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Journal articles on the topic 'Kalahari Desert'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 29 January 2023

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1

Georgiev, Milen I., Nina Ivanovska, Kalina Alipieva, Petya Dimitrova, and Robert Verpoorte. "Harpagoside: from Kalahari Desert to pharmacy shelf." Phytochemistry 92 (August 2013): 8–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2013.04.009.

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2

Thomas, D. S. G. "Dune pattern statistics applied to the Kalahari Dune Desert, Southern Africa." Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 30, no. 2 (July 9, 1986): 231–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1127/zfg/30/1986/231.

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3

Landau, Paul. "The Illumination of Christ in the Kalahari Desert." Representations 45, no. 1 (January 1994): 26–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/rep.1994.45.1.99p02067.

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4

Landau, Paul. "The Illumination of Christ in the Kalahari Desert." Representations 45 (January 1, 1994): 26–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2928601.

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5

Taylor, F. W., D. M. Thamage, N. Baker, N. Roth-Bejerano, and V. Kagan-Zur. "Notes on the Kalahari desert truffle, Terfezia pfeilii." Mycological Research 99, no. 7 (July 1995): 874–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0953-7562(09)80744-2.

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6

Jury, Mark R. "Flood-producing cloud bands over the Kalahari Desert." Theoretical and Applied Climatology 102, no. 3-4 (March 5, 2010): 367–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00704-010-0259-x.

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7

Lemenkova, Polina. "Mapping Climate Parameters over the Territory of Botswana Using GMT and Gridded Surface Data from TerraClimate." ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 11, no. 9 (August 31, 2022): 473. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijgi11090473.

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This articles presents a new series of maps showing the climate and environmental variability of Botswana. Situated in southern Africa, Botswana has an arid to semi-arid climate, which significantly varies in its different regions: Kalahari Desert, Makgadikgadi Pan and Okavango Delta. While desert regions are prone to droughts and periods of extreme heat during the summer months, other regions experience heavy downpours, as well as episodic and unpredictable rains that affect agricultural activities. Such climatic variations affect social and economic aspects of life in Botswana. This study aimed to visualise the non-linear correlations between the topography and climate setting at the country’s scale. Variables included T °C min, T °C max, precipitation, soil moisture, evapotranspiration (PET and AET), downward surface shortwave radiation, vapour pressure and vapour pressure deficit (VPD), wind speed and Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI). The dataset was taken from the TerraClimate source and GEBCO for topographic mapping. The mapping approach included the use of Generic Mapping Tools (GMT), a console-based scripting toolset, which enables the use of a scripting method of automated mapping. Several GMT modules were used to derive a set of climate parameters for Botswana. The data were supplemented with the adjusted cartographic elements and inspected by the Geospatial Data Abstraction Library (GDAL). The PDSI in Botswana in 2018 shows stepwise variation with seven areas of drought: (1) −3.7 to −2.2. (extreme); (2) −2.2 to −0.8 (strong, southern Kalahari); (3) −0.8 to 0.7 (significant, central Kalahari; (4) 0.7 to 2.1 (moderate); (5) 2.1 to 3.5 (lesser); (6) 3.5 to 4.9 (low); (7) 4.9 to 6.4 (least). The VPD has a general trend towards the south-western region (Kalahari Desert, up to 3.3), while it is lower in the north-eastern region of Botswana (up to 1.4). Other values vary respectively, as demonstrated in the presented 12 maps of climate and environmental inventory in Botswana.

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8

Lewis-Williams, J. David, and David G. Pearce. "San rock art: evidence and argument." Antiquity 89, no. 345 (June 2015): 732–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2014.51.

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Whether or not a ‘trance-dance’ akin to that of today's Kalahari San (Bushmen) was performed by southern /Xam San in the nineteenth century has long been the subject of intense debate. Here the authors point to parallels between nineteenth-century records of San life and beliefs and twentieth-century San ethnography from the Kalahari Desert in order to argue that this cultural practice was shared by these two geographically and chronologically distant groups. More significantly, it is suggested that these ethnographic parallels allow a clearer understanding of the religious and ritual practices depicted in the southern San rock art images.

