Academic literature on the topic 'Koagulant'

Limbah cair PT. Interbat berasal dari kegiatan domestik meliputi laundry (menggunakan detergen bebas phospat), kegiatan hygiene personal (mandi, keramas dan cuci tangan), kegiatan dapur dan kantin, toilet/WC (buang air), kegiatan kebersihan (pembersihan lantai dan kamar mandi); kegiatan produksi (penisilin, sefalosporin, dan non betalaktam) dan laboratorium meliputi pencucian alat-alat produksi dan alat laboratorium, pencucian botol, air cucian vial, air buangan dari wet scrubber HVAC (sistem tata udara). Beban dan jumlah limbah cair yang masuk dalam IPAL sentral PT. Interbat sering mengalami fluktuasi konsentrasi dan fluktuasi jumlah air. Sehingga beberapa kali hasil olahan tidak memenuhi standart baku mutu Pergub Jatim No. 72 Tahun 2013 untuk industri farmasi. Teknologi sistem biofilter anaerobik aerobik telah banyak dimanfaatkan untuk mengolah limbah cair dan dapat menurunkan BOD dan COD hingga 95%. Salah satu kelebihan teknologi ini adalah tahan terhadap fluktuasi jumlah air limbah maupun fluktuasi konsentrasi. Bahan koagulan digunakan pada aplikasi ini untuk membantu proses pengikatan padatan. Tujuan dalam penelitian ini akan dikaji tentang pengaruh penggunaan koagulan pada biofilter anaerobik aerobik dalam menurunkan COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) dan BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) limbah cair industri farmasi. Metode pengumpulan data yang digunakan adalah pengumpulan data sekunder, survei lapangan, perhitungan reaktor, dokumentasi, kajian literatur dan analisis laboratorium. Dimensi reaktor biofilter anaerobik aerobik dalam penelitian ini adalah skala 1:10. Debit air limbah pada skala 1:10 adalah sebesar 50ml/menit. Digunakan tambahan koagulant dengan variasi 0 ppm (tanpa), 200 ppm dan 300 ppm. Rata-rata efisiensi penurunan COD dan BOD dalam penelitian ini pada dosis tanpa penambahan koagulan penurunan COD sebesar 60% dan BOD sebesar 60%; pada dosis koagulan 200 ppm penurunan COD sebesar 54% dan BOD sebesar 46%; dan pada dosis koagulan 300 ppm penurunan COD sebesar 67% dan BOD sebesar 65%. Kemampuan dalam efisiensi penurunan COD dan BOD tertinggi dalam penelitian ini adalah pada koagulan dosis 300 ppm. Hasil COD dan BOD outlet adalah COD outlet sebesar 67 mg/l dan BOD outlet sebersar 49 mg/l. Bila dibandingkan dengan Pergub Jatim No.72 Tahun 2013 tentang Baku Mutu Air Limbah Bagi Industri Dan/Atau Kegiatan Usaha Lainnya, maka hasil COD dan BOD outlet sudah dibawah baku mutu. Kata Kunci : Biofilter anaerobik aerobik, koagulan, PAC, COD, BOD

Abstrak-Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui koagulan kapur atau PAC yang paling efektif pada proses koagulasi-flokulasi dari pengolahan limbah deterjen buatan dan limbah laundry, menentukan massa optimum dari koagulan kapur atau PAC pada pengolahan limbah deterjen buatan dan limbah laundry menggunakan proses koagulasi-flokulasi dan menentukan persen maksimum penurunan BOD dan COD pada limbah deterjen buatan dan limbah laundry menggunakan proses koagulasi-flokulasi. Pada penelitian ini, kami menggunakan metode jartest atau metode koagulasi-flokulasi dengan menggunakan koagulan kapur dan PAC. Metode yang digunakan untuk menurunkan kadar BOD dan COD ialah koagulasi yaitu dicampurkannya koagulan dengan pengadukan cepat 100 rpm selama 1 menit kemudian dengan metode flokulasi yaitu dilakukan pengadukan lambat 40 rpm selama 20 menit dan diendapkan selama 30 menit. Penentuan massa optimum dilakukan dengan cara menambahkan koagulan baik menggunkan kapur atau PAC masing-masing sebanyak 1 gr, 2 gr, 3 gr, 4 gr, 5 gr dalam 150 ml limbah deterjen buatan maupun limbah deterjen laundry. Dari variasi massa koagulan dapat diketahui persen maksimum penurunan BOD dan COD tertinggi terdapat pada koagulan kapur sebesar 12,05% dan 75% pada limbah deterjen buatan pada massa 5 gr, sedangkan pada limbah laundry sebesar 11,57%.dan 78,57% pada massa 5 gr. Kata kunci: koagulasi-flokulasi, limbah deterjen, COD, BOD. Abstract- This research is conducted to find out the effective koagulan lime or PAC in koagulasi-flokulasi process from preparation of waste material detergent product and waste material laundry, to determine optimum mass from koagulan lime or PAC in preparation of waste material detergent product and waste material laundry using koagulasi-flokulasi process and to determine maximum percent the decrease of BOD and COD in preparation of waste material detergent product and waste material laundry. In this research, we used jartest method or koagulasi-flokulasi method by using koagulan lime or PAC. Methode that used to decrease the value of BOD and COD is koagulasi. Koagulasi is mixed koagulan and stir fast 100 rpm for one minute, then with flokulasi method, it is stir slow 40 rpm for 20 minutes and sediment, it for 30 minutes. Determine optimum mass done by add good koagulan using lime or PAC 1 gr, 2 gr, 3 gr ,4 gr, 5 gr, in waste material detergent product and waste material laundry. From the various mass koagulan know that the highest decrease maximum percent of BOD and COD in koagulan kapur is 12,05% and 75% on waste material detergent product in 5 gr mass while waste material laundry is 11,57 % and 78,57% in 5 gr mass. Keywords: koagulasi-flokulasi, waste material detergent, COD, BOD

