited the use of a certain shade of red by merchant classes (V&A Kimono).Therefore, in the governance of pre-globalised societies, the importance of clothing and textile is evident; as Jones and Stallybrass comment: We need to understand the antimatedness of clothes, their ability to “pick up” subjects, to mould and shape them both physically and socially—to constitute subjects through their power as material memories […] Clothing is a worn world: a world of social relations put upon the wearer’s body. (2-3, emphasis added)The significant re-imagining of Japanese cultural and national identities are explored here through the cataclysmic impact of Western ideologies on Japanese cultural traditions. There are many ways to examine how indigenous cultures respond to European, British, or American (hereafter Western) influences, particularly in times of conflict (Wilk). Western ideology arrived in Japan after a long period of isolation (during which time Japan’s only contact was with Dutch traders) through the threat of military hostility and war. It is after this outside threat was realised that Japan’s adoption of military and industrial practices begins. The re-imagining of their national identity took many forms, and the inclusion of a Western-style military costuming as a schoolboy uniform became a highly visible indicator of Japan’s mission to protect its sovereign integrity. A brief history of Japan’s rise from a collection of isolated feudal states to a unified military power, in not only the Asian Pacific region but globally, demonstrates the speed at which they adopted the Western mode of warfare. Gunboats on Japan’s ShorelinesJapan was forcefully opened to the West in the 1850s by America under threat of First Name Perry’s ‘gunboat diplomacy’ (Hillsborough 7-8). Following this, Japan underwent a rapid period of modernisation, and an upsurge in nationalism and military expansion that was driven by a desire to catch up to the European powers present in the Pacific. Noted by Ian Ferguson in Civilization: The West and the Rest, Unsure, the Japanese decided […] to copy everything […] Japanese institutions were refashioned on Western models. The army drilled like Germans; the navy sailed like Britons. An American-style system of state elementary and middle schools was also introduced. (221, emphasis added)This was nothing short of a wide-scale reorganisation of Japan’s entire social structure and governance. Under the Emperor Meiji, who wrested power from the Shogunate and reclaimed it for the Imperial head, Japan steamed into an industrial revolution, achieving in a matter of years what had taken Europe over a century.Japan quickly became a major player-elect on the world stage. However, as an island nation, Japan lacked the essentials of both coal and iron with which to fashion not only industrial machinery but also military equipment, the machinery of war. In 1875 Japan forced Korea to open itself to foreign (read: Japanese) trade. In the same treaty, Korea was recognised as a sovereign nation, separate from Qing China (Tucker 1461). The necessity for raw materials then led to the Sino-Japanese War (1894–95), a conflict between Japan and China that marked the emergence of Japan as a major world power. The Korean Peninsula had long been China’s most important client state, but its strategic location adjacent to the Japanese archipelago, and its natural resources of coal and iron, attracted Japan’s interest. Later, the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), allowed a victorious Japan to force Russia to abandon its expansionist policy in the Far East, becoming the first Asian power in modern times to defeat a European power. The Russo-Japanese War developed out of the rivalry between Russia and Japan for dominance in Korea and Manchuria, again in the struggle for natural resources (Tucker 1534-46).Japan’s victories, together with the county’s drive for resources, meant that Japan could now determine its role within the Asia-Pacific sphere of influence. As Japan’s military, and their adoption of Westernised combat, proved effective in maintaining national integrity, other social institutions also looked to the West (Ferguson 221). In an ironic twist—while Victorian and Continental fashion was busy adopting the exotic, oriental look (Martin and Koda)—the kimono, along with other essentials of Japanese fashions, were rapidly altered (both literally and figuratively) to suit new, warlike ideology. It should be noted that kimono literally means ‘things that you wear’ and which, prior to exposure to Western fashions, signified all worn clothing (Dalby 65-119). “Wearing Things” in Westernised JapanAs Japan modernised during the late 1800s the kimono was positioned as symbolising barbaric, pre-modern, ‘oriental’ Japan. Indeed, on 17 January 1887 the Meiji Empress issued a memorandum on the subject of women’s clothing in Japan: “She [the Empress] believed that western clothes were in fact closer to the dress of women in ancient Japan than the kimonos currently worn and urged that they be adopted as the standard clothes of the reign” (Keene 404). The resemblance between Western skirts and blouses and the simple skirt and separate top that had been worn in ancient times by a people descended from the sun goddess, Amaterasu wo mikami, was used to give authority and cultural authenticity to Japan’s modernisation projects. The Imperial Court, with its newly ennobled European style aristocrats, exchanged kimono silks for Victorian finery, and samurai armour for military pomp and splendour (Figure 1).Figure 1: The Meiji Emperor, Empress and Crown Prince resplendent in European fashions on an outing to Asukayama Park. Illustration: Toyohara Chikanobu, circa 1890.It is argued here that