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9

Eriksson, P. G., N. Nixon, C. P. Snyman, and J. duP. Bothma. "Ellipsoidal parabolic dune patches in the southern Kalahari Desert." Journal of Arid Environments 16, no. 2 (March 1989): 111–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-1963(18)31019-x.

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10

Stone, A. "Dryland dunes and other dryland environmental archives as proxies for Late Quaternary stratigraphy and environmental and climate change in southern Africa." South African Journal of Geology 124, no. 4 (December 1, 2021): 927–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.25131/sajg.124.0055.

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Abstract The Namib Desert and the Kalahari constitute the drylands of southern Africa, with the current relatively humid portions of the latter having experienced periodically drier conditions during the Late Quaternary. This study explores the range of dryland archives and proxies available for the past ~190 ka. These include classic dryland geomorphological proxies, such as sand dunes, as well as water-lain sediments within former lakes and ephemeral fluvial systems, lake shorelines, sand ramps, water-lain calcrete and tufa sediments at the interface of surface hydrological and hydrogeological, speleothems and groundwater hydrogeological records, and hyrax middens. Palaeoenvironmental evidence can also be contained within geoarchaeological archives in caves, overhangs and rockshelters. This integration of records is undertaken with the aim of identifying a (or a number of) terrestrial regional chronostratigraphic framework(s) for this time period within southern Africa, because this is missing from the Quaternary stratigraphy lexicon. Owing to a lack of long, near-continuous terrestrial sequences in these drylands, the correspondence between nearby terrestrial records are explored as a basis for parasequences to build this chronostratigraphy. Recognising the modern climatological diversity across the subcontinent, four broad spatial subdivisions are used to explore potential sub-regional parasequences, which capture current climatic gradients, including the hyper-arid west coast and the decrease in aridity from the southwest Kalahari toward the north and east. These are the Namib Desert, the northern Kalahari, the southern Kalahari and the eastern fringes of the southern Kalahari. Terrestrial chronostratigraphies must start from premise that climate-driven environmental shifts may have occurred independently to those in other terrestrial locations and may be diachronous compared to the marine oxygen isotope stratigraphy (MIS), which serves as a global-scale master climatostratigraphy relating to global ice volume. The fragmented nature of preserved evidence means that we are still some way from producing unambiguous parasequences. There is however, a rich record to consider, compile and compare, within which seven broad wetter intervals are identified, with breaks between these inferred to be relatively drier, and some also have proxy evidence for drying. The onset and cessation of these wetter intervals does not align with MIS: they occur with greater frequency, but not with regular periodicity. Precession-paced insolation forcing is often invoked as a key control on southern African climate, but this does not explain the pacing of all of the identified events. Overall, the pattern is complex with some corresponding wetter intervals across space and others with opposing west-east trends. The evidence for drying over the past 10 ka is pronounced in the west (Namib Desert), with ephemerally wet conditions in the south (southern Kalahari). The patterns identified here provide a framework to be scrutinised and to inspire refinements to proposed terrestrial chronostratigraphies for southern Africa. Considering changes across this large geographic area also highlights the complexity in environmental responses across space as we continue to test a range of hypotheses about the nature of climatic forcing in this region.

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11

Trappe, James M., Andrew W. Claridge, David Arora, and W. Adriaan Smit. "Desert Truffles of the African Kalahari: Ecology, Ethnomycology, and Taxonomy." Economic Botany 62, no. 3 (October 23, 2008): 521–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12231-008-9027-6.

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12

Bullard, J. E., D. S. G. Thomas, I. Livingstone, and G. F. S. Wiggs. "Analysis of linear sand dune morphological variability, southwestern Kalahari desert." Geomorphology 11, no. 3 (February 1995): 189–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-555x(94)00061-u.

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13

Robbins, L. H., M. L. Murphy, N. J. Stevens, G. A. Brook, A. H. Ivester, K. A. Haberyan, R. G. Klein, et al. "Paleoenvironment and Archaeology of Drotsky’s Cave: Western Kalahari Desert, Botswana." Journal of Archaeological Science 23, no. 1 (January 1996): 7–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1996.0002.