Proses koagulasi dan flokulasi secara mekanik merupakan proses yang sering digunakan dalam mencampurkan koagulan dengan air sampel. Hidroulik koagulasi merupakan proses koagulasi yang digunakan mencampurkan koagulan secara hidroulik, yaitu dengan manfaatkan aliran air untuk pengadukannya. Parshall Flume merupakan unit yang biasanya diganakan dalam proses aerasi. Unit Parshall flume memanfaatkan betuk penyempitan saluran untuk membentuk suatu terjunan. Pada titik dipenyempitan saluran Parshall Flume dimanfaatkan sebagai proses pencampuran antara koagulan dengan air yang akan diolah. Sehingga Debit aliran yang melalui penyempitan saluran tersebut berpengaruh terhadap tinggi terjunan nya. Level air pada terjunan akan menimbulkan kontak pula antara air dengan udara, sehingga perlu diketahui nilai Dissolve Oxygen yang turut mempengaruhi proses penyisihan senyawa organik yang berada pada air yang akan diolah. Variasi debit dan variasi koagulan digunakan untuk mengetahui nilai optimum aliran dan koagulan dalam menyisihkan senyawa organik

<p>Koagulasi terjadi karena adanya interaksi antara koagulan dengan kontaminan seperti partikel koloid. Proses koagulasi dipengaruhi oleh berbagai faktor, antara lain pH, dosis koagulan, serta kekeruhan larutan. Dalam penelitian ini dilakukan studi untuk mengetahui pengaruh parameter pH dan dosis pada proses koagulasi dan flokulasi dengan menggunakan koagulan aluminum sulfat (Al2(SO4)3..14,3H2O ) dan ferri klorida (FeCl3.6H2O). Air baku yang digunakan adalah suspensi air baku sintetis menggunakan kaolin, dengan variasi suspensi kekeruhan tinggi (124 NTU) dan suspensi kekeruhan sedang (51 NTU). Hasil penelitian mengindikasikan bahwa pengaruh pH dan dosis pada koagulan aluminum sulfat sangat signifikan, sedangkan ferri klorida memberikan rentang pH operasi yang lebih besar dibandingkan dengan aluminum sulfat.<br />Keywords : colloid, destabilization, pH, dosages, sweep flocculation.</p>

Proses pengolahan kopi basah menghasilkan air limbah yang mengandung bahan organik yang tinggi dan berpotensi mencemari air dan tanah. Salah satu upaya yang dilakukan untuk penanganan air limbah pengolahan kopi adalah proses koagulasi-flokulasi. Faktor utama terjadinya proses koagulasi flokulasi adalah koagulan. Biji asam jawa berpotensi dimanfaatkan sebagai koagulan sebab mengandung protein yang cukup tinggi dan diharapkan dapat berperan sebagai polielektrolit yang lebih ramah lingkungan. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui perlakuan koagulasi-flokulasi terbaik dalam memperbaiki kualitas air limbah pengolahan kopi berdasarkan ukuran dan dosis koagulan dari biji asam jawa. Preparasi koagulan dari biji asam jawa dilakukan dengan tahapan pengeringan hingga mencapai kadar air 10% dan pengecilan ukuran mesh 80 (0,177 mm), 100 (0,149 mm), dan 150 (0,098 mm). Kecepatan yang digunakan pada proses koaguasi yaitu 300 rpm pengadukan cepat selama 1 menit dan 50 rpm pengadukan lambat selama 15 menit. Dosis yang digunakan yaitu 1500 mg/L, 2500 mg/L, dan 3500 mg/L. Indikator yang diamati yaitu TSS, TDS, kekeruhan, dan COD. Metode pengolahan data menggunakn uji Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) dan uji lanjut tukey. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa koagulasi-flokulasi menggunakan serbuk biji asam jawa dengan perlakuan ukuran mesh 150 dan dosis 1500 mg/L merupakan alternatif tertinggi dalam menurunkan konsentrasi bahan pencemar pada air limbah pengolahan kopi. Kombinasi tersebut menghasilkan nilai efisiensi penurunan parameter TSS, TDS, kekeruhan, dan COD secara berurutan yaitu 79,24 %; 82,74 %; 61,79 %; dan 61,63 %. Biji asam jawa dalam bentuk serbuk berpotensi dimanfaatkan sebagai koagulan alami dalam penanganan air limbah pengolahan kopi menggunakan metode koagulasi-flokulasi. Kata kunci: Biji Asam Jawa; Flokulasi; Koagulasi; Kopi