the function of a uniform is to prepare the body for service. Maids and butlers, nurses and courtesans, doctors, policemen, and soldiers are all distinguished by their garb. Prudence Black states: “as a technology, uniforms shape and code the body so they become a unit that belongs to a collective whole” (93). The requirement to discipline bodies through clothing, particularly through uniforms, is well documented (see Craik, Peoples, and Foucault). The need to distinguish enemies from allies on the battlefield requires adherence to a set of defined protocols, as referenced in military fashion compendiums (see Molloy). While the postcolonial adoption of Western-based clothing reflects a new form of subservience (Rall, Kuechler and Miller), in Japan, the indigenous garments were clearly designed in the interests of ideological allegiance. To understand the Japanese sartorial traditions, the kimono itself must be read as providing a strong disciplinary element. The traditional garment is designed to represent an upright and unbending column—where two meters of under bindings are used to discipline the body into shape are then topped with a further four meters of a stiffened silk obi wrapped around the waist and lower chest. To dress formally in such a garment requires helpers (see Dalby). The kimono both constructs and confines the women who wear it, and presses them into their roles as dutiful, upper-class daughters (see Craik). From the 1890s through to the 1930s, when Japan again enters a period of militarism, the myth of the kimono again changes as it is integrated into the build-up towards World War II.Decades later, when Japan re-established itself as a global economic power in the 1970s and 1980s, the kimono was re-authenticated as Japan’s ‘traditional’ garment. This time it was not the myth of a people descended from solar deities that was on display, but that of samurai strength and propriety for men, alongside an exaggerated femininity for women, invoking a powerful vision of Japanese sartorial tradition. This reworking of the kimono was only possible as the garment was already contained within the framework of Confucian family duty. However, in the lead up to World War II, Japanese military advancement demanded of its people soldiers that could win European-style wars. The quickest solution was to copy the military acumen and strategies of global warfare, and the costumes of the soldiery and seamen of Europe, including Great Britain (Ferguson). It was also acknowledged that soldiers were ‘made not born’ so the Japanese educational system was re-vamped to emulate those of its military rivals (McVeigh). It was in the uptake of schoolboy uniforms that this re-imagining of Japanese imperial strength took place.The Japanese Schoolboy UniformCentral to their rapid modernisation, Japan adopted a constitutional system of education that borrowed from American and French models (Tipton 68-69). The government viewed education as a “primary means of developing a sense of nation,” and at its core, was the imperial authorities’ obsession with defining “Japan and Japaneseness” (Tipton 68-69). Numerous reforms eventually saw, after an abolition of fees, nearly 100% attendance by both boys and girls, despite a lingering mind-set that educating women was “a waste of time” (Tipton 68-69). A boys’ uniform based on the French and Prussian military uniforms of the 1860s and 1870s respectively (Kinsella 217), was adopted in 1879 (McVeigh 47). This jacket, initially with Prussian cape and cap, consists of a square body, standing mandarin style collar and a buttoned front. It was through these education reforms, as visually symbolised by the adoption of military style school uniforms, that citizen making, education, and military training became interrelated aspects of Meiji modernisation (Kinsella 217). Known as the gakuran (gaku: to study; ran: meaning both orchid, and a pun on Horanda, meaning Holland, the only Western country with trading relations in pre-Meiji Japan), these jackets were a symbol of education, indicating European knowledge, power and influence and came to reflect all things European in Meiji Japan. By adopting these jackets two objectives were realised:through the magical power of imitation, Japan would, by adopting the clothing of the West, naturally rise in military power; and boys were uniformed to become not only educated as quasi-Europeans, but as fighting soldiers and sons (suns) of the nation.The gakuran jacket was first popularised by state-run schools, however, in the century and a half that the garment has been in use it has come to symbolise young Japanese masculinity as showcased in campus films, anime, manga, computer games, and as fashion is the preeminent garment for boybands and Japanese hipsters.While the gakuran is central to the rise of global militarism in Japan (McVeigh 51-53), the jacket would go on to form the basis of the Sun Yat Sen and Mao Suits as symbols of revolutionary China (see McVeigh). Supposedly, Sun Yat Sen saw the schoolboy jacket in Japan as a utilitarian garment and adopted it with a turn down collar (Cumming et al.). For Sun Yat Sen, the gakuran was the perfect mix of civilian (school boy) and military (the garment’s Prussian heritage) allowing him to walk a middle path between the demands of both. Furthermore, the garment allowed Sun to navigate between Western style suits and old-fashioned Qing dynasty styles (Gerth 116); one was associated with the imperialism of the National Products Movement, while the other represented the corruption of the old dynasty. In this way, the gakuran was further politicised from a national (Japanese) symbol to a global one. While military uniforms have always been political garments, in the late 1800s and early 