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14

Wiggs, Giles F. S., David S. G. Thomas, Joanna E. Bullard, and Ian Livingstone. "Dune mobility and vegetation cover in the Southwest Kalahari desert." Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 20, no. 6 (September 1995): 515–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290200604.

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15

Sidandi, Paul, Philip Opondo, and Sebonetse Tidimane. "Mental health in Botswana." International Psychiatry 8, no. 3 (August 2011): 66–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/s1749367600002605.

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Botswana is a landlocked country located in southern Africa. More than two-thirds of it (70%) is covered by the Kalahari Desert, known locally as the Kgalagadi. The majority (82%) of the nearly 2 million population live in the eastern part, along the railway line from Lobatse in the south-east to Francistown in the north-east, and the rest in the central part, including the Okavango River delta.

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16

du Plessis, Pierre. "Tracking Meat of the Sand." Environmental Humanities 14, no. 1 (March 1, 2022): 49–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/22011919-9481429.

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Abstract This article explores the skilled arts of tracking and gathering as methods for noticing and theorizing multispecies landscapes in the Kalahari Desert, Botswana. Tracking is typically used to describe a practice of following animals, usually for hunting, whereas gathering primarily refers to the collection of plant and fungal materials. The author presents a case in which these terms have been scrambled during long-term ethnographic field research. The author and his interlocutors tracked the Kalahari desert truffle, an experience that demonstrates how aspects of tracking extend to gathering, but also how the practices are attentive to the movements of landscapes more broadly. This form of tracking attends to multiple spatial and temporal movements that include nonanimals and other nonhumans. It represents a way of noticing the assemblages of more-than-human relations that make up landscapes. These convergences, first identified through tracking, are then explored through the more distributed analytic of gathering. Inspired by Ursula LeGuin’s call to describe stories of gatherers and collectives in her “Carrier Bag Theory of Fiction,” the article argues that thinking tracking through the gathering analytic helps articulate a “carrier bag approach” for understanding landscapes through the gatherings of relations with which they emerge.

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17

Rasa, O. Anne E. "Parabiosis and its Proximate Mechanisms in Four Kalahari Desert Tenebrionid Beetles." Ethology 98, no. 2 (April 26, 2010): 137–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1994.tb01064.x.

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18

Lund, Jess, Diana Bolopo, Robert L. Thomson, Dorianne L. Elliott, Luke F. Arnot, Ryno Kemp, Anthony M. Lowney, and Andrew E. McKechnie. "Winter thermoregulation in free-ranging pygmy falcons in the Kalahari Desert." Journal of Ornithology 161, no. 2 (February 29, 2020): 549–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10336-020-01755-y.

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19

Burrough, S., R. M. Bailey, and D. S. G. Thomas. "Dating the desert: A decade in the dark with Kalahari quartz." Quaternary International 404 (June 2016): 199. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.08.172.

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20

Brook, George A., David A. Burney, and James B. Cowart. "Desert paleoenvironmental data from cave speleothems with examples from the Chihuahuan, Somali-Chalbi, and Kalahari deserts." Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 76, no. 3-4 (January 1990): 311–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(90)90118-q.

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21

Nash, David J., David S. G. Thomas, and Paul A. Shaw. "Siliceous duricrusts as palaeoclimatic indicators: evidence from the Kalahari desert of Botswana." Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 112, no. 3-4 (December 1994): 279–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(94)90077-9.

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22

Boulenger, G. A. "On a new Gecko, of the Genus Chondrodactylus, from the Kalahari Desert." Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 55, no. 2 (August 20, 2009): 339–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1887.tb02971.x.

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23

Bullard, J. E., D. S. G. Thomas, I. Livingstone, and G. S. F. Wiggs. "Dunefield Activity and Interactions with Climatic Variability in the Southwest Kalahari Desert." Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 22, no. 2 (February 1997): 165–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1096-9837(199702)22:2<165::aid-esp687>3.0.co;2-9.