ABSTRAKTelah dilakukan penelitian pemanfaatan biji asam jawa dalam pengolahan limbag cair industri farmasi dengan metoda koagulasi. Koagulasi dan flokulasi merupakan metode pengolahan air untuk limbah yang bersifat koloid. Biji asam jawa mengandung tanin sebesar 20,2 % yang bersifat sebagai koagulan dan polimer alami seperti pati sebesar 30,1 % yang berfungsi sebagai flokulan. Penelitian ini diawali dengan preparasi koagulan dimana biji asam jawa yang telah dibersihkan ditumbuk hingga menjadi serbuk lalu diayak dengan ayakan tepung. Selanjutnya sampel air limbah ditambahkan koagulan dengan variasi dosis yaitu 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, dan 11 gram/500 mL sampel air limbah, lalu diaduk dengan kecepatan cepat 3 menit dan kecepatan lambat 12 menit, kemudian diendapkan 12 menit. Filtrat hasil koagulasi dianalisis berdasarkan Kep-51/MENLH/10/1995 tentang baku mutu limbah cair industri farmasi. Dari hasil penelitian ini diketahui bahwa kemampuan biji asam jawa cukup baik sebagai koagulan untuk memperbaiki nilai pH, menurunkan konsentrasi TSS pada dosis optimum 1 g/500 mL, BOD pada dosis optimum 7 g/500mL, serta NH4+ pada dosis optimum 3 g/500 mL. Namun, koagulan ini belum dapat digunakan untuk menurunkan konsentrasi COD dan fenol dalam limbah cair industri farmasi.

Kristalinitas membran hibrid polisulfon-lempung dalam larutan casting yang dikoagulasikan dalam media koagulasi air dan campuran air-2 propanol menunjukkan hasil yang berbeda. Pengukluran dilakukan menggunakan menggunakan difraktometer sinar-X Schimizu Maxima 7000 pada sudut hamburan (2θ) 5o-35o, dengan ukuran sampling puncak 0.02o dan kecepatan pengamatan (scan) 2o/menit. Derajat kristalinitas membran A (koagulan air) adalah sebesar 63,1185, sedangkan membran B (media koagulasi campuran air-2propanol adalah 31,7691. Perbedaan derajat kristalinitas ini disebabkan pengaruh halangan sterik dari media koagulasi dan kecepatan difusi pertukaran antara pelarut dan non pelarut pada proses koagulasi pembentukan membran.

ABSTRAK Limbah cair tahu merupakan salah satu limbah cair dengan kandungan organik yang tinggi dan berpotensi merusak lingkungan. Pada penelitian ini digunakan dua metode pengolahan dengan mengkombinasikan metode pengolahan biologi dan proses koagulasi-flokulasi menggunakan koagulan alami, biji kelor. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah mempelajari pengaruh dosis dan ukuran partikel koagulan terbaik. Dosis biji kelor divariasikan dari 1.000, 2.000, 3.000, dan 4.000 ppm. Dosis terbaik digunakan untuk menentukan ukuran partikel koagulan terbaik dengan variasi ukuran 250, 500, 1.000, dan 2.000 µm. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa dosis biji kelor terbaik untuk metode 1 (aerobik dan koagulasi flokulasi) adalah 2.000 ppm dan untuk metode 2 (kombinasi anaerobik-aerobik dan koagulasi flokulasi) adalah 4.000 ppm. Ukuran partikel terbaik yaitu 500 µm untuk kedua metode dengan efisiensi penurunan kekeruhan sebesar 94,57% untuk efluen metode 1 dan 78,28% untuk efluen metode 2. Kata kunci: Limbah cair tahu, biji kelor,koagulan alami, koagulasi- flokulasi ABSTRACT Tofu wastewater is one of the pollutant wastewater that potentially cause the serious damage to the environment due to its high organic content. The combination of biology method in the help of microorganism and coagulation-flocculation method using kelor seed were applied in this study. This research aims were determining the best dose and the optimum size of coagulant. Doses variation were 1,000, 2,000, 3,000 and 4,000 ppm of coagulant. The best dose resulted would be used to determine the optimum size of coagulant by variating 250, 500, 1,000 and 2,000 µm. The result showed that 2,000 ppm was the best coagulant dose for the first method (aerobic and coagulation-flocculation method) and 4,000 ppm was the optimum dose for the second method (combination of anaerobic-aerobic and coagulation-flocculation method). 500 µm was determined as the optimum particle size of the coagulant for both methods with % removal turbidity level were 94,57% for the first method and 78,28% for the second method. Keywords:Tofu wastewater, kelor seed, natural coagulant, coagulation-flocculation

Biji kelor mempunyai banyak manfaat, salah satunya dapat berfungsi sebagai koagulan untuk mengeloh air limbah cair. Tujuan penelitian untuk mengetahui pengaruh ukuran partikel koagulan, konsentrasi dan lama pengendapan terhadap hasil proses koagulasi dan flokulasi limbah cair industri tahu. Pengukuran COD dilakukan dengan spektrofotometer. Dalam menganalisis data digunakan persentase penurunan COD. Hasil yang diperoleh menunjukkan ukuran partikel koagulan yang efektif untuk memperbaiki kualitas limbah cair industri tahu yaitu 120 mesh. Konsentrasi dan lama pengendapan optimum COD, diperoleh pada konsentrasi 4000 mg/L dengan waktu pengendapan 45 menit. Sedangkan Konsentrasi optimum untuk memperbaiki kualitas limbah cair industri tahu berdasarkan COD adalah konsentrasi 4000 mg/L dengan persentase penurunan berturut-turut sebesar 70,2%, 86,4% dan 61,2%, 78,6%. Kesimpulan dari penelitian bahwa Koagulan serbuk biji kelor (Moringa oleifera) dapat memperbaiki kualitas limbah cair industri tahu, bahan baku yang mudah diperoleh.

