Academic literature on the topic 'Kyoto protocol of 1992'

In December 1997, in Kyoto, Japan, over 160 parties to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC or Convention) adopted the Kyoto Protocol, which, for the first time, establishes legally binding limits for industrialized countries on emissions of carbon dioxide and other “greenhouse gases.” The Kyoto Protocol (the Protocol) is quite complex, reflecting the complicated political, economic, scientific and legal issues raised by human-induced climate change. The result of more than two years of preparatory discussions and eleven days of often-intense negotiations in Kyoto, the Protocol will be opened for signature in March 1998 for one year, although countries may accede to it after that period. It will enter into force ninety days after at least fifty-five parties to the FCCC, encompassing FCCC Annex I parties that accounted in total for at least 55 percent of the total emissions for 1990 of carbon dioxide (CO2) of Annex I parties, have ratified, accepted, approved or acceded to the Protocol.

AbstractIn this paper, we empirically investigate the impact of the Kyoto Protocol on CO2emissions using a sample of 170 countries over the period 1992–2009. We propose the use of a difference-in-differences estimator with matching to address the endogeneity of the policy variable, namely Kyoto commitments. Countries are matched according to observable characteristics to create a suitable counterfactual. We correspondingly estimate a panel data model for the whole sample and the matched sample and compare the results to those obtained using an instrumental variable approach. The main results indicate that Kyoto Protocol commitments have a measurable reducing effect on CO2emissions, indicating that a treaty often deemed a ‘failure’ may in fact be producing some non-negligible effects for those who signed it.

The Paris Agreement was signed by 195 nations in December 2015 to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change following the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) and the 1997 Kyoto Protocol [...]

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change accepted in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro provides principles and framework for cooperative international action on mitigating climate change. But it soon became clear that more radical targets were needed to encourage particular countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In response, countries that have ratified the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change accepted the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. The rulebook for how the Kyoto Protocol will be implemented – the Marrakech Accord, was agreed in 2001. This paper describes political instruments and facilities of mitigating climate change by forestry proposed in those political documents.

This article analyzes the climate policy performance of the G-8 from 1992 to 2012 based on their legal commitments (Annex-1 and Annex-B countries) under the UNFCCC (1992) and the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and their policy declarations on their GHG reduction goals until 2050. A climate paradox has emerged due to a growing implementation gap in Canada, USA and Japan, while Russia, Germany, UK, France and Italy fulfilled their GHG reduction obligation.

The Durban Climate Conference,1 marked by tension, high drama and sleepless nights, agreed on a set of historic decisions under the climate regime 36 hours after the scheduled end of the conference. The climate regime—comprising the 1992 Framework Convention on Climate Change2 and its 1997 Kyoto Protocol,3 and decisions taken by Parties under these instruments—has been plagued in the last few years, in particular after the debacle at Copenhagen,4 by doubt and uncertainty. Doubt over its ability to meet climate goals, and uncertainty over its future, in particular that of the Kyoto Protocol. At Durban, Parties strengthened the climate regime with decisions to implement the 2010 Cancun Agreements,5 extend the beleaguered Kyoto Protocol, for a second commitment period,6 and launch a new process to negotiate a post-2020 climate regime.7 This new process, christened the Ad-Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action, is intended to craft the agreement that will govern, regulate and incentivize the next generation of climate actions.

In 1997, Australia signed the Kyoto Protocol under which it had been assigned what will become a legally binding emissions cap of 108% of its 1990 emissions. This target may be appropriate for our national circumstances but will be challenging to meet. This paper examines the way Woodside Energy Ltd is addressing the threats and opportunities raised by the Kyoto Protocol.The major risk to Woodside's business arises from the division of the Protocol into Annex B and non-Annex B. Australia is in Annex B, which is composed primarily of developed countries that have assigned emission amounts that will be legally binding when the protocol comes into force and is ratified.Meeting the Australian target and the global greenhouse emission reduction objective will require increasing the substitution of gas into national fuel mixes. Natural gas, including LNG, has the lowest lifecycle emissions of any fossil fuel.The Australian LNG industry is the only major Annex B supplier of LNG to Japan and thus would be at a severe competitive disadvantage if the costs of unilaterally imposed abatement policies and measures were applied to the industry in Australia that were not applied to its international competitors. The LNG industry is seeking differential treatment to alleviate this risk. Woodside has proposed a solution, put forward in this paper, that a scheme be negotiated into the Protocol at CoP6, allowing for the repatriation of credits from the LNG fuel cycle to the exporting country. This would permit fair competition across all LNG exporters.Woodside is keen to undertake its fair share of emission reduction and has already implemented some projects that have been successful in this regard. Further implementation of beyond no regrets projects relies on the Commonwealth resolving the recognition for early action question. A trial framework for making decisions on early abatement projects is described.Woodside is also investigating potential opportunities arising from the Protocol. Progress is reported on early investigation into clean development mechanism (CDM) projects and greenhouse abatement research and development (R&D). Sink enhancement studies are nearly complete and a detailed business case is under preparation.