1900s, as the world was rocked by revolutions and war, civilian clothing also became a means of expressing political ideals (McVeigh 48-49). Note that Mahatma Ghandi’s clothing choices also evolved from wholly Western styles to traditional and emphasised domestic products (Gerth 116).Mao adopted this style circa 1927, further defining the style when he came to power by adding elements from the trousers, tunics, and black cotton shoes worn by peasants. The suit was further codified during the 1960s, reaching its height in the Cultural Revolution. While the gakuran has always been a scholarly black (see Figure 2), subtle differences in the colour palette differentiated the Chinese population—peasants and workers donned indigo blue Mao jackets, while the People’s Liberation Army Soldiers donned khaki green. This limited colour scheme somewhat paradoxically ensured that subtle hierarchical differences were maintained even whilst advocating egalitarian ideals (Davis 522). Both the Sun Yat Sen suit and the Mao jacket represented the rejection of bourgeois (Western) norms that objectified the female form in favour of a uniform society. Neo-Maoism and Mao fever of the early 1990s saw the Mao suit emerge again as a desirable piece of iconic/ironic youth fashion. Figure 2: An example of Gakuran uniform next to the girl’s equivalent on display at Ichikawa Gakuen School (Japan). Photo: Emerald King, 2015.There is a clear and vital link between the influence of the Prussian style Japanese schoolboy uniform on the later creation of the Mao jacket—that of the uniform as an integral piece of worn propaganda (Atkins).For Japan, the rapid deployment of new military and industrial technologies, as well as a sartorial need to present her leaders as modern (read: Western) demanded the adoption of European-style uniforms. The Imperial family had always been removed from Samurai battlefields, so the adoption of Western military costume allowed Japan’s rulers to present a uniform face to other global powers. When Japan found itself in conflict in the Asia Pacific Region, without an organised military, the first requirement was to completely reorganise their system of warfare from a feudal base and to train up national servicemen. Within an American-style compulsory education system, the European-based curriculum included training in mathematics, engineering and military history, as young Britons had for generations begun their education in Greek and Latin, with the study of Ancient Greek and Roman wars (Bantock). It is only in the classroom that ideological change on a mass scale can take place (Reference Please), a lesson not missed by later leaders such as Mao Zedong.ConclusionIn the 1880s, the Japanese leaders established their position in global politics by adopting clothing and practices from the West (Europeans, Britons, and Americans) in order to quickly re-shape their country’s educational system and military establishment. The prevailing military costume from foreign cultures not only disciplined their adopted European bodies, they enforced a new regime through dress (Rall 157-174). For boys, the gakuran symbolised the unity of education and militarism as central to Japanese masculinity. Wearing a uniform, as many authors suggest, furthers compliance (Craik, Nagasawa Kaiser and Hutton, and McVeigh). As conscription became a part of Japanese reality in World War II, the schoolboys just swapped their military-inspired school uniforms for genuine military garments.Re-imagining a Japanese schoolboy uniform from a European military costume might suit ideological purposes (Atkins), but there is more. The gakuran, as a uniform based on a close, but not fitted jacket, was the product of a process of advanced industrialisation in the garment-making industry also taking place in the 1800s:Between 1810 and 1830, technical calibrations invented by tailors working at the very highest level of the craft [in Britain] eventually made it possible for hundreds of suits to be cut up and made in advance [...] and the ready-to-wear idea was put into practice for men’s clothes […] originally for uniforms for the War of 1812. (Hollander 31) In this way, industrialisation became a means to mass production, which furthered militarisation, “the uniform is thus the clothing of the modern disciplinary society” (Black 102). There is a perfect resonance between Japan’s appetite for a modern military and their rise to an industrialised society, and their conquests in Asia Pacific supplied the necessary material resources that made such a rapid deployment possible. The Japanese schoolboy uniform was an integral part of the process of both industrialisation and militarisation, which instilled in the wearer a social role required by modern Japanese society in its rise for global power. Garments are never just clothing, but offer a “world of social relations put upon the wearer’s body” (Jones and Stallybrass 3-4).Today, both the Japanese kimono and the Japanese schoolboy uniform continue to interact with, and interrogate, global fashions as contemporary designers continue to call on the tropes of ‘military chic’ (Tonchi) and Japanese-inspired clothing (Kawamura). References Atkins, Jaqueline. Wearing Propaganda: Textiles on the Home Front in Japan, Britain, and the United States. Princeton: Yale UP, 2005.Bantock, Geoffrey Herman. Culture, Industrialisation and Education. London: Routledge & K. Paul, 1968.Black, Prudence. “The Discipline of Appearance: Military Style and Australian Flight Hostess Uniforms 1930–1964.” Fashion & War in Popular Culture. Ed. Denise N. Rall. Bristol: Intellect/U Chicago P, 2014. 91-106.Craik, Jenifer. Uniforms Exposed: From Conformity to Transgression. 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