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1

Rahim, Mir Abdur. What says the quran: About God, divine books, prophets, religion, worship, prayer, knowledge, universe, man, life, death ... Triumph Trading Co., 1988.

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2

Didier, Dubois, Prade Henri M, and Klement E. P, eds. Fuzzy sets, logics, and reasoning about knowledge. Kluwer Academic, 1999.

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3

Koronovskiy, Nikolay, Galina Bryanceva, E. Dubinin, and V. Zaharov. General geology. New about the Earth. INFRA-M Academic Publishing LLC., 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/1816822.

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The textbook discusses in detail some specially selected sections of the discipline "General Geology" that seem to be the most important. The features of the formation of the Universe, our Galaxy, the structure, origin and development of the Earth and the most important processes that occur on it and which are briefly described or not discussed at all in standard textbooks are revealed. Special attention is paid to in-depth consideration of the main, most interesting and important geological problems, since there are still a lot of unresolved and controversial issues in geology. For many problems, there is no one proven idea, many particular results appear, and the general "noise" from a large number of publications leads to their "overproduction", which drowns out one true result.
 Meets the requirements of the federal state educational standards of higher education of the latest generation.
 For students studying at the natural sciences faculties of universities, mining and geological universities and technical schools, graduate students, students of professional retraining and advanced training programs, as well as all those who are interested in improving their personal efficiency and want to replenish their knowledge about the most important problems of geology.
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4

Badea, Andreea, Bruno Boute, Marco Cavarzere, and Steven Broecke, eds. Making Truth in Early Modern Catholicism. Amsterdam University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.5117/9789463720526.

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Scholarship has come to value the uncertainties haunting early modern knowledge cultures; indeed, awareness of the fragility and plurality of knowledge is now offered as a key element for understanding early modern science as a whole. Yet early modern actors never questioned the possibility of certainty itself and never objected to the notion that truth is out there, universal, and therefore safe from human manipulation. This book investigates how early modern actors managed not to succumb to postmodern relativism, despite the increasing uncertainties and blatant disagreements about the nature of God, Man, and the Universe. An international and interdisciplinary team of experts in fields ranging from the history of science to theology and the history of ideas analyses a number of practices that were central to maintaining and functionalizing the notion of absolute truth. Through such an interdisciplinary research the book shows how certainty about truth could be achieved, and how early modern society recognized the credibility of a wide plethora of actors in differentiating fields of knowledge.
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5

Shul'gina, Ol'ga, Tat'yana Voronova, Tat'yana Gayvoron, Tat'yana Grushina, Galina Maynasheva, and Dmitriy Samusenko. Geographical Moscow studies. INFRA-M Academic Publishing LLC., 2025. https://doi.org/10.12737/2125938.

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The textbook's content is aimed at forming systematic, spatial representations of Moscow: its history, nature, ecology, population, economy, transport, and non-industrial sphere. The textbook focuses on the interrelated and interdependent perception of the complex of knowledge about the city's territory as a local system of interaction between man and nature; on active classroom and independent development of the geography of Moscow; on the development of interdisciplinary thinking, skills of searching and spatial analysis of statistical and cartographic information. It contains questions and tasks aimed at both reproducing the acquired and acquiring new knowledge. The team of authors representing the Department of Geography and Tourism of the Moscow City Pedagogical University hopes that this textbook will contribute to the expansion of knowledge about Moscow, its creative practice-oriented study and familiarization with the basics of geo-urban studies. Meets the requirements of the latest generation of federal state educational standards for higher education. It is designed for undergraduate and graduate students studying in the geographical profiles of pedagogical and classical education.
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6

Isaev, Roman. Travels to holy places and soul-useful stories. INFRA-M Academic Publishing LLC., 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/1864335.

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This book was written on the basis of the author's travels to the holy places of Central Russia, studying the biographies and instructions of great Saints and elders. The purpose of the book is not only to share interesting and useful stories and arguments. The main thing is to motivate independent visits to holy places, the discovery of new knowledge and development.
 The book contains a lot of interesting historical and geographical information. And for readers who are just looking for new travel routes, it will become a good and reliable navigator (guidebook) for many years! The book is also a color photo album, which contains more than 70 author's photographs from holy places, about which stories are being told. Many of them are unique frames that are rarely seen in everyday life.
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7

Bocharnikov, Viktor, and Sergey Sveshnikov. The event is… Events as a fundamental basis for the analysis of complex systems. INFRA-M Academic Publishing LLC., 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/1974287.

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The monograph analyzes the concept of an event used in various branches of knowledge. The conclusion about the fundamental nature of this concept for the representation of the manifestation of being is substantiated. The main components that make up the event are determined. The main properties of events and their interactions in the event field are clarified.
 For students, postgraduates and teachers of technical universities and faculties.
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8

Corona, Adelina. Spider-Man Movie Trivia Quizzes: Test Your Knowledge about Spider-Man Movies. Independently Published, 2022.

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9

LA'TRESSA, Phillips. Spider-Man Movie Trivia Quizzes: Test Your Knowledge about Spider-Man Movies. Independently Published, 2021.

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10

Gonzalez, George A. Popular Culture as Art and Knowledge. The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, 2019. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781978724464.