Many nations have recognized the need to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). The scientific assessments of climate change of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) support the need to reduce GHG emissions. The 1997 Kyoto Protocol to the 1992 Convention on Climate Change (UNTS 30822) has now been signed by more than 65 countries, although that Protocol has not yet entered into force. Some 14 of the industrialized countries listed in the Protocol face reductions in carbon dioxide emissions of more than 10% compared to projected 1997 carbon dioxide emissions (Najam & Page 1998).

Climate change has become in the past decades one of the major global problems that humanity must face. In order to try to stop it, and eventually reverse it, the international community has adopted the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992) and the Kyoto Protocol (1997, not yet in force). The Protocol sets quantified commitments for developed countries concerning the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases, but also the possibility to comply with such commitments in a flexible manner, through three instruments: joint implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading. The inclusion of additional instruments addressed to facilitate the curbing of emissions at a low cost, the so-called flexibility mechanisms, was a key element that allowed the final agreement to be reached. The paper describes briefly the main developments of the climate change regime and of each of these mechanisms. It then outlines their common constitutive elements, while underlining the aspects that remain unsolved, especially relating to their supplemental character to domestic action and the fact that any project approved under the JI or the CDM must provide a reduction in emissions that is additional to any that would otherwise occur. Throughout the examination of both the elements and challenges of the three mechanisms, the position and inputs coming from the European Union and its Member States within the climate change regime are also analysed.

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The aim of this thesis is to study China's position regarding the global climate and the numerous topics discussed in the global meetings held during 1997, ending in the Kyoto summit in the same year. Chinas position during this year was evidently on the side of developing countries. China regarded topics such as technology transfer, emission trading and Commitments for the participating parties as very important topics which had to be considered. Chinas final position regarding these subjects was during 1997:

- Increased funding and technology transfer resources to developing countries.

- Objection to the inclusion of emission trading in the protocol.

- No new commitments of any nature for developing countries.

- National development is Chinas key issue.