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24

Manatsa, Desmond, and Chris Reason. "ENSO-Kalahari Desert linkages on southern Africa summer surface air temperature variability." International Journal of Climatology 37, no. 4 (June 28, 2016): 1728–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/joc.4806.

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25

Thomas, David S. G. "Analysis of linear dune sediment-form relationships in the Kalahari dune desert." Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 13, no. 6 (September 1988): 545–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290130608.

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26

Lindholm, Karl-Johan. "A new approach to the archaeology of livestock herding in the Kalahari, Southern Africa." Antiquity 83, no. 319 (March 1, 2009): 110–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x00098124.

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AbstractThe author notes that livestock herding in the Kalahari Desert would require water during the dry season. By mapping and dating artificially dug or enlarged waterholes, he shows when and where such herding would have been possible. Dating is by radiocarbon, artefact scatters and cartography. Comparison with climatic, documentary and oral evidence shows that the use of the artificial wells correlates with what is known so far about the movement of peoples over the last two millennia. This inspires confidence in the connection between the wells and herding and in the survey methods.

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27

WYNNE, JOHN. "Language ecology and photographic sound in the McWorld." Organised Sound 11, no. 1 (March 15, 2006): 45–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1355771806000070.

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The unique sounds of the world's small-scale languages are being extinguished at an alarming rate. This article explores links between acoustic ecology and language ecology and outlines an approach to the creation of archive material as both source for and useful by-product of sound art practice and research. Through my work with endangered click-languages in the Kalahari Desert, it considers the boundaries between language and music and discusses the use of flat speaker technology to explore new relations between sound and image, portrait and soundscape in a cross-cultural context.

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28

Perkins, J. S., and D. S. G. Thomas. "Spreading deserts or spatially confined environmental impacts? land degradation and cattle ranching in the kalahari desert of botswana." Land Degradation and Development 4, no. 3 (October 1993): 179–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ldr.3400040307.

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29

Thomas, D. S. G., D. J. Nash, P. A. Shaw, and C. Van der Post. "Present day lunette sediment cycling at Witpan in the arid southwestern Kalahari Desert." CATENA 20, no. 5 (October 1993): 515–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0341-8162(93)90045-q.

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30

Trappe, James M., Gábor M. Kovács, and Andrew W. Claridge. "Comparative taxonomy of desert truffles of the Australian outback and the African Kalahari." Mycological Progress 9, no. 1 (August 26, 2009): 131–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11557-009-0612-6.

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31

Nash, David J., and Frank D. Eckardt. "Drainage development, neotectonics and base-level change in the Kalahari Desert, southern Africa." South African Geographical Journal 98, no. 2 (April 13, 2015): 308–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03736245.2015.1028987.

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32

Schachtschneider, Klaudia, and Edmund C. February. "Impact of Prosopis invasion on a keystone tree species in the Kalahari Desert." Plant Ecology 214, no. 4 (March 20, 2013): 597–605. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11258-013-0192-z.

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33

Costa, G. C., G. R. Colli, and R. Constantino. "Can lizard richness be driven by termite diversity? Insights from the Brazilian Cerrado." Canadian Journal of Zoology 86, no. 1 (January 2008): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z07-107.

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We test predictions of the Morton and James hypothesis, which states that high termite diversity promotes high lizard diversity. We explore consumption of termites by lizards in the Brazilian Cerrado, a system that shares many similarites with arid Australia whose fauna formed the basis for the original hypothesis. We found that Cerrado lizards prey heavily on termites. Several species had >40% of their diet consisting of termites, some species reached up to 80%. However, lizards prey on termites independently of their diversity in the environment and do not show niche segregation in relation to termite resource. Hence, our results in the Cerrado do not support the hypothesis that termite diversity can promote lizard diversity. The diets of Cerrado lizards have a high proportion of termites; however, the diets of desert lizards from the Australian and the Kalahari deserts have a much higher proportion of termites when compared with those from the Cerrado and the Amazon. Differences in termite consumption by lizards across ecosystems do not seem to be related to local termite diversity. We hypothesize that overall prey availability can explain this pattern. Several arthropod groups are abundant in the Cerrado and the Amazon. In deserts, other prey types may be less abundant; therefore, termites may be the best available resource.