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This volume settles the debate between analytic and continental philosophy. It turns to art, more specifically popular culture, to demonstrate the validity of continental philosophy. Drawing on the philosophy of Georg Hegel (perhaps the most important of continental philosophers), James Kreines holds that reason in the world metaphysically exists. Reasons of the world are reasons of the Hegelian Absolute. Thus, similar to the fact that gravity is curves in the space-time continuum along which matter moves – reasons are the grooves in the Absolute along which human decision-making occurs. Art allows us to conceptualize, understand, speculate about the grooves (reasons) of the Absolute. Two key points can be drawn from Kreines’s position: first, normative values are embedded in reality. Thus, in complete contradistinction to analytic philosophy, there is no bifurcation between the empirical and the normative – to exist is to have normative value. Secondly, the role of social science is to cogitate, explore, identify the reasons of the world that shape social, political norms. Such an approach would decisively move the social sciences away from an emphasis on statistically significant patterns of human behavior (e.g., voting studies) and toward an approach that seeks to analyze the reasons of the world that motivate/shape social and political decisions. Art (particularly popular culture) becomes an important source in identifying the way that people reason about the world and how they perceive political elites reasoning in the world. To adjudicate between continental and analytic philosophy this book on relies on the broadcast iterations of Star Trek, as well as Nazi cinema. With regard to contemporary American politics, in addition to Star Trek, it draws on the television series Game of Thrones, Veep, House of Cards, and The Man in the High Castle. Popular culture is germane to philosophy and contemporary politics because television/movie creators frequently try to attract viewers by conveying authentic philosophical and political motifs. Conversely, viewers seek out authentic movies and television shows. This is in contrast to opinion surveys (for instance), as the formation of the data begins with the surveyor seeking to directly solicit an opinion – however impromptu or shallow.
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11

Gerken, Mikkel. Thought and Talk about Knowledge. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198803454.003.0002.

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Chapter 1 outlines the core assumptions of the epistemological framework to be defended. For example, a variety of a relevant-alternatives framework that appeals to normal circumstances is adopted, as is a competence epistemology according to which S may obtain knowledge and warranted belief only by exercising a cognitive competence. Moving from the epistemological framework to our folk epistemology, the ways in which the term ‘knowledge’ is central to our folk epistemology are considered. Special emphasis is given to knowledge ascriptions’ social and communicative functions. Thus, Chapter 1 introduces some core assumptions of a fairly traditional epistemology.
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12

Hyman, Wendy Beth. Impossible Desire and the Limits of Knowledge in Renaissance Poetry. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198837510.001.0001.

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Impossible Desire and the Limits of Knowledge in Renaissance Poetry examines the limits of embodiment, knowledge, and representation at disregarded nexus: the erotic carpe diem poem in early modern England. These macabre seductions offer no compliments or promises, but instead focus on the lovers’ anticipated decline, and—quite stunningly given the Reformation context—humanity’s relegation not to a Christian afterlife but to a Marvellian “desert of vast Eternity.” In this way, a poetic trope whose classical form was an expression of pragmatic Epicureanism became, during the religious upheaval of the Reformation, an unlikely but effective vehicle for articulating religious doubt. Its ambitions were thus largely philosophical, and came to incorporate investigations into the nature of matter, time, and poetic representation. Renaissance seduction poetry invited their auditors to participate in a dangerous intellectual game, one whose primary interest was expanding the limits of knowledge. The book theorizes how Renaissance lyric’s own fragile relationship to materiality and time, and its self-conscious relationship to making, made it uniquely situated to conceptualize such “impossible” metaphysical and representational problems. Although attentive to poetics, Impossible Desire also challenges the commonplace view that the erotic invitation is exclusively a lyric mode. Carpe diem’s revival in post-Reformation Europe portends its radicalization, as debates between man and maid are dramatized in disputes between abstractions like chastity and material facts like death. Offered here is thus a theoretical reconsideration of the generic parameters and aspirations of the carpe diem trope, wherein questions about embodiment and knowledge are also investigations into the potentialities of literary form.
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13

Horne, Zachary, and Andrei Cimpian. Subtle Syntactic Cues Affect Intuitions about Knowledge. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198815259.003.0002.

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To investigate the nature and limits of knowledge, epistemologists often consult intuitions about whether people can be said to have knowledge or, alternatively, to know particular propositions. This chapter identifies a problem with this method. Although the intuitions elicited via statements about “knowledge” and “knowing” are treated as interchangeable sources of evidence, these intuitions actually differ. Building on prior psychological evidence, the chapter hypothesizes that the epistemic state denoted by the noun “knowledge” is viewed as stronger (e.g. more certain, more reliable) than the epistemic state denoted by the verb “know.” This hypothesis was supported by the results of six studies that used a variety of methodologies and data sources (e.g. philosophical texts, naive participants’ intuitions). This research has significant implications for epistemology: The syntactic structure of the linguistic examples offered as evidence for epistemological claims may influence the extent to which these examples provide intuitive support for the relevant claim.
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14

Moss, Sarah. Knowledge and action. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198792154.003.0009.

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This chapter develops and defends two probabilistic knowledge norms of action. The first is a knowledge norm for reasons, namely that you may treat a probabilistic content as a reason for action if and only if you know it. This norm can help explain intuitive judgments about rational action. It can also help us rethink alleged instances of pragmatic encroachment often cited as challenges for existing knowledge norms of action. The second norm defended in this chapter is a knowledge norm for decisions. According to this norm, an action is permissible for you if and only if it is considered permissible for an agent with imprecise credences whose beliefs exactly match your probabilistic knowledge. This norm provides a precise interpretation of the controversial view that standard decision theory cannot guide decisions about transformative experiences, where this interpretation succeeds in answering a wide range of recent objections to this view.
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15

Adams, Fred. Extended Knowledge. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198769811.003.0005.