Orientador: Flávia de Campos Mello
Banca: Jacques Marcovitch
Banca: Reginaldo Mattar Nasser
O Programa de Pos-Graduação em Relações Internacionais é instituido em parceria com a Unesp/Unicamp/PUC-SP, em projeto subsidiado pela CAPES, intitulado "Programa San Tiago Dantas"
Resumo: Esta pesquisa analisa os fatores que levaram a União Européia a adotar uma estratégia de liderança nas negociações multilaterais sobre mudanças climáticas, principalmente após a recusa dos Estados Unidos em ratificar o Protocolo de Kyoto no ano de 2001. O trabalho aponta que o posicionamento da UE, aparentemente paradoxal, deve ser compreendido a partir de duas dimensões centrais. A primeira discute o cenário econômico-energético do bloco e sugere que esta postura pró-Kyoto sofre influência não só do aprofundamento da integração econômica, mas também da necessidade de garantir segurança energética no continente europeu. A segunda dimensão se utiliza de debates sobre política internacional para mostrar que esta estratégia pode ser interpretada como forma de consolidar a capacidade de atuação internacional dos europeus enquanto bloco. Em particular, deve-se destacar que a liderança da UE tem se consolidado especialmente em áreas onde os norte-americanos têm se desengajado progressivamente
Abstract:This research analyzes the factors that led the European Union to adopt a strategy of leadership during the multilateral negotiations on climate change issues, especially after the United States' refusal to ratify the Kyoto Protocol in 2001. This dissertation points out that the European position should be understood by two central dimensions. The first discusses the economic-energetic context of the bloc and suggests that the pro-Kyoto posture is influenced not only by the deepening economic integration, but also by the necessity of improving the security of energy supply in the European continent. The second dimension makes use of international political debates to demonstrate that this strategy could be perceived as a form to consolidate the Europeans' international capacity to act as a bloc. Particularly, it is remarkable that the European leadership has been taking place especially in areas where the North-Americans have been progressively disengaged
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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)
O regime internacional de mudanças climáticas é um dos mais complexos regimes ambientais, por tratar simultaneamente de questões políticas, econômicas, energéticas, de desenvolvimento e ambientais. Tal regime começou a ser formado com a assinatura da Convenção-Quadro das Nações Unidas sobre Mudanças Climáticas, em 1994, e adquiriu importância com a elaboração de diversos documentos para lhe conferir maior eficácia, como o Mandato de Berlim, o Protocolo de Kyoto e os Acordos de Marraqueche. Durante o processo negociador desse regime, várias coalizões de países com interesses diversos se formaram, e dentre estas coalizões, o Grupo dos 77/China. Neste processo, alguns países adquiriram maior proeminência nas negociações, contribuindo de forma substancial para a conformação do regime do clima. Um desses países é o Brasil, um país emergente com características muito particulares e que exerce um papel importante nas negociações ambientais internacionais, e que foi o objeto de análise desta dissertação. A hipótese desta pesquisa é que o Brasil possui certas particularidades, como a maior parte da floresta amazônica e sua matriz energética majoritariamente limpa, e estas ajudaram a definir grande parte da posição assumida pelo país nas negociações do regime internacional de mudanças climáticas. Para provar isso, estudamos e analisamos a posição defendida pelo Brasil nos dois principais tópicos de negociação para os países em desenvolvimento no Protocolo de Kyoto: o Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo (MDL) e os compromissos de redução das emissões de gases de efeito estufa, durante o período de 1995 a 2004. A metodologia utilizada para testar essa hipótese foi uma revisão bibliográfica de artigos e livros, bem como a análise de documentos oficiais e depoimentos de representantes das delegações brasileiras...
International regime of climate change is one of the most complex environmental regimes because it simultaneously addresses political, economic, energetic, environmental and development issues. This regime was launched with the signature of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1994. The impact of the international regime of climate change was increased through the elaboration of several documents intended to make the regime more efficient, such as the Berlin Mandate, the Kyoto Protocol and the Marrakech Accords. Throughout the negotiation process (of the regime or the mandate/protocol/accords), many coalitions of countries with different interests were formed, such as the G77/China. Within this coalition, some countries play a prominent role in the negotiations, contributing substantially to the current climate regime configuration. Brazil is one of these countries and, therefore, it is the subject of this dissertation. The hypothesis of this thesis is that certain particular characteristics of the country, especially the Brazilian Amazon rainforest and its renewable energy resources, greatly affect the country’s position on climate change negotiations. In order to prove this hypothesis, we will analyze Brazil’s position regarding two specific topics of the Kyoto Protocol: Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and the greenhouse gases emission reduction commitments to developing countries, during the period from 1995 to 2004. The methodology used to conduct this analysis included the bibliographical review of articles and books, and the study of official documents and reports from the Brazilian delegates present at the aforementioned meetings. Finally, we will analyze the way that Brazil’s particular characteristics influence the country’s position on these main two topics and contributed to the current configuration of the... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)

In 1997 industrialized nations, the Third Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, met in Kyoto, Japan to sign a treaty (the “Kyoto Protocol”) in terms of which industrialized nations would be required to reduce their greenhouse gas emission by at least five percent below 1990 levels by the end of the “first commitment period” 2008-2012. South Africa is not regarded as an industrialized nation, but nonetheless acceded to the Kyoto Protocol in 2002. The literature reviewed in the present research reveals that, although idealistic, the Kyoto Protocol has been problematic. Fourteen meetings of the Conference of Parties to the Kyoto Protocol between 1997 and 2011 have achieved little more than to repeatedly defer and redefine Kyoto obligations. This research was undertaken to document the existing environmental taxation policies employed in selected international jurisdictions with a view to providing a framework for environmental tax policy formation in South Africa to assist this country in meeting its “greenhouse gas” emission targets, while at the same time promoting economic growth. A doctrinal research methodology was adopted in this study as it mainly analysed and interpreted legislation and policy documents and therefore the approach was qualitative in nature. An extensive literature survey was performed to document the various environmental policies that have been legislated in the selected jurisdictions. Comparisons were drawn with proposed tax policy measures for South Africa. The literature indicates that in the selected international jurisdictions carbon taxes achieved less-than-optimal results, largely due to political and industry-competitive agendas. With South Africa planning to introduce a carbon tax, it is submitted that the implementation of a carbon tax regime in isolation will be counter-productive, given South Africa’s economic profile. On the basis of the literature reviewed, it was concluded that South Africa should consider “recycling” carbon tax revenues within the economy to fund a broad-based tax incentive regime that will stimulate the change to non-carbon energy whilst promoting growth through sustainable development