Penyisihan bahan organik dalam efluen menggunakan membran ultrafiltrasi masih memiliki kendala yaitu terbentuknya fouling pada membran. Oleh karena itu, perlu dilakukan pra-perlakuan koagulasi untuk meningkatkan kinerja membran ultrafiltrasi. Koagulan yang digunakan adalah Tanah Lempung Gambut (TLG). Tujuan utama penelitian adalah menganalisis pengaruh koagulasi terhadap kinerja membran ultrafiltrasi selulosa asetat (UF-SA) dan mendapatkan permodelan fouling membran proses hibrid koagulasi dan UF-SA. Pada penelitian ini digunakan sistem aliran dead-end dengan variasi tekanan 1 - 3 bar. Hasil penelitian menujukkan tekanan terbaik 3 bar menggunakan dosis optimum 4 mg/L mampu menyisihkan UV254 sebesar 83,9 % serta menghasilkan fluks sebesar 162,64 L/jam.m2. Permodelan yang paling tepat menggambarkan proses hibrid koagulasi dan membran UF-SA adalah Kurva Saturasi dengan R square tekanan 3 bar yaitu 1.

The aim of the master´s thesis is the topic of the treatability of surface water with the focus on the process of suspension formation. For this work I took water samples from five different places around the Brno Dam which has contended with water quality deterioration for a long period. With these water samples, the series of jar coagulation tests were done with the application of three different commonly used coagulants. In the theoretical part of the master´s thesis I deal with the composition and attributes of surface water and the technology of its treatment. Each process of treatment is briefly described here with the emphasis on the process of suspension formation. The experimental part of the master´s thesis summarizes and presents the results gained through the coagulation tests in the laboratory. I evaluate the influence of different parameters on final effectiveness of water treatment and I try to find an optimal amount of coagulant, pH and speed of fast or slow mixing. Finally I compare the suitability of each coagulant and the influence of the sampling site on the effectiveness of water treatment.

This diploma thesis is focused on study of physico-chemical influences on model surface-water treatment which contain humic compounds. From those factors were monitored especially the dose of destabilizing reagent, pH value, temperature, velocity gradient of mixing and time of its duration. As destabilizing reagents were used Al2(SO4)3 .18H2O a Fe2(SO4)3 . 9H2O.

Cilj ove doktorske disertacije je bio da se ispita mogućnost dobijanja prirodnihkoagulanata iz zrna pasulja koji bi se koristili u obradi različitih voda i otpadnih voda. U okviru izvedenih eksperimenata su utvrđeni najbolji uslovi za ekstrakciju prirodnih koagulanata iz pasulja, određen je hemijski sastav sirovih ekstrakata dobijenih na različite načine, proverena je trajnost i određen način čuvanja sirovih ekstrakata i ispitan uticaj različitih parametara na koagulacionu aktivnost sirovih ekstrakata.S obzirom na to da su prirodni koagulanti organskog porekla, oni povećavaju sadržaj organskih materija u tretiranoj vodi, pa su u okviru rada ispitane i upoređene različite metode prečišćavanja sirovog ekstrakta pasulja, a zatim određen uticaj sirovog ekstrakta i prečišćenih koagulanata na sadržaj organskih materija u obrađenoj vodi.Kako bi se ispitala efikasnost prirodnih koagulanata iz zrna pasulja u realnim vodama,oni su bili primenjeni u otpadnim vodama od proizvodnje bioetanola. Pored toga, ispitana je mogućnost njihove primene u kombinaciji sa konvencionalnim koagulantima, i na samom kraju je ispitan sastav pasulja koji preostane nakon ekstrakcije prirodnih koagulanata kako bi se utvrdilo da li je pogodan za korišćenje kaododatak stočnoj hrani.Dobijeni rezultati su pokazali da se iz zrna pasulja može dobiti ekstrakt visoke koagulacione aktivnosti, koji se dalje može efikasno prečistiti tako da ne povećava sadržaj organskih materija u obrađenoj vodi, već ga naprotiv smanjuje. Takođe, prirodni koagulanti iz pasulja se mogu uspešno primeniti za tretman otpadnih voda od proizvodnje bioetanola, mogu biti pomoćni koagulanti aluminijum-sulfatu, a pasulj nakon ekstrakcije prirodnih koagulanata sa destilovanom vodom se može iskoristiti kaododatak stočnoj hrani.
The aim of this PhD thesis was to investigate the possibility to obtain natural coagulants from common bean which could be used for different waters and wastewaters treatment. The optimal conditions for extraction of natural coagulants from common bean, the chemical composition of crude extracts obtained in different ways and the influence of various parameters on coagulation activity of crude extracts were determined within the performed experiments. The durability of crude extracts was checked and the way of their storage defined.Considering the fact that natural coagulants are of organic origin, they increase the content of organic matter in treated water. Hence, the different methods of purification of common bean crude extract were investigated and compared, and thereafter the influence of crude extract and purified coagulants on organic matter content in treated water was determined.Natural coagulants obtained from common bean were applied in bioethanol stillages in order to explore their efficiency in real waters. Besides, the possibility of their usage combined with conventional coagulants was investigated. At the end, the composition of common bean that remains after extraction of natural coagulants was determined in order to to prove if it was appropriate as addition to feed.Obtained results showed that extract of high coagulation activity can be obtained from common bean. It can be efficiently purified so as not to increase the organic matter content of the water, but on the contrary, to decrease it. Natural coagulants from common bean can be successfully applied for treatment of wastewaters remained after bioethanol production, they can be used as coagulant aid with alum, and the common bean remained after extraction of natural coagulants with distilled water can be utilized as addition to feed.