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The author has maintained that among the things that cognition requires are: non-derived content, scientifically tractable and non-motley processes (Adams and Aizawa 2001; 2008a; 2008b), and the capacity to figure in agent-centered reasons that explain purposive behavior (Adams and Garrison 2003). So what will be discussed here is what someone who accepted these considerations about the mark of the cognitive would require for extended knowledge. Of course, cognition could extend without knowledge. Just as contemporary skeptics might be right (not that the present author thinks they are) and we might lack non-extended knowledge, even if cognition extends into the environment that alone wouldn’t mean that knowledge extends. Yet, if cognition were to extend, what else would be required for extended cognition to yield extended knowledge? Attention will also be given to Gricean thought and processes, procedural thought, mirroring, and we-intentions.
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16

Halperin, Sandra, and Oliver Heath. 2. Forms of Knowledge. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hepl/9780198702740.003.0002.

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This chapter focuses on fundamental assumptions that researchers make about how we can know and develop knowledge about the social world, such as assumptions about the nature of human behaviour and the methods appropriate to studying and explaining that behaviour. The main objective is how to carry out a systematic and rigorous investigation of social phenomena. The chapter considers three different answers to the question of how to approach the study of social phenomena: those offered by positivism, scientific realism, and interpretivism. It also explores the differences among these answers and their implications for conducting political research. Finally, it discusses the use of a positivist (rational choice) and interpretivist (constructivist) approach to the analysis of ethnic conflicts in Yugoslavia in the 1990s.
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17

(Editor), Didier Dubois, Henri Prade (Editor), and E. P. Klement (Editor), eds. Fuzzy Sets, Logics and Reasoning about Knowledge (APPLIED LOGIC SERIES Volume 15) (Applied Logic Series). Springer, 1999.

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18

Nagel, Jennifer. 8. Knowing about knowing. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780199661268.003.0008.

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Mindreading is the natural capacity that generates instinctive feelings about another person's knowledge and other mental states. ‘Knowing about knowing’ explains that humans have specialized brain areas devoted to tracking mental states, but there are natural limitations to mindreading. One is a simple capacity limit on how many nested mental state levels we can represent. Another deeper limitation is that we suffer from ‘egocentrism’, which makes it difficult for us to override our own perspective when evaluating others who know less about their situation than we do. It concludes that even if we still don’t know the full nature of what knowledge is, we are in a better position to make progress on this ancient question.
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19

Moss, Sarah. Probabilistic Knowledge. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198792154.001.0001.

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Traditional philosophical discussions of knowledge have focused on the epistemic status of full beliefs. This book argues that in addition to full beliefs, credences can constitute knowledge. For instance, your .4 credence that it is raining outside can constitute knowledge, in just the same way that your full beliefs can. In addition, you can know that it might be raining, and that if it is raining then it is probably cloudy, where this knowledge is not knowledge of propositions, but of probabilistic contents. The notion of probabilistic content introduced in this book plays a central role not only in epistemology, but in the philosophy of mind and language as well. Just as tradition holds that you believe and assert propositions, you can believe and assert probabilistic contents. Accepting that we can believe, assert, and know probabilistic contents has significant consequences for many philosophical debates, including debates about the relationship between full belief and credence, the semantics of epistemic modals and conditionals, the contents of perceptual experience, peer disagreement, pragmatic encroachment, perceptual dogmatism, and transformative experience. In addition, accepting probabilistic knowledge can help us discredit negative evaluations of female speech, explain why merely statistical evidence is insufficient for legal proof, and identify epistemic norms violated by acts of racial profiling. Hence the central theses of this book not only help us better understand the nature of our own mental states, but also help us better understand the nature of our responsibilities to each other.
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20

Rhodes, R. A. W. On Local Knowledge. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198786115.003.0010.

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This chapter decentres the normative arguments favouring local knowledge suggesting the notion is more elusive than many recognize. It summarizes the mainstream political science and the interpretive views of local knowledge; unpacks the family of ideas that constitute local knowledge; identifies ten family resemblances, suggesting that local knowledge is: situated, embedded, ever-changing, contested, contingent and generative, performative practice, experiential, specialized, and comprised of folk theories that are authentic, natural, and accessible. It distinguishes between recovering local knowledge as advice to decision makers and as inscription. It describes four ways of collecting stories about local knowledge; observation, questionnaire, focus group, and Most Significant Change. Finally it decentres local knowledge, highlighting its complex specificity, contingency, and generative characteristics. Throughout, the chapter plays with such genres of presentation as telling tales from the field and aphorisms in the philosophical style as well as describing the various ways in which others tell their stories.
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Ichikawa, Jonathan Jenkins. Contextualising Knowledge. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199682706.001.0001.

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Contextualising Knowledge defends a contextualist semantics to knowledge ascriptions, and integrates it into a detailed discussion of the theoretical significance of knowledge. Ichikawa develops a kind of relevant alternatives contextualism, suggesting that which possibilities a subject must rule out in order to count as “knowing” vary according to the speaker’s conversational context, and uses it to consider the prospects for central theoretical roles for knowledge. Contextualism and the “knowledge first” program are rarely treated together, and sometimes argued to stand in significant tension. But Contextualising Knowledge makes the case that together they comprise an appealing package of views. After articulating and defending his preferred form of contextualism (Chapter 1), Ichikawa explores connections between knowledge and many other states of interest; Chapter 2 defends a contextualist semantics for counterfactual conditionals, and relates it to that given for knowledge ascriptions, including a vindication of a kind of traditional “sensitivity” constraints on knowledge. Chapter 3 defends a version of “E=K”, proposing that evidence ought to be understood in terms of knowledge, and that contextualism can help defend the view from some important objections. This chapter also relates contextualism to foundationalism and central epistemic questions. Chapter 4 defends a theory of epistemic justification in terms of knowledge; Chapters 5–7 take up and defend particular versions of knowledge norms of practical reasoning, assertion, and belief, respectively. The overall picture of Contextualising Knowledge is one that emphasizes the importance of both knowledge itself, and of the semantics of “knows” in thinking about the former.
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Hazlett, Allan. Theory of Knowledge without (Comparative) Linguistics. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190865085.003.0011.