Orientador: Enrique Amayo Zevallos
Banca: Shiguenoli Miyamoto
Banca: Wagner Costa Ribeiro
O Programa de Pós-Graduação em Relações Internacionais é instituído em parceria com UNESP/UNICAMP/PUC-SP, em projeto subsidiado pela CAPES, intitulado "Programa San Tiago Dantas"
Resumo: O regime internacional de mudanças climáticas é um dos mais complexos regimes ambientais, por tratar simultaneamente de questões políticas, econômicas, energéticas, de desenvolvimento e ambientais. Tal regime começou a ser formado com a assinatura da Convenção-Quadro das Nações Unidas sobre Mudanças Climáticas, em 1994, e adquiriu importância com a elaboração de diversos documentos para lhe conferir maior eficácia, como o Mandato de Berlim, o Protocolo de Kyoto e os Acordos de Marraqueche. Durante o processo negociador desse regime, várias coalizões de países com interesses diversos se formaram, e dentre estas coalizões, o Grupo dos 77/China. Neste processo, alguns países adquiriram maior proeminência nas negociações, contribuindo de forma substancial para a conformação do regime do clima. Um desses países é o Brasil, um país emergente com características muito particulares e que exerce um papel importante nas negociações ambientais internacionais, e que foi o objeto de análise desta dissertação. A hipótese desta pesquisa é que o Brasil possui certas particularidades, como a maior parte da floresta amazônica e sua matriz energética majoritariamente limpa, e estas ajudaram a definir grande parte da posição assumida pelo país nas negociações do regime internacional de mudanças climáticas. Para provar isso, estudamos e analisamos a posição defendida pelo Brasil nos dois principais tópicos de negociação para os países em desenvolvimento no Protocolo de Kyoto: o Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo (MDL) e os compromissos de redução das emissões de gases de efeito estufa, durante o período de 1995 a 2004. A metodologia utilizada para testar essa hipótese foi uma revisão bibliográfica de artigos e livros, bem como a análise de documentos oficiais e depoimentos de representantes das delegações brasileiras... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo)
Abstract: International regime of climate change is one of the most complex environmental regimes because it simultaneously addresses political, economic, energetic, environmental and development issues. This regime was launched with the signature of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1994. The impact of the international regime of climate change was increased through the elaboration of several documents intended to make the regime more efficient, such as the Berlin Mandate, the Kyoto Protocol and the Marrakech Accords. Throughout the negotiation process (of the regime or the mandate/protocol/accords), many coalitions of countries with different interests were formed, such as the G77/China. Within this coalition, some countries play a prominent role in the negotiations, contributing substantially to the current climate regime configuration. Brazil is one of these countries and, therefore, it is the subject of this dissertation. The hypothesis of this thesis is that certain particular characteristics of the country, especially the Brazilian Amazon rainforest and its renewable energy resources, greatly affect the country's position on climate change negotiations. In order to prove this hypothesis, we will analyze Brazil's position regarding two specific topics of the Kyoto Protocol: Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and the greenhouse gases emission reduction commitments to developing countries, during the period from 1995 to 2004. The methodology used to conduct this analysis included the bibliographical review of articles and books, and the study of official documents and reports from the Brazilian delegates present at the aforementioned meetings. Finally, we will analyze the way that Brazil's particular characteristics influence the country's position on these main two topics and contributed to the current configuration of the... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)
Mestre

Du Protocole de Kyoto est née une série d’objectifs de réduction des émissions de GES. Le respect de ces objectifs peut entraîner des coûts très lourds pour les économies des pays développés engagés dans la lutte contre les changements climatiques. Pour minimiser les coûts imposés par ces objectifs, des instruments économiques ont été développés, avec notamment la création de marchés du carbone. Y participent les trois mécanismes de flexibilité du Protocole de Kyoto parmi lesquels figure le Mécanisme pour un Développement Propre (MDP).

Parmi les problèmes posés par ce mécanisme de compensation, il y a des disparités observées dans la répartition géographique de sa mise en œuvre, alors qu’il est censé contribuer au développement de nombreux pays non-Annexe I. Parmi ceux-ci, les Pays les Moins Avancés (PMA) en général et ceux d’Afrique en particulier restent largement sous-représentés. Pourtant, le MDP a été adopté à la fois comme une contribution innovatrice à l’atténuation des changements climatiques et comme un moteur de promotion du développement durable dans les pays en développement.

Dans ce contexte, l’objectif général de cette thèse est triple. Primo, elle vise à étudier en profondeur cet instrument en dégageant ses principales caractéristiques, y compris les disparités d’implantation d’activités de projets qui lui sont liées. Secundo, elle en examine les causes par une analyse des barrières ou freins à la mise en œuvre d’activités de projets du MDP dans ces PMA d’Afrique en général et au Burundi en particulier. Tertio, elle révèle les opportunités (avantages/bénéfices) potentielles qui restent toujours non valorisées par l’implémentation d’activités de projets éligibles au titre du MDP.