Sludge treatment and disposal are one of the most important parts of sewage treatment. These are economically challenging parts, and therefore emphasis is placed on effective dosing. The dose should be as small as possible but also the highest dry matter output. The main target of this diploma thesis is therefore to show that it is possible to achieve the same or better degree of drainage of the sludge if different flocculant/coagulant ratio is applied to the sludge. Diploma thesis deals with determination of the optimal combination of chemical doses during sludge dewatering. The thesis contains two parts, practical and theoretical. The theoretical part consists of research, overview of processed research and works in the area of sludge dewatering. The second part is a description of laboratory measurements and evaluation of results.

This thesis deals with coagulation treatment of surface water with content of humic matters, drug residues and turbidity. Commonly used coagulants (ferrous and aluminous sulphate) and natural biopolymer based on chitosan that not yet used in the Czech Republic had been studied. The aim of this work was to found the optimal application of chitosan in water treatment and comparison of its coagulation efficiency with standard inorganic coagulants. Theoretical part of the thesis contains occurrence, classification, composition, properties and importance of humic matters and drug residues and furthermore properties of chitosan and its using in water treatment. Experimental part summarizes the obtained results from the laboratory coagulation tests with inorganic coagulants and with chitosan leading to determination of its optimal dose. Other coagulation experiments were focused on finding the possibilities of combine the two coagulants (ferrous sulphate and chitosan) and to find their optimum doses and suitable ratio. The influence of pH on water treatment with using coagulation was also studied.

Pri proizvodnji kvalitetnog belog konzumnog šećera iz šećerne repe, srećemo se sa problemom prisustva makromolekularnih jedinjenja u soku šećerne repe koja su štetna pa ih je neophodno odstraniti. Uklanjanje ovih jedinjenja, koja čine oko 60 % od ukupno sadržanih nesaharoznih materija u soku šećerne repe, zasniva se  na principu taloženja uz primenu različitih koagulanata (najčešće jedinjenja koja sadrže pozitivne jone kalcijuma). Međutim, afinitet vezivanja kalcijuma sa nepoželjnim makromolekulima iz soka šećerne repe je mali, pa su potrebne velike količine ovog jedinjenja u svakodnevnoj proizvodnji šećera.Cilj istraživanja obuhvaćenih ovom doktorskom disertacijom usmeren je ka primeni alternativnih koagulanata sa dvo- i trovalentnim katjonima, pre svega soli aluminijuma i bakra koja izlazivaju proces razelektrisavanja makromolekula soka šećerne repe.          Merenjem elektrokinetičkih potencijala utvrđene su optimalne količine koagulanata potrebne za uspešnu koagulaciju makromolekularnih jedinjenja iz soka šećerne repe. Ispitivan je i uticaj drugih procesnih veličina kao što su pH, koncentracija makromolekula i uticaj brzine mešanja na efikasnost taloženja makromolekula.              Predložen je mehanizam razelektrisavanja makromolekularnih jedinjenja kao i model dvojnogelektričnog sloja koji okružuje  koloidne čestice u soku šećerne repe.                  Ispitivana su dva model-rastvora komercijalno raspoloživih pektina u koncentracijama koje odgovaraju koncentracijama u soku šećerne repe kao i jedan model-rastvor proteinskog preparata. Ispitivani sistemi su tretirani rastvorima CuSO₄ i Al2(SO₄)₃ i rastvorima njihovih smeša u različitim odnosima.                                                              Dokazano je, za sva tri ispitivana preparata, da su manje količine Cu⁺² jona u odnosu na Al⁺³ jone potrebne za sniženje vrednosti Zeta potencijala na nulu. Međutim, zbog mogućih nepoželjnih efekata CuSO₄ u obradi hrane, Al(SO₄)₃ bi se mogao upotrebiti umesto tradicionalnog koagulanta CaO, kako zbog manje potrošnje koagulanta, tako i zbog očuvanja životne sredine.                                                                                          Cilj eksperimenata sa smešama je ispitivanje mogućnosti poboljšanja koagulacionih karakteristika često korišćene soli Al2(SO₄)₃, dodavanjem malih količina Cu⁺² jona. Međutim, čiste soli su pokazale bolja koagulaciona svojstva.                                            Istraživanja sa flokulantima, odnose se na odabiranje najpogodnijeg tipa i optimalne količine flokulanata, uz primenu predloženih koagulanata. Najveća efikasnost čišćenja soka šećerne repe, uočena je nakon primene anjonskog flokulanta koncentracije 3 mg/dm³. Dokazano je da ovaj tip flokulanata dodatno smanjuje vrednost Zeta potencijala prisutnih makromolekula čime se smanjuje potrebna količina ispitivanih koagulanata  CuSO₄ i Al(SO₄)₃.                            
During production of full quality consumed white sugar from sugar beet, there is a problem of the presenceof macrom olecular compounds in sugar beet juice, which are harmful and we have to be removed.Separation ofthese compounds, which make around 60% oflotal non-sucrose compounds in sugar beetjuice,is done by the principle of sedimentation with different types of coagulants (mostly compounds with calciumion). However, affinity of calcium binding with undesirable macromolecules fiom sugar beet juice is notsignificant and in that way it is necessary a lot of quantities of this compound throughout daily production ofsugar.The aim of this doctoral thesis is to consider the application of alternative coagulants with divalent andtrivalent cations, especially the salt of aluminum and cooper, which cause the process of dischargeablemacromolecules in sugar beet juice.Optimal quantities of coagulants needing for the efficient coagulation of macromolecules compounds fromsugar beet juice were determined by means of measuring of electrokinetic potentials. It was investigated theinfluence of other process variables such as pH, concentration of macromolecules and the impact of speedmixing on the efficiency of sedimentation of macromolecules.Mechanism of discharge of macromolecules compounds as well as the model of double electric layersurrounding colloidal particles in sugar beetjuice are suggested for sugar beetjuice clarification.Two model solutions of pectin are investigated together with one model solution of protein. Theirconcentration correspond to concentration of these macromolecules in sugar beet juice. All investigatedsystems were treated by using both solutions of CuSO4 as well as Al2(SO4)3 and slutions of their mixtures indifferent proportion.It was proven for all three investigated samples that fewer quantities of Cu+2 ions compared to the values ofAl+3 ions are needed to reach zero Zeta potential. However, due to possible undesirable effects of CuSO4 onfood processing, Al2(SO4)3 is proposed instead of traditional coagulant CaO, not only because of lowerconsumptions of coagulants but owing to protection of the environment.The objective in the experiments with mixtures was to investigate enhancement of coagulated characteristicswith commonly used salt Al2(SO4)3 by adding small quantities of Cu+2 ions. It was proven that pure saltsshowed better-coagulated properties.Further investigation was focused to selection of the most appropriate type and optimal quantity of chosenflocculants. The highest efficiency of clarification of sugar beet juice was noticed by applying anionflocculants of concentration 3 mg/dm3. It was shown that this type of flocculants additionally decreased thevalue of Zeta potential of present macromolecules which further reduce required quantity of investigatedcoagulants CuSO4 and Al2(SO4)3.