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What is the relationship between the theory of knowledge and linguistics? Consider a familiar epistemological methodology, on which facts about how “knows” is ordinarily used provide evidence for and against particular views about the nature and scope of knowledge. Since “knows” is a word in English, which is one of many human languages, this methodology is problematic, akin to a species of cultural chauvinism. I suggest that we should reject the familiar linguistics-driven methodology, in favor of a picture on which theorizing about knowledge is driven by the stipulation of the value of knowledge, and is not beholden to linguistic intuitions.
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23

Harrod, Molly, Sanjay Saint, and Robert W. Stock. How to Think About Thinking. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190671495.003.0006.

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Through clinical reasoning, seasoned physicians correctly diagnose patients’ problems and develop appropriate treatments. It has two main components. The first is the ability to mentally stockpile and integrate information gathered in the process of treating many patients and reading research, allowing physicians to recognize patterns of data and sometimes make automatic diagnoses. The process is intuitive and nonanalytical. The second major facet of clinical reasoning is analytical. Physicians painstakingly examine and weigh all evidence, including patients’ clinical history and physical examination, to develop hypotheses and management plans. Attendings viewed the use of “why” questions as teaching opportunities. Questions served multiple purposes, including guiding the learners through their thinking processes, building on knowledge through hypothetical questions, and using the Socratic method to foster critical thinking. Instilling the ability to think critically about one’s own decision-making process was the attendings’ ultimate goal for their learners.
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24

Djupe, Paul A., Anand Edward Sokhey, and Amy Erica Smith. The Knowledge Polity. Oxford University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197611913.001.0001.

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The Knowledge Polity advances a holistic view of knowledge production in the social sciences. The familiar publication pipeline metaphor stresses the individual; we move beyond such a conception, offering a vision of academics as members of a knowledge polity where citizenship comes with rights and responsibilities. Knowledge production does not just mean research, but encompasses teaching, reviewing, blogging, commenting, and other activities, which together signal its communal, civic nature. Our explanation for knowledge production situates academics in institutional and social contexts, including the family, while maintaining individual agency. We search for inequalities in scholarly output, service and resources by gender and racial/ethnic identification, but are careful to consider the changing compositions of disciplines and different situations (e.g., faculty rank) when making comparisons. Data come from our Professional Activity in the Social Sciences (PASS) study, which sampled academic departments in sociology and political science in 2017. Roughly 1,700 faculty responses were linked to data on lifetime publications, Twitter activity, and Google Scholar/other data sources. Across eight empirical chapters, we offer a comprehensive view of these disciplines, documenting inequalities and providing estimates of behaviors that have long been shrouded in anecdote. The volume’s wide-ranging analyses enable scholars and academic communities from across the social and behavioral sciences to make empirically-grounded decisions about their individual and collective futures.
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25

Billingsley, Berry, Keith Chappell, and Sherralyn Simpson, eds. The Future of Knowledge. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350383944.

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How can we design our lives to be sustainable amidst an uncertain future for our planet?How do we know what to trust in an online world rife with misinformation?How can we confront our mental health crises?How can we overcome polarization on issues of critical importance to our shared existence?How can we work together with those who see the world differently to us? Confronting these questions requires us to consider what the ‘future of knowledge’ might be, including the distinctive roles that disciplines across the sciences, arts and humanities might play. Epistemic insight is the ‘knowledge about knowledge’ needed to navigate the similarities and differences between disciplines and how they approach these questions differently. However, many education systems operate with a compartmentalized structure that limits the development of epistemic insight and thus our ability to provide students with the ‘knowledge about knowledge’ they need. This open access book draws from 10 years of research into how epistemic insight can transform compartmentalized structures of learning. It presents a range of strategies and approaches for how educators, including schoolteachers, teacher educators, lecturers and education policy-makers, can facilitate epistemically insightful educational experiences. This book provides a distinctive contribution to the field of inter/multi/transdisciplinary education and will be of interested to anyone exploring the power and potential of these approaches. The ebook editions of this book are available open access under a CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 licence on bloomsburycollections.com. Open access was funded byTempleton World Charity Foundation (TWCF).
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Smith, Nicholas D. Summoning Knowledge in Plato's Republic. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198842835.001.0001.

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This book argues for four main theses: (1) The Republic is not just a work that has a lot to say about education; it is a book that depicts Socrates as attempting to engage his interlocutors in such a way as to help to educate them and also engages us, the readers, in a way that helps to educate us. (2) Plato does not suppose that education, properly understood, should have as its primary aim putting knowledge into souls that do not already have it. Instead, the education that Plato discusses, represents occurring between Socrates and his interlocutors, and hopes to achieve in his readers is one that aims to arouse the power of knowledge in us and then to begin to train that power always to engage with what is more real, rather than what is less real. (3) Plato’s conception of knowledge is not the one typically presented in contemporary epistemology. It is, rather, the power of conceptualization via exemplar representation. (4) Plato engages this power of knowledge in the Republic in a way he represents as only a kind of second-best way to engage knowledge—and not as the best way, which would be dialectic. Instead, Plato uses images that summon the power of knowledge to begin the process by which the power may become fully realized. The full realization of the power of knowledge, however, is not provided in the work, and could not be achieved by anything like reading a work of this sort.
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Benton, Matthew A., ed. Pragmatic Encroachment and Theistic Knowledge. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198798705.003.0014.

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If knowledge is sensitive to practical stakes, then whether one knows depends in part on the practical costs of being wrong. When considering religious belief, the practical costs of being wrong about theism may differ dramatically between the theist (if there is no God) and the atheist (if there is a God). This chapter explores the prospects, on pragmatic encroachment, for knowledge of theism (even if true), and of atheism (even if true), given two types of practical costs: namely, by holding a false belief, or by missing out on a true belief. These considerations set up a more general puzzle of epistemic preference when faced with the choice between two beliefs, only one of which could become knowledge.
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28

Friedman, William. About Time. The MIT Press, 1990. http://dx.doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/1050.001.0001.