L’analyse menée montre que les disparités susmentionnées jouent essentiellement en faveur des grands pays émergents d’Asie et d’Amérique latine, ce qui va à l’encontre du principe d’équité. En effet, en décembre 2011, le Brésil, la Chine et l’Inde détenaient 72,7 % de toutes les activités de projets du MDP et 75,8 % de crédits-carbone attendus en 2012. A l’opposé, les PMA ne disposaient dans le même temps que de 1,3 % de toutes les activités de projets du MDP et 1,2 % de leurs crédits attendus d’ici 2012. Les PMA d’Afrique ne restent qu’avec des parts de l’ordre de 0,8 % et 0,9 % respectivement. Cette situation reste si drastiquement critique qu’il importe d’en déceler les raisons.

Des caractéristiques de l’instrument, des expériences menées jusqu’ici et de la situation dans des pays hôtes, il ressort que les barrières sont de deux types. D’une part, les barrières endogènes, c'est-à-dire les barrières liées à l’organisation interne des pays. D’autre part, les barrières exogènes qui sont liées essentiellement à l’organisation générale du processus du MDP. L’étude a permis ainsi de montrer que les barrières endogènes constituent le nœud du problème en termes de visibilité des pays hôtes dans le marché du MDP. Celle-ci reste largement limitée dans ce marché international du carbone.

Les barrières identifiées dans ce travail, en particulier les barrières endogènes, risquent de se révéler difficiles à lever, car elles exigent des réformes structurelles au sein de l’organisation politique, institutionnelle, économique, et juridique du pays hôte. En outre, l’intégration de ces barrières dans un système unique d’interrelations constitue un des points originaux du travail. Ces interrelations ne sont pas négligeables et complexifient l’application du mécanisme, car, dans la plupart des cas, une action amorcée pour lever une barrière peut s’avérer inefficace si d’autres barrières associées ne sont pas prises en compte.

L’étude s’est également attachée à évaluer les retombées potentielles liées à la mise en œuvre d’activités de projets du MDP au Burundi. Les principales opportunités perdues jusqu’ici se situent dans quelques secteurs socioéconomiques du pays, essentiellement dans la gestion des déchets et l’énergie. L’étude en a ainsi retenu des options technologiques susceptibles de contribuer à des solutions à la problématique de la gestion des déchets et de l’approvisionnement énergétique au Burundi, tout en favorisant la stabilisation d’émissions de GES. Il s’agit de technologies adaptées de compostage et de bio-méthanisation dans le secteur de la gestion des déchets et les technologies de production d’énergies à partir de sources renouvelables (hydro, solaire, biogaz) et d’amélioration de l’efficacité énergétique de la biomasse (foyers améliorés, carbonisation) dans le secteur de l’énergie.

Ces opportunités ont également été analysées suivant des critères et indicateurs de durabilité (matrice de développement durable du Gold Standard). Les résultats montrent que ces options technologiques peuvent apporter une contribution au développement durable du pays. En effet, les opportunités se rencontrent à la fois dans le développement social (création d’emplois, moyens de subsistance des pauvres, accès aux énergies propres, renforcement des capacités), le développement écologique (réduction des émissions de GES, amélioration de la qualité de l’air, de l’eau et du sol, sauvegarde de la biodiversité), et le développement économique et technologique (rémunération d’emplois créés, augmentation des investissements, transfert et autonomie technologiques).

Afin de faire bénéficier le pays des retombées des activités de projets du MDP, il est proposé des solutions qui peuvent contribuer à une levée/atténuation de ces barrières. Ces propositions forment une combinaison d’actions à mener au niveau international, régional et surtout local/national. Au niveau international, des organes habilités devraient apporter des réformes profondes au MDP. Au niveau régional, le renforcement des capacités par des actions de coopération pourrait favoriser l’échange d’expériences en la matière. Au niveau local/national, l’adoption des réformes profondes aux niveaux institutionnel, législatif et juridique, dans une logique d’améliorer les politiques de planification du développement socioéconomique et environnemental, rendrait le pays naturellement plus attractif. En particulier, la mise en place et la mise en œuvre d’une stratégie nationale du MDP pourrait contribuer à relever le défi.

Les propositions de solutions pour réduire les barrières à la mise en œuvre d’activités de projets du MDP sont susceptibles de stimuler l’investissement en général. Ainsi, toute stratégie adoptée dans cette logique peut contribuer non seulement à la participation du pays au processus du MDP, mais aussi à favoriser la mise en œuvre d’autres projets conventionnels de développement au niveau national. Finalement, la considération de ces différentes opportunités associées à la mise en œuvre d’activités de projets du MDP au niveau du pays par des instances habilitées (décideurs politiques, acteurs institutionnels et économiques) conduirait à faire de ce mécanisme une contribution utile au développement du pays/The Kyoto Protocol has established a series of targets for reducing GHG emissions. The fulfilment of these objectives may result in heavy costs for the economies of developed countries engaged in the fight against climate change. To minimize the costs imposed by these targets, economic instruments were developed, notably with the creation of carbon markets. The three flexible mechanisms of Kyoto Protocol are involved in this, one of which being the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).