The Ceratium species occurring in the Vaal River since 2000, was identified as Ceratium hirundinella (O.F. Müller) Dujardin as proposed by Van Ginkel et al (2001). Ceratium hirundinella is known to cause problems in drinking water purification and has been penetrating into the final drinking water of Rand Water since 2006. Ceratium hirundinella is associated with many other water purification problems such as disrupting of the coagulation and flocculation processes, blocking of sand filters and algal penetration into the drinking water. Ceratium hirundinella also produce fishy taste and odorous compounds and causes discolouration of the water. The aims of this study were to determine the main environmental factors which are associated with the bloom formation of C. hirundinella in the source water and to investigate the influence of C. hirundinella on the production of potable water. In order to optimise treatment processes and resolve problems associated with high C. hirundinella concentrations during the production of potable water, jar testing and chlorine exposure experiments were performed. Multivariate statistical analyses were performed to determine the main environmental variables behind C. hirundinella blooms. Ten years data (2000 - 2009) from the sampling point C–VRB5T in the Vaal River, (5 km upstream from the Barrage weir) were used for this investigation, because C. hirundinella occurred there frequently during the ten year period. In this study, it was found that C. hirundinella was favoured by high pH, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), orthophoshapte (PO4), and silica concentrations, as well as low turbidity and low dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) concentrations. No correlation was found between C. hirundinella and temperature, suggesting that this alga does not occur during periods of extreme warm or extreme cold conditions, but most probably during autumn and spring. The results of the multivariate statistical analysis performed with historical data from Vaalkop dam, indicate that the dinoflagellate C. hirundinella seems to be favoured by low temperature and turbidity, and high DIN, Fe, Methyl–orange alkalinity, Cd, PO4, Conductivity, pH, hardness and SO4 concentrations. In order to optimise treatment processes such as coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation, jar testing experiments were performed to investigate different coagulant chemicals namely: cationic poly–electrolyte only, cationic poly–electrolyte in combination with slaked lime (CaO) and CaO in combination with activated silica. Water from four different sampling localities were chosen to perform the different jar testing experiments: 1) sampling point M–FOREBAY (in the Forebay, connecting the canal to the Zuikerbosch Purification plant) near Vereeniging due to its proximity to the Zuikerbosch treatment plant, 2) M–CANAL_VD (upstream from the inflow of the recovered water from Panfontein) to determine the influence of (if any) the recovered water from Panfontein on Forebay source water, 3) source water from Vaalkop Dam (M–RAW_VAALKOP) and 4) source water from Rietvlei Dam (water from both Vaalkop and Rietvlei Dams contained high concentrations of C. hirundinella at that time of sampling) to determine which coagulant chemical is the most effective in removing high concentrations of C. hirundinella cells during the production of drinking water. The jar testing experiments with Vaalkop Dam and Rietvlei Dam source water (rich with C. hirundinella) indicated that using cationic poly–electrolyte alone did not remove high concentrations of C. hirundinella efficiently. However, when CaO (in combination with cationic poly–electrolyte or activated silica) were dosed to Vaalkop Dam source water a significant decrease of C. hirundinella concentration was observed. This indicates that the C. hirundinella cells were “shocked or stressed” when exposed to the high pH of the CaO, rendering it immobile and thereby enhancing the coagulation and flocculation process. However, when 10 mg/L CaO in combination with poly–electrolyte was dosed to Rietvlei Dam source water the turbidity and chlorophyll–665 results indicated that this coagulant chemical procedure was ineffective in removing algal material from the source water. The jar testing experiments using the cationic poly–electrolyte alone or cationic poly–electrolyte in combination with CaO on M–FOREBAY and M–CANAL_VD source water, showed a decrease in turbidity, chlorophyll–665 concentration, and total algal biomass, with an increase of coagulant chemical. When CaO in combination with activated silica was dosed, the inherent turbidity of the lime increased the turbidity of the Vaalkop Dam, M–FOREBAY and M–CANAL_VD source water to such an extent that it affected coagulation negatively, resulting in high turbidity values in the supernatant. Regardless of the turbidity values, the chlorophyll–665 concentration and total algal biomass (C. hirundinella specifically in Vaalkop Dam source water) decreased significantly when CaO was dosed in combination with activated silica. Therefore it was concluded that a cationic poly–electrolyte alone is a good coagulant chemical for the removal of turbidity, but when high algal biomass occur in the source water it is essential to add CaO to “stress” or “shock” the algae for the effective removal thereof. However, when CaO in combination with activated silica was dosed to Rietvlei Dam source water a decrease in turbidity and chlorophyll–665 concentration was found with an increasing coagulant chemical concentration. These results confirm the fact that coagulant chemicals may perform differently during different periods of the year when water chemistry changes and that certain coagulant chemicals may never be suitable to use for certain source waters. For the effective removal of algae during water purification, it is recommended that cationic poly–electrolyte in combination with CaO are used as coagulant chemical at the Zuikerbosch Water Purification Plant. Turbidity is not a good indication of algal removal efficiency during jar testing experiments. If problems with high algal concentrations in the source water are experienced it is advisable to also determine the chlorophyll–665 concentrations of the supernatant water during the regular jar testing experiments, since it will give a better indication of algal removal. Chlorine exposure experiments were performed on water from Vaalkop Dam (M–RAW_VAALKOP) and Rietvlei Dam source water, to determine the possibility of implementing pre– or intermediate chlorination with the aim to render the cells immobile for more effective coagulation. The chlorine exposure experiments with Vaalkop Dam and Rietvlei Dam source water showed similar results. The chlorine concentration to be dosed as part of pre– or intermediate chlorination will differ for each type of source water as the chemical and biological composition of each water body are unique. When the effect of chlorine on the freshwater dinoflagellate C. hirundinella was investigated, it was found that the effective chlorine concentration where 50 % of Ceratium cells were rendered immobile (EC50) was approximately 1.16 mg/L for Vaalkop Dam source water. For the source water sampled from Rietvlei Dam, it was found that the EC50 was at approximately 0.87 mg/L. Results of analyses to determine the organic compounds in the water after chlorination revealed that an increase in chlorine concentration resulted in increase in total organic carbon concentration (TOC), as well as a slight increase in MIB and trihalomethanes (CHCl3). Pre– or intermediate chlorination seem to be an effective treatment option for the dinoflagellate C. hirundinella to be rendered immobile and thereby assisting in its coagulation process. The use of pre– or intermediate chlorination to effectively treat source waters containing high concentrations of C. hirundinella is a viable option to consider. However, the organic compounds in the water should be monitored and the EC50 value for each source water composition should be determined carefully as to restrict cell lysis and subsequent release of organic compounds into the water.
Thesis (M.Sc. (Environmental Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