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In About Time, William Friedman provides a new integrated look at research on the psychological processes that underlie the human experience of time. Few intellectual problems are as intriguing or as difficult as understanding the nature of time. In About Time, William Friedman provides a new integrated look at research on the psychological processes that underlie the human experience of time. He explains what psychologists have discovered about temporal perception and cognition since the publication of Paul Fraisse's The Psychology of Time in 1963 and offers fresh interpretations of their findings. In particular he shows that the experience of time depends on many different psychological processes and that it is essential to divide temporal experience into component categories in order to understand these processes. In chapters on perception and memory, Friedman discusses our impressions about the rate of time's passage and our ability to localize memories in time. He takes up representation and orientation, our ability to build mental representations of the time structures that surround us and to view these patterns from the unique perspective of the present moment. Moreover he shows that we can learn a great deal about the psychological basis of temporal experience by studying the development of this knowledge in children and the way in which views of time vary by culture, personality type, and kind of psychopathology. Bradford Books imprint
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Rottman, Benjamin Margolin. The Acquisition and Use of Causal Structure Knowledge. Edited by Michael R. Waldmann. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199399550.013.10.

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This chapter provides an introduction to how humans learn and reason about multiple causal relations connected together in a causal structure. The first half of the chapter focuses on how people learn causal structures. The main topics involve learning from observations versus interventions, learning temporal versus atemporal causal structures, and learning the parameters of a causal structure including individual cause-effect strengths and how multiple causes combine to produce an effect. The second half of the chapter focuses on how individuals reason about the causal structure, such as making predictions about one variable given knowledge about other variables, once the structure has been learned. Some of the most important topics involve reasoning about observations versus interventions, how well people reason compared to normative models, and whether causal structure beliefs bias reasoning. In both sections the author highlights open empirical and theoretical questions.
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Hunter, David. Directives for Knowledge and Belief. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198758709.003.0005.

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To understand belief directives it is helpful to start with knowledge directives, for they can be unspecific in an important way, are not as puzzling from a first-person point of view, and are viewed by common sense as more fundamental. A person’s duties, personal obligations, and rights are, common sense holds, relevant but not decisive to what they ought to know, and so to what they ought to believe. It further holds that people ought in general to know what they ought to do and even, to some extent, what they are doing. And it allows that a person may be required to know something for which they have no evidence. All of this poses difficulties for the philosophical view that facts about a person’s evidence are relevant to what they ought to believe.
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31

Szmatka, Jacek, Michael Lovaglia, and Kinga Wysienska, eds. The Growth of Social Knowledge. Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc., 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9798216187493.

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This timely, comprehensive analysis of the latest advances in group processes research shows how cutting edge technologies, such as laboratory experiments, simulations, and complex systems combine with the rigor of cumulative research programs to change the way we see the social world. Group processes researchers study society scientifically, and have used sociological theory to build scientific, cumulative knowledge about the social world. Over the last 20 years, they have been extremely successful in advancing this knowledge through the reciprocal interplay of theory and experiment. The synthesis of such knowledge—uniting theory, simulation, and experiment—provides substantive explanations for social phenomena and predictions about events in complex social systems. This volume explores aspects of this synthesis from the perspective of group processes research. Providing deep analyses of methodological issues related to the synthesis of the theories, simulations, and experiments of group processes research, the authors also offer empirical examples of various studies that have been conducted. They investigate the ways in which theoretical research programs coordinate theory and empirical research in sociology to produce scientific progress and how computer simulations have evolved into an important component of theoretical research programs. This illustration of the relationships between theory construction and the method of theory verification advances our understanding of the field and may lead to a radical shift in the methodology and substance of modern social science.
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32

Weinberg, Jonathan M. Knowledge, Noise, and Curve-Fitting. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198724551.003.0016.

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The psychology of the ‘Gettier effect’ appears robust—but complicated. Contrary to initial reports, more recent and thorough work by several groups of researchers indicates strongly that it is in fact found widely across cultures. Nonetheless, I argue that the pattern of psychological results should not at all be taken to settle the epistemological questions about the nature of knowledge. For the Gettier effect occurs both intermittently and with sensitivity to epistemically irrelevant factors. In short, the effect is noisy. And good principles of model selection indicate that, the noisier one’s data, the more one should prefer simpler curves over those that may be more complicated yet hew closer to the data. While we should not endorse K=JTB at this time, nonetheless the question ‘Is knowledge really just justified true belief?’ ought to be treated as once again in play.
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Gurukkal, Rajan. History and Theory of Knowledge Production. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199490363.001.0001.

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This book seeks to provide an introductory outline of the history and theory of knowledge production, notwithstanding the vastness of the subject. It is to try and do a history of intellectual formation or history of ideas. One can see it as a textbook of historical epistemology, which in spatio-temporal terms historicizes knowledge production and contextualizes methodological development. It addresses itself as the historical process of the social constitution of knowledge, that is, the social history of the making of knowledge. Its objective is to make researchers of knowledge knowledgeable about the significant elements that underlie the history of knowledge. These elements constitute contemporary compulsions that make, shape, and regulate knowledge. Understanding what they mean and how they work is essential to prepare researchers as self-consciously realistic about the socio-economic and cultural process of knowledge production. What forces engender knowledge, how certain forms of it acquire precedence over the rest, and why are questions examined. Who decides what knowledge means or what should be recognized as knowledge becomes important here. We confine the discussion of knowledge systems to the broad heads, namely, the non-European, specifically the Indian and the European. Examining the process of the rise of science and new science, the book ends up reviewing speculative thoughts and imagination about the dynamics of subatomic micro-universe as well as the mechanics of the galactic macro-universe.
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Rowett, Catherine. Knowledge and Truth in Plato. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199693658.001.0001.