Among the problems posed by this offset mechanism, disparities can be observed in regional distribution after it has been implemented, when it ought to be contributing towards the development of a number of Non-Annex I countries. Among these countries, the least developed ones (LDCs) in general and Africa ones in particular are largely under-represented. However, the CDM was adopted both as an innovative solution to mitigate climate change and as an engine to promote sustainable development in developing countries.

Within this context, the overall objective of this thesis is threefold. First of all, it aims to study this instrument in depth, by picking out its main characteristics, including the disparities in project activities implementation related to it. Secondly, it examines the causes for these disparities by analyzing the barriers or restrictions preventing implementation of CDM project activities in these African LDCs in general and in Burundi in particular. Its third purpose is to reveal the potential opportunities (advantages/benefits) which have yet to be developed by setting up eligible CDM project activities.

The analysis carried out shows that the aforementioned disparities come out in favor of the large emerging countries in Asia and Latin America primarily, which goes against the principle of equity. In fact, in December 2011, Brazil, China and India held 72.7% of all CDM project activities and 75.8% of carbon emission credits expected in 2012. On the contrary, for the same time period, the LDCs had only 1.3% of all CDM project activities and 1.2% of their carbon emission credits expected up until 2012. The African LDCs are left only with shares of 0.8% and 0.9% respectively. This situation is extremely critical. It is crucial to discover the reasons for it.

The instrument’s features, experiments carried out so far and the situation in host countries all reveal that the barriers fall into two categories. On the one hand, there are endogenous barriers, i.e. barriers related to the internal organization of countries. On the other hand, exogenous barriers are related to the general running of the CDM process especially. The study has thus revealed that the endogenous barriers are the crux of the problem where the presence of host countries is concerned in the CDM market. The visibility of host countries is rather limited in this international carbon market.

The barriers identified in this thesis, particularly endogenous ones, may be difficult to remove because they demand structural reforms in the political, institutional, economical and legal organization of the host country. In addition, the integration of these barriers into a single system of interrelationships is one of the original points of this thesis. These interrelationships are not insignificant and complicate the mechanism’s application, because in most cases, initiating an action to remove a barrier may be ineffective if other associated barriers are not taken into account.

The study has also focused on evaluating the potential impacts linked to the implementation of CDM project activities in Burundi. The main opportunities lost up to date are in some socioeconomic sectors in the country, particularly in the waste management and energy sectors. The study has therefore identified technological options that are likely to bring solutions to the question of waste management and energy supply in Burundi, while at the same time contributing to the stabilization of greenhouse gas emissions. These options are notably composting and anaerobic digestion technologies in the area of waste management, and energy generation technologies from renewable sources (hydro, solar, biogas) and improved energy efficiency of biomass (better households, carbonization) in the energy sector.

These opportunities were also analyzed in accordance with sustainability criteria and indicators (Gold Standard sustainable development matrix). The results show that these technological options may contribute to sustainable development in the country. Indeed, the opportunities can be seen at the same time in social development (job creation, means of subsistence for the poor, clean energy access, capacity building); ecological development (reducing GHG emissions, improvement in quality of air, water and soil, preservation of biodiversity) and economic & technological development (better pay for jobs created, increased investment, technology transfer and technological autonomy).

In order to allow the country to take advantage of these opportunities through CDM project activities, it has been proposed solutions that can help raise/mitigate these barriers. These proposals are a combination of actions to be taken at international and regional levels and above all at a local/ national level. In the international arena, authorized bodies should make major reforms to the CDM. At a regional level, capacity building through joint actions could encourage the exchange of expertise in the field. Locally/nationally, adopting major reforms at institutional, legislative and legal levels, with a view to improving planning policies in socioeconomic and environmental development, would make the country naturally more attractive. In particular, establishing and implementing a national CDM strategy could also contribute towards taking up the challenge.

Proposals of solutions for mitigating barriers to implement CDM project activities are likely to stimulate investment in general. Thus, any strategy adopted along these lines can contribute not only to the country’s participation in the CDM process, but also to favoring implementation of other conventional projects for development at national level. Finally, considering these different opportunities associated with implementing CDM project activities in the country via authorized bodies (policymakers, institutional and economic actors) would lead to this mechanism being a useful contribution towards national development.