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34

WILLIAMS, JOSEPH B., and MORNE A. DU PLESSIS. "Field metabolism and water flux of Sociable Weavers Philetairus socius in the Kalahari Desert." Ibis 138, no. 2 (June 28, 2008): 168–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919x.1996.tb04324.x.

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35

Nagy, K. A., and M. H. Knight. "Energy, Water, and Food Use by Springbok Antelope (Antidorcas marsupialis) in the Kalahari Desert." Journal of Mammalogy 75, no. 4 (November 18, 1994): 860–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1382468.

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36

Wiggs, Giles F. S., Ian Livingstone, David S. G. Thomas, and Joanna E. Bullard. "Airflow and roughness characteristics over partially vegetated linear dunes in the southwest Kalahari Desert." Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 21, no. 1 (January 1996): 19–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1096-9837(199601)21:1<19::aid-esp508>3.0.co;2-p.

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37

BULLARD, J. E., D. S. G. THOMAS, I. LIVINGSTONE, and G. F. S. WIGGS. "WIND ENERGY VARIATIONS IN THE SOUTHWESTERN KALAHARI DESERT AND IMPLICATIONS FOR LINEAR DUNEFIELD ACTIVITY." Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 21, no. 3 (March 1996): 263–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1096-9837(199603)21:3<263::aid-esp627>3.0.co;2-i.

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38

Perkins, J. S. "Botswana: fencing out the equity issue. Cattleposts and cattle ranching in the Kalahari Desert." Journal of Arid Environments 33, no. 4 (August 1996): 503–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jare.1996.0086.

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39

Chase, Brian M., and Simon Brewer. "Last Glacial Maximum dune activity in the Kalahari Desert of southern Africa: observations and simulations." Quaternary Science Reviews 28, no. 3-4 (February 2009): 301–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.10.008.

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40

Singletary, Steven J., Richard E. Hanson, Mark W. Martin, James L. Crowley, Samuel A. Bowring, Roger M. Key, Lepate V. Ramokate, Brets B. Direng, and Michael A. Krol. "Geochronology of basement rocks in the Kalahari Desert, Botswana, and implications for regional Proterozoic tectonics." Precambrian Research 121, no. 1-2 (February 2003): 47–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0301-9268(02)00201-2.

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41

OWENS, DELIA, and MARK OWENS. "Social dominance and reproductive patterns in brown hyaenas,Hyaena brunnea, of the central Kalahari desert." Animal Behaviour 51, no. 3 (March 1996): 535–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1996.0058.

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42

Wiggs, G. F. S., I. Livingstone, D. S. G. Thomas, and J. E. Bullard. "Effect of vegetation removal on airflow patterns and dune dynamics in the southwest Kalahari desert." Land Degradation and Development 5, no. 1 (April 1994): 13–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ldr.3400050103.

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43

Burney, David A., George A. Brook, and James B. Cowart. "A Holocene pollen record for the Kalahari Desert of Botswana from a U-series dated speleothem." Holocene 4, no. 3 (September 1994): 225–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/095968369400400301.

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44

De Rios, Marlene Dobkin. "Enigma of drug-induced altered states of consciousness among the !kung bushmen of the kalahari desert." Journal of Ethnopharmacology 15, no. 3 (March 1986): 297–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(86)90168-6.

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45

Robbins, L. H., M. L. Murphy, G. A. Brook, A. H. Ivester, A. C. Campbell, R. G. Klein, R. G. Milo, K. M. Stewart, W. S. Downey, and N. J. Stevens. "Archaeology, Palaeoenvironment, and Chronology of the Tsodilo Hills White Paintings Rock Shelter, Northwest Kalahari Desert, Botswana." Journal of Archaeological Science 27, no. 11 (November 2000): 1085–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jasc.2000.0597.

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46

Nash, David J., and Laurence Hopkinson. "A reconnaissance laser Raman and Fourier transform infrared survey of silcretes from the Kalahari Desert, Botswana." Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 29, no. 12 (2004): 1541–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/esp.1137.