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I defend four main theses: (1) Knowledge, in Plato’s vocabulary, is a kind of conceptual competence, involving ‘knowing what it is’ about something like virtue or justice; (2) There is a corresponding special meaning of the verb ‘is’ that occurs in the expression ‘knowing what it is’, which is key to understanding what Plato means by claiming that Forms have a superior kind of being; (3) When one knows ‘what it is’ about such concepts, one knows neither a proposition, nor set of propositions, nor an object, but something like a type. Plato’s term is eidos. Plato rightly notes that, in ordinary experience, we never encounter types, only tokens; (4) Although encountering such tokens does not constitute knowledge, it can provide a ladder whereby philosophers can attain a better grasp of the truths in question. Plato’s preferred philosophical method turns out to be an ‘iconic method’—consciously using images and particulars as stepping stones in the enquiry. Via case studies from the Meno, Republic, and Theaetetus, I establish that these theses are not only compatible with the texts, but render some otherwise puzzling passages intelligible. I show that Plato diagnoses, and deliberately sidesteps, the impasse of Socrates’ fruitless quest for definitions, developing a new method inspired by geometry’s ability to deal pictorially with indefinable lengths. The book offers a novel picture of Plato as resisting and overcoming, not following, the Socratic obsession with definitions, and adopting, not resisting, the use of pictorial proofs and imagery.
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35

May, Joshua. The Difficulty of Moral Knowledge. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198811572.003.0005.

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While empirical debunking arguments fail to support wide-ranging moral skepticism, there are more modest threats to moral knowledge. First, debunking arguments are more successful if highly selective, targeting specific sets of moral beliefs that experimental research reveals to be distinguished for morally irrelevant reasons (thus flouting consistency reasoning). Second, the science of political disagreement suggests that many ordinary people can’t claim to know what they believe about controversial moral issues. Drawing on moral foundations theory, the best examples come from disagreements between liberals and conservatives within a culture. Controversial moral beliefs at least are disputed by what one should regard as epistemic peers, at least because others are just as likely to be wrong, even if not right, due to cognitive biases that affect proponents of all ideologies, such as motivated reasoning. Still, both of these empirical threats to moral knowledge are limited.
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36

Neta, Ram. Causal Theories of Knowledge and Perception. Edited by Helen Beebee, Christopher Hitchcock, and Peter Menzies. Oxford University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199279739.003.0028.

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This article first surveys those ‘causal theories of perception’ that attempt to explain what it is for someone to perceive an external thing. Then it surveys the other ‘causal theories of perception’ (or alternatively, ‘causal theories of knowledge’) that attempt to explain what it is for someone to know about external things by means of perception. Within each of these two topics, we can locate all the various causal theories on a two-dimensional map: along one dimension are the various things that have been taken to do the causing, and along the other dimension are the various things that have been taken to be thus caused.
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37

Hannon, Michael. What's the Point of Knowledge? Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190914721.001.0001.

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This book is about knowledge and its value. At the heart of this book is a simple idea: we can answer many interesting and difficult questions in epistemology by reflecting on the role of epistemic evaluation in human life. Hannon calls this “function-first epistemology.” The core hypothesis is that the concept of knowledge is used to identify reliable informants. This practice is necessary, or at least deeply important, because it plays a vital role in human survival, cooperation, and flourishing. While this idea is quite simple, it has wide-reaching implications. Hannon uses it to cast new light on the nature and value of knowledge, the differences between knowledge and understanding, the relationship between knowledge, assertion, and practical reasoning, and the semantics of knowledge claims. This book also makes headway on some classic philosophical puzzles, including the Gettier problem, epistemic relativism, and philosophical skepticism. Hannon shows that some major issues in epistemology can be resolved by taking a function-first approach, thereby illustrating the significant role that this method can play in contemporary philosophy.
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38

Ichikawa, Jonathan Jenkins. Action. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199682706.003.0006.

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This chapter defends a connection between knowledge and practical reasoning, according to which one’s reasons for action constitute all and only that which one knows. A variety of intuitive objections to such principles are considered and rejected—a central theme is that objectors to knowledge norms often make tacit but substantive ethical assumptions about which reasons, if held, would justify which actions. Absent broader ethical theorizing, the proposed counterexamples are inconclusive. The chapter sketches possible approaches to such theories, and indicates reason for optimism about knowledge norms. It also considers the degree to which knowledge norms imply externalism about rational action, suggesting that many internalist intuitions and verdicts may be accommodated and explained by knowledge norms.
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39

Lupia, Arthur. Uninformed Why People Seem to Know So Little about Politics and What We Can Do about It. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190263720.001.0001.

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Research polls, media interviews, and everyday conversations reveal an unsettling truth: citizens, while well-meaning and even passionate about current affairs, appear to know very little about politics. Hundreds of surveys document vast numbers of citizens answering even basic questions about government incorrectly. Given this unfortunate state of affairs, it is not surprising that more knowledgeable people often deride the public for its ignorance. Some experts even think that less informed citizens should stay out of politics altogether. As Arthur Lupia shows in Uninformed, this is not constructive. At root, critics of public ignorance fundamentally misunderstand the problem. Many experts believe that simply providing people with more facts will make them more competent voters. However, these experts fail to understand how most people learn, and hence don't really know what types of information are even relevant to voters. Feeding them information they don't find relevant does not address the problem. In other words, before educating the public, we need to educate the educators. Lupia offers not just a critique, though; he also has solutions. Drawing from a variety of areas of research on topics like attention span and political psychology, he shows how we can actually increase issue competence among voters in areas ranging from gun regulation to climate change. To attack the problem, he develops an arsenal of techniques to effectively convey to people information they actually care about. Citizens sometimes lack the knowledge that they need to make competent political choices, and it is undeniable that greater knowledge can improve decision making. But we need to understand that voters either don't care about or pay attention to much of the information that experts think is important. Uninformed provides the keys to improving political knowledge and civic competence: understanding what information is important to and knowing how to best convey it to them.
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40

Clayton-LeVasseur, Patricia. What You Need to Know about Measles. ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9798216184874.