Doctorat en Sciences
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

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This study analyzes the role of Law in fostering environmental public policies considering the climate change issue. First, we present basic notions on global warming, the greenhouse effect, etc., as well as the evolution of the concern with climate changes. We studied the first UN Environment Conference, carried out in 1972, and the Conference in 1992, in Rio de Janeiro, where the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change was approved, which objective is to reduce the levels of concentration of greenhouse gases. However, the most discussed interna-tional diploma when climate change is concerned is the Kyoto Protocol, an exten-sion unfolding of the Fourth Convention, which provides the instruments neces-sary to achieve its objectives. Thus, we present herein the main objectives and me-chanisms proposed by the Kyoto Protocol. Of the mechanisms created by the Pro-tocol, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is of interest to Brazil. We focus on CDM projects involving forestation and reforestation, which provide economic return to owners of forest areas through the sale of carbon credits . Realizing that exclusively protective-repressive environmental rules do not always assure effec-tive respect to the environment, we propose that Law more actively embraces its promotion aspect, fostering desirable environmental actions and behaviors, through positive sanctions or the use of the protector-receiver principle, through the system of paymento for environmental services. We present experiences of this kind car-ried out in countries such as Costa Rica, Mexico and the United States. In order to confront the theory and the practice of CDM projects in reforestation, involving car-bon credits and payment for environmental services, we present the remarks from an internship at a consulting company, Plant Inteligência Ambiental, where we took part on a project developed by the private initiative: the Programa Água das Flores-tas Tropicais [the Brazilian Rainforest Water Program], of the Coca Cola Brazil in-stitute. Finally, the goal of this study is to demonstrate the feasibility of environmen-tal policies that combine forest preservation/conservation and economic return to the protectors of the environment
O trabalho analisa o papel do Direito como incentivador de políticas públi-cas ambientais em face da questão das mudanças climáticas. Apresentamos, ini-cialmente, noções básicas sobre aquecimento global, efeito estufa etc., bem como o cenário evolutivo da preocupação com as mudanças climáticas. Estudamos a Primeira Conferência das Nações Unidas sobre Meio Ambiente, realizada em 1972, e a Conferência de 1992, sediada no Rio de Janeiro, em que se aprovou a Convenção-Quadro sobre Mudança do Clima, cujo objetivo principal é a redução dos níveis de concentração dos gases de efeito estufa. Contudo, o diploma inter-nacional mais discutido, em termos de mudança do clima, é o Protocolo de Quioto, um desdobramento da Convenção-Quadro, que traz os instrumentos necessários para a consecução de seus objetivos. Assim, apresentamos os principais objetivos e mecanismos resultantes do Protocolo de Quioto, dentre os quais interessa ao Brasil o Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo (MDL). Nosso enfoque são os pro-jetos de MDL envolvendo florestamento e reflorestamento, que proporcionam re-torno econômico para os proprietários das áreas florestais mediante a venda de créditos de carbono . Após constatar que as normas ambientais de cunho exclusi-vamente protetivo-repressivo nem sempre garantem o efetivo respeito ao meio ambiente, propomos que o Direito assuma de modo mais ativo sua função promo-cional, incentivando comportamentos e ações ambientalmente desejáveis por meio das sanções positivas e da utilização do princípio do protetor-recebedor, via siste-ma de pagamento por serviços ambientais. Apresentamos experiências nesse sen-tido desenvolvidas em países como Costa Rica, México e Estados Unidos. Para confrontar a teoria e a prática dos projetos de MDL em reflorestamento, envolven-do créditos de carbono e pagamento por serviços ambientais, apresentamos as observações advindas de estágio realizado em uma empresa de consultoria, a Plant Inteligência Ambiental, na qual participamos de um projeto desenvolvido pela iniciativa privada o Programa Água das Florestas Tropicais, do Instituto Coca-Cola Brasil. O trabalho objetiva, por fim, demonstrar a viabilidade de políticas am-bientais que conjuguem preservação/conservação florestal e retorno econômico para os protetores do meio ambiente

Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol embodies the ground-breaking international emissions trading mechanism. The United Kingdom's greenhouse gas emission trading system is the world's first national scheme. Yet few studies of UK climate policy literature by examining the transfer of emissions trading from the Kyoto Protocol in the development of UK emissions trading during the period 1997-1999.The thesis enhances the significance of policy transfer by highlighting a relationship between transfer and regime implementation~ 1he former can aid the latter, for a regime's norms can be implemented at the. national level via transfer and in this way they become effective. The thesis challenges the traditional view that an international regime must be coercive, ratified ~nd endowed with a compliance mechanism in order for states to implement its provisions. The Kyoto Protocol does not oblige states to implement emissions trading schemes and, during the period 1997-1999, it had not entered into force and the details of its compliance mechanism were unknown, but yet the treaty's trading instrument was having an impact on UK climqte policy. The thesis examines the agenda-setting, formulation and decision stages of UK climate policy-making in order to illustrate how and why emissions trading was transferred from the Kyoto Protocol. The thesis argues that ArtiCle 17 generated international pressures (in the form of 'consensus' and 'image') for states to gain experience of trading, which created a perception in the UK that it was necessary to have a domestic scheme and led to the transfer of the trading instrument.