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47

Choudhury, B. J., and C. J. Tucker. "Satellite observed seasonal and inter-annual variation of vegetation over the Kalahari, The Great Victoria Desert, and The Great Sandy Desert: 1979–1984." Remote Sensing of Environment 23, no. 2 (November 1987): 233–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0034-4257(87)90039-3.

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48

Abolafia, Joaquín, Alba N. Ruiz-Cuenca, Ebrahim Shokoohi, Gerhard Du Preez, and Hendrika Fourie. "Redescription of Paracrobeles laterellus Heyns, 1968 (Rhabditida: Cephalobidae) from Botswana." Nematology 22, no. 2 (February 10, 2020): 155–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685411-00003295.

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Summary Paracrobeles laterellus is redescribed from the North-West District (Koanaka Hill), Botswana, which forms part of the Kalahari Desert. A scanning electron microscopy study of the species is presented for the first time. This population is characterised by its adult body length, lateral field with three longitudinal incisures, lips with three tines, the middle one being shorter, primary and secondary axils with two guard processes, labial probolae bifurcate with basal ridge and smooth prongs, pharynx with very swollen and elongate metacorpus, spermatheca swollen, post-vulval uterine sac well developed, vagina sigmoid, female and male tails conoid, and characters of the spicules and gubernaculum. Morphologically, P. laterellus is very similar to P. kelsodunensis and P. mojavicus according to the morphology of the lip region, i.e., with two guard processes at the primary axils and robust spicules.

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49

Al-Obaidi, Ahmed T. Sadiq, Hasanen S. Abdullah, and Zied O. Ahmed. "Meerkat Clan Algorithm: A New Swarm Intelligence Algorithm." Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 10, no. 1 (April 1, 2018): 354. http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/ijeecs.v10.i1.pp354-360.

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<p>Evolutionary computation and swarm intelligence meta-heuristics are exceptional instances that environment has been a never-ending source of creativeness. The behavior of bees, bacteria, glow-worms, fireflies and other beings have stirred swarm intelligence scholars to create innovative optimization algorithms. This paper proposes the Meerkat Clan Algorithm (MCA) that is a novel swarm intelligence algorithm resulting from watchful observation of the Meerkat (Suricata suricatta) in the Kalahari Desert in southern Africa. This animal shows an exceptional intelligence, tactical organizational skills, and remarkable directional cleverness in its traversal of the desert when searching for food. A Meerkat Clan Algorithm (MCA) proposed to solve the optimization problems through reach the optimal solution by efficient way comparing with another swarm intelligence. Traveling Salesman Problem uses as a case study to measure the capacity of the proposed algorithm through comparing its results with another swarm intelligence. MCA shows its capacity to solve the Traveling Salesman’s Problem. Its dived the solutions group to sub-group depend of meerkat behavior that gives a good diversity to reach an optimal solution. Paralleled with the current algorithms for resolving TSP by swarm intelligence, it has been displayed that the size of the resolved problems could be enlarged by adopting the algorithm proposed here.</p>

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Robbins, Lawrence H., Alec C. Campbell, George A. Brook, Michael L. Murphy, and Robert K. Hitchcock. "The Antiquity of the Bow and Arrow in the Kalahari Desert: Bone Points from White Paintings Rock Shelter, Botswana." Journal of African Archaeology 10, no. 1 (October 25, 2012): 7–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.3213/2191-5784-10211.

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This paper presents new information on the antiquity of the bow and arrow in the Kalahari. Excavations at White Paintings Shelter (WPS) uncovered bone point fragments that appear to have been parts of reversible arrowheads that could have been used with poison. We present a sequence of nine new, internally consistent OSL ages that date specific soil horizons at WPS. These dates/soil horizons are related to the bone point finds. The oldest bone points are estimated to date between 35–37 ka, while worked bone technology extends to at least 45 ka. Several engraved points are also discussed in relation to ethnographic evidence regarding decorated bone link-shafts collected in the 1970s. Additional information includes the first description of a reversible bone arrow point, made by a person who used such points with poison in his youth.

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