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Although measles is a preventable disease, today cases are on the rise in the United States because of falling vaccination rates. This book provides a broad introduction to this once widespread and still potentially very dangerous viral infection. Measles is a highly contagious viral infection that can cause serious, even life-threatening, complications. Although the MMR vaccine is effective at preventing measles, the rise of anti-vaccination sentiment in the United States has many experts concerned that measles may once again become a significant public health threat. What You Need to Know about Measles is part of Greenwood's Inside Diseases and Disorders series. This series profiles a variety of physical and psychological conditions, distilling and consolidating vast collections of scientific knowledge into concise, readable volumes. A list of "top 10" essential questions begins each book, providing quick-access answers to readers' most pressing concerns. The text follows a standardized, easy-to-navigate structure, with each chapter exploring a particular facet of the topic. In addition to covering such basics as causes, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment options, books in this series delve into issues that are less commonly addressed but still critically important, such as effects on loved ones and caregivers. Case illustrations highlight key themes discussed in the book and are accompanied by insightful analyses and recommendations.
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41

Grant-Smith, Deanna, Alicia Feldman, and Cassandra Cross. Key trends in employment scams in Australia: What are the gaps in knowledge about recruitment fraud? Queensland University of Technology, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.5204/book.eprints.228500.

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Fraud is defined as using lying, cheating and deception to gain a financial advantage. There are many categories of fraud. The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) monitors a range of fraudulent activities through its ScamWatch portal. Individuals are encouraged to self-report experiences of fraudulent activity to ScamWatch to assist the ACCC to monitor trends and identify ways of disrupting identified scams. One of the key categories of fraud monitored by the ACCC relates to jobs and employment scams, otherwise known as recruitment fraud. Recruitment fraud uses the guise of a genuine job opportunity to lure potential victims to directly pay fees or to share sensitive personal information, such as driver’s licence, bank account or passport details. Victims of employment scams expose themselves to a range of consequences, including fraud, identity theft and money laundering. This briefing paper analyses data sourced from the ScamWatch Jobs and Employment Scams Statistics to identify trends in recruitment fraud in Australia.
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42

Lazarević, Nina. What’s so important about CLIL anyway? Filozofski fakultet Niš, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.46630/clil.2020.

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After doing two 56-hour long seminars in 2018 and 2019 with grammar school teachers in Niš, I realised that there was not much of relevant literature, activity or practice books that science teachers teaching in English could use. While there is some substantial literature for CLIL in English language classes, there is much less support for particular natural science subjects in the local teaching context. Therefore, the material from those workshops is here systematised and organised around several areas that transpired as the most important for teachers. One important point is that this is not a textbook on the English language, or English language practice nor is it an activity book for any specific subject taught in English. The main focus here is on how to activate content knowledge in a subject while using a foreign language, as well as how to organise instruction so that learners benefit from a CLIL class.
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43

Bowling, Allen C. Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Multiple Sclerosis. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199341016.003.0027.

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Many patients with multiple sclerosis use complementary and alternative medicine (CAM). However, health professionals may have limited knowledge about CAM therapies and may not know which CAM therapies are being used by patients who are under their care. These CAM therapies may be beneficial or harmful and may interact with conventional multiple sclerosis medications. Therefore, quality of care may be improved if clinicians have the skills and knowledge to provide unbiased, evidence-based CAM information to patients and, when appropriate, to guide patients away from harmful or ineffective therapies and toward low-risk, possibly effective therapies. This chapter provides information to practicing clinicians so that they will be able to guide and inform their patients with multiple sclerosis about CAM.
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44

Smith, Martin. The Cost of Treating Knowledge as a Mental State. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198716310.003.0005.

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This chapter is concerned with the claim that knowledge is a mental state—a claim that is often presented as one of the central tenets of knowledge first epistemology. In this chapter, it is argued that this claim carries significant costs that have not been widely appreciated. It is clear that treating knowledge as a mental state leads to externalism about the mental. While externalism is a familiar view to many, it is argued that treating knowledge as a mental state leads to a version of externalism that is, in some respects, far more radical than any version previously considered.
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45

Burris, Scott, Micah L. Berman, Matthew Penn, and, and Tara Ramanathan Holiday. Using Evidence and Knowledge Critically in Policy Development. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190681050.003.0007.

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This chapter starts with the recognition that policymaking usually precedes evidence of what laws are effective in solving the problem at hand. That does not mean that policymaking cannot be guided by evidence. Policymakers can usually draw on extensive evidence defining the problem and evidence of analogous policy cases. This chapter identifies sources of policy recommendations and direct evidence of policy impact, including systematic reviews, narrative reviews, models, cost-benefit analysis, and individual studies. It reviews strategies for identifying bias and source credibility and tools for “educated guessing” about policy options in matters where evidence is scarce or incomplete, including causal mapping and the Haddon matrix. Finally, it introduces the Health in All Policies approach and the use of health impact assessments as tools to consider broader impact and cross-sectoral cooperation.
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Deumert, Ana, Anne Storch, and Nick Shepherd, eds. Colonial and Decolonial Linguistics. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198793205.001.0001.