Koagulas-negativa stafylokocker (KNS) klassas som en viktig del av hudens normalflora. Vid skador på hudens barriär som en inläggning av centrala venkatetrar (CVK) innebär kan dock KNS få tillträde till normalt sterila lokaler där de kan orsaka infektion. Vid utodling av borttagna CVK från patienter resistensbestäms bara några enstaka kolonier vilket gör det lätt att missa förekomst av flera olika stafylokock-kloner. Syftet med studien var att undersöka hur ofta en eller flera olika KNS-kloner förekommer på CVK från patienter, samt om det förekommer gemensamma kloner av KNS på CVK från olika patienter. Kolonier från CVK prov analyserades med den biokemiska fingerprintingmetoden Phene Plate-system (PhP). Resultatet visade 37 stycken CVK prov innehållande en klon, 23 stycken prov där det fanns 2 separata kloner, samt 6 prov med 3 kloner. Jämförelsen av kolonier ur prov från olika patienter resulterade i kluster med många gemensamma PhP-typer. I de 3 största klustren fanns 31, 15, respektive 8 kolonier representerande olika patienter. Den betydande andelen polyklonala CVK prov leder till risken att missa en mer resistent klon vilket då kan få konsekvensen felaktig antibiotikabehandling av patient. Att många patientprov hade en gemensam KNS-klon tyder på spridning av speciellt virulenta stammar inom sjukhus.