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The discipline of linguistics in general, and the field of African linguistics in particular, appear to be facing a paradigm shift. There is a strong movement away from established methodologies and theoretical approaches, especially structural linguistics and generativism, and a broad move towards critical linguistics, sociolinguistics, and linguistic anthropology. These developments have encouraged a greater awareness and careful discussion of basic problems of data production in linguistics, as well as the role played by the ideologies of researchers. The volume invites a critical engagement with the history of the discipline, taking into account its deep entanglements with colonial knowledge production. Colonial concepts about language have helped to implement Northern ideas of what counts as knowledge and truth; they have established institutions and rituals of education, and have led to the lasting marginalization of African ways of speaking, codes, and multilingualisms. This volume engages critically with the colonial history of our discipline and argues that many of the colonial paradigms of knowledge production are still with us, shaping linguistic practices in the here-and-now as well as non-specialist talk about language and culture. The contributors explore how metalinguistic concepts and ways of creating linguistic knowledge are grounded in colonial practice, and exist parallel to, and sometimes in dialogue with other knowledges about language.
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Halvorsen, Tor, Hilde Ibsen, and Vyvienne RP M’kumbuzi. Knowledge for a Sustainable World: A Southern African-Nordic contribution. African Minds, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.47622/9781928331049.

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The search for answers to the issue of global sustainability has become increasingly urgent. In the context of higher education, many universities and academics are seeking new insights that can shift our dependence on ways of living that rely on the exploitation of so many and the degradation of so much of our planet. This is the vision that drives SANORD and many of the researchers and institutions within its network. Although much of the research is on a relatively small scale, the vision is steadily gaining momentum, forging dynamic collaborations and pathways to new knowledge. The contributors to this book cover a variety of subject areas and offer fresh insights about chronically under-researched parts of the world. Others document and critically reflect on innovative approaches to cross-continental teaching and research collaborations. This book will be of interest to anyone involved in the transformation of higher education or the practicalities of cross-continental and cross-disciplinary academic collaboration. The Southern African-Nordic Centre (SANORD) is a network of higher education institutions from Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Botswana, Namibia, Malawi, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Universities in the southern African and Nordic regions that are not yet members are encouraged to join.
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Halvorsen, Tor, and Jorun Nossum, eds. North-South Knowledge Networks Towards Equitable Collaboration Between. African Minds, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.47622/978-1-928331-30-8.

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Since the 1990s, internationalisation has become key for institutions wishing to secure funding for higher education and research. For the academic community, this strategic shift has had many consequences. Priorities have changed and been influenced by new ways of thinking about universities, and of measuring their impact in relation to each other and to their social goals. Debates are ongoing and hotly contested. In this collection, a mix of renowned academics and newer voices reflect on some of the realities of international research partnerships. They both question and highlight the agency of academics, donors and research institutions in the geopolitics of knowledge and power. The contributors offer fresh insights on institutional transformation, the setting of research agendas, and access to research funding, while highlighting the dilemmas researchers face when their institutions are vulnerable to state and donor influence. Offering a range of perspectives on why academics should collaborate and what for, this book will be useful to anyone interested in how scholars are adapting to the realities of international networking and how research institutions are finding innovative ways to make North�South partnerships and collaborations increasingly fair, sustainable and mutually beneficial.
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Lewis, Alison. Alfred Döblin’s literary cases about women and crime in Weimar Germany. Manchester University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.7228/manchester/9780719099434.003.0006.

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This chapter investigates examples of literary case studies by Alfred Döblin, a medical doctor and a main representative of the 1920s ‘New Objectivity’ aesthetic movement in Weimar Germany. Like fellow poet Gottfried Benn, Döblin brought his professional expertise in medicine to bear on his literary projects. Whereas his contemporaries were preoccupied with questions of social justice, Döblin was particularly interested in gender relations and the nexus between sexuality and crime, and used literature as a metaphorical laboratory to explore shocking and topical themes of the day. With his realistic case studies based on trials and his own expert knowledge of psychiatry, sexology and psychoanalysis, Döblin strove to bridge the gap between highbrow literature and the new empirical life sciences, as well as between his medical practice and his love of literature. His work demonstrates both the benefits and limits of the case study genre as a vehicle for transporting new forms of knowledge. While his attempts to refashion the literary case study as a crime novel by incorporating the latest theories about the human psyche and female homosexuality were of limited success, he achieved greater success with Berlin Alexanderplatz, a modernist novel about crime and sex in the metropolis.
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Gardner, R. J. McKinlay, and David J. Amor. Gardner and Sutherland’s Chromosome Abnormalities and Genetic Counseling. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199329007.001.0001.

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Medical geneticists and genetic counselors regularly see families attending the genetic counseling clinic with questions about chromosome abnormalities. These families may themselves have had a child affected with a chromosome condition; or, there may have been a history elsewhere in the family. The presentation may have been due to infertility or reproductive loss. Questions may include the following: What is known about this condition? What caused this to happen? Is it likely to happen again? If so, is there a way to prevent it from happening again? The power of molecular approaches to chromosome analysis, coming to be routinely available in this second decade of the twenty-first century, has brought to our knowledge many new “chromosomal syndromes” to add alongside those long known from the days of classical cytogenetics. This new knowledge has increased our ability to answer the questions that families may have; but equally, it has raised challenges in interpretation, as molecular karyotyping has revealed more complexity in the way the human genome is constructed. This book distils the knowledge that has evolved in recent and olden times, and it presents the information in a way that will be helpful to the practitioner. In particular, the risks of recurrence, or of occurrence, of a particular chromosome disorder are clearly set forth. The application of chromosomal knowledge to reproductive conditions, both diagnostically and in management, is rehearsed.
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