The prothrombin time (PT) is the most widely used assay to monitor oral anticoagulation (OA). Although it has been established that both thromboplastin and instrumentation significantly affect the results, major standardization attempts have been devoted to the calibration of reagents rather than of instruments. To provide safe laboratory monitoring of OA, an International Sen sitivity Index (ISI) for thromboplastin has been introduced. We have compared two automatic coagulometers, the ACL (Instrumentation Laboratory), a laser-nephelometer centrifugal analyzer which measures the intensity of the light scattered by a plasma sample before, during and after clot formation and the KOAGULAB 40A (Ortho Diagnostics), an optical automatic coagulometer, with the till tube technique for the performance ofPT. Five calibrated commercial thromboplastins have been used for replicate determinations in 30 normals, 30 liver disease patients and 30 patients on stabilized OA. The overall observed imprecision (C.V.) was 1.1% for ACL, 2.9% for the KOAGULAB 40A and 3.0% for the till tube technique. The F test for the two-way interaction of ratios was statistically significant (p< O.OOl) for the large majority of reagent/technique combinations in normals and in liver disease patients. Internatio nal normalized ratios were also significantly different (p< O.OOl) in most instances in patients on OA. Inadequate anticoagulation (INR<2.0)was observed in 18% of patients with the ACL , in 31% with the KOAGULAB 40A and in 33% with the till tube technique. Excessive anticoagulation (INR> 4.5) was observed in 19% of the patients with the ACL, in 7% with KOAGULAB 40A and in 3% with the till tube tech nique. These data highlight the need for standardization of both instrumentations and reagents to improve monitoring of OA.

Straipsnyje nagrinėjama, ar galima sumažinti organinių medžiagų koncentraciją tiriamajame vandenyje įterpus į tiriamąjį van-denį geležies (III) hidroksido prisotintas paplavas. Rusvos spalvos trivalentės geležies (III) hidroksido prisotintos paplavos gaunamas oksiduojant dvivalentę geležį – toks procesas taikomas vandenvietėse, vandens gerinimo įrenginiuose, šalinant ge-ležies junginius iš požeminio vandens. Tiriamasis vanduo tyrimui atlikti buvo paimtas iš Neries upės. Nuspręsta naudoti Neries upės vandenį, nes jame didelė organinių medžiagų koncentracija. Geležies (III) hidroksido prisotintos supresuotos pap-lavos paimtos iš Antavilių vandens gerinimo įrenginių po presavimo. Atlikus eksperimentą buvo nustatyta, kokia organinių medžiagų, turinčių skirtingas organinių medžiagų koncentracijas, dalis yra pašalinama iš tiriamojo vandens, įterpus skirtingą supresuotų ir išdžiovintų geležies paplavų ir sieros rūgšties kiekį. Efektyviausia koagulianto dozė, kai permanganato indek-sas yra nuo 10,99 mgO2/l iki 5,57 mgO2/l, spalva – nuo 56,76 mg/l Pt iki 30 mg/l Pt pagal tyrimo rezultatus yra 0,3 g/l gele-žies nuosėdų su 8 ml 0,95 H2SO4 tirpalu ir 0,5 g/l geležies nuosėdų su 8 ml 0,95 % H2SO4 tirpalu. Šie koagulianto kiekiai sėkmingai pašalina organines medžiagas iš vandens iki HN 24:2003 „Geriamojo vandens saugos ir kokybės reikalavimai“ normos.

It is current clinical practice to monitor heparin therapy by maintainig the activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) at 1.5-2.5 × control normal pool. There is however controversy regarding the choice of reagents with respect to their heparin sensitivity. Choice of instrumentation is also known to affect the results. We have compared two automatic coagulometers, the ACL (Instrumentation Laboratory), a laser-nephelometric centrifugal analyzer and the KOAGULAB 40A (Ortho Diagnostics), an optical automatic coagulometer, with the tilt tube technique for the performance of APTT. Seven commercial reagents have been used for APTT replicate determinations in 30 normals, 30 liver disease patients and 30 patients on heparin therapy (20-40,000 IU daily). The overall observed imprecision (C. V.)was 1.8% for ACL, 3.0% for KOAGULAB 40A and 2.3% for tilt tube technique. The F test for the two-way interaction of ratios was statistically significant (p<0.001) for the large majority of reagent/ technique combinations in normals, liver disease and heparin treated patients. The percentage of patients adequately, inadequately and excessively heparinazed obtained with the two automatic instruments and with the tilt tube technique were not sig nificantly different when using the same reagent. However, major differences were observed when comparing the different reagents. For instance, inadequately heparinized patients were 90% according to one reagent (Cephotest, Nyegaard) as opposed to 17% according to another reagent (APTT, Instrumentation Laboratory). These results stress the need for a standardized APTT reagent to provide effective laboratory monitoring of heparin treatment. .