The growth of the world economy, rapid population growth and urbanization increased the demand for energy. Nowadays, a large part of the growing demand for energy provided by fossil fuels, carbon dioxide and greenhouse gas emissions resulting from the burning of these fuels leading to climate change and global warming. Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in 1994 to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol entered into force in 2005. The Kyoto Protocol, emission volume of the three market-based flexibility mechanisms have to be considered. One of these mechanisms is emissions trading. This study will focus on emissions trading systems and carbon markets. All over the world in recent years, based on the spot and futures contracts are traded on the carbon. In this direction of the world's carbon stocks and its activities will be discussed. Also in 2008, in the aftermath of the global crisis and European Debt Crisis its effects on carbon markets will be investigated.

Although environmental deterioration is a main result of the process of economic growth, global warming and climate change has been threating the quality of human life. Though Central Asian countries (Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Georgia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Armenia) signed to Kyoto protocol to decrease CO2 emission levels, these countries still have environmental pollution concerns. This paper examines relationships between CO2 emissions, economic and financial development and fossil fuel energy consumption for a panel of Central Asian countries over the period 1992-2013. The findings of this study show that an inverted U shape environmental Kuznets curve for Central Asia. Moreover, energy consumption and urbanization are found to have positive effects on CO2 emissions. However, analysis suggests that financial development and trade openness are essential factors for the reduction of CO2 emissions.

Abstract The five-year long United Nations campaign for the reduction of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere culminated in the Kyoto protocol of 1997. Since this Kyoto conference attended by nearly 160 nations, sequestration of carbon dioxide from industrial flue gases and its storage and/or utilization have been receiving significantly enhanced attention. According to the US Department of Energy, very little research and development has been done in the United States on promising options that might address CO2 capture, reuse and storage technologies. An exception to this is the utilization of CO2 for enhanced oil recovery. Over a decade of industrial experience has accumulated at more than 70 enhanced oil recovery sites around the world where CO2 is injected to improve oil recovery from waterflooded reservoirs. The accumulated experience in the US, where about 32 million tons of CO2 per year are being utilized in EOR, has amply demonstrated that the retention of CO2 in the reservoir is very high when the original pressure is not exceeded. Thus, CO2 injected enhanced oil recovery presents itself as a mature field-tested technology for sequestering CO2 at a low net cost due to the revenues from recovered oil and gas. Much of the CO2-EOR experience to date in the US involves the use of high-purity carbon dioxide for conducting miscible floods in conventional crude oil reservoirs. Due to the high costs associated with supplying high-purity CO2 to the reservoir, this process has seen limited commercial success. However, the past research at LSU and elsewhere has amply demonstrated that impure CO2 was also effective in enhancing oil recoveries. This makes the abundant supply of flue gases from fossil-fuel combustion operations a viable and cost-effective option without the need for separating CO2 from the flue gas mixtures. This paper attempts to review and synthesize the literature dealing with geologic sequestration of CO2 in EOR projects. The available data are analyzed both from EOR and CO2 sequestration points of view.

CO2 emission from fossil fuel fired power plants contributed 30% of global emissions in 1990. In the same year, the cement industry contributed about 5% of the total. According to Kyoto Protocol, a tremendous effort is required to reduce the carbon dioxide emission. One potential technology in CO2 mitigation responses is the use of concrete products as carbon sink through the early age fast curing. The cement compounds C3S and C2S are instantaneously carbonized into calcium carbonate and silica gel, once cement is mixed with water and exposed to the carbon dioxide gas. The objective of this work is to evaluate the effect of adding carbon nanotubes in cement paste matrix on the capacity as CO2 sink. Adiabatic temperature was determined for different carbon nanotubos content on the cement paste. The microstructure was studied by scanning electronic microscopy. The calcium carbonate and calcium hydroxide content were determined by a thermogravimetric analysis. The storage modulus was measured for the specimens of cement paste before and after the immersion in CO2. Carbon nanotubes act as nuclear agent of the calcium carbonate and increase the maximum temperature and decrease the time of hydration. The incorporation of carbon nanotubes to Portland cement paste could modify the transport properties of the matrix. In fact, it was shown that interfacial interactions between the hydration products and multi-walled carbon nanotubes occur; and it was observed the insertion of multi-walled carbon nanotubes between the hydration products.

The connection of a new pipeline lateral or loop to an existing high pressure pipeline system has always been fraught with high costs and the potential for major system impacts. Pipeline owners and operators have historically had to choose between a traditional cold connection with its high associated costs and a less expensive but more mysterious hot tap. Although the cost savings of a hot tap have always been considerable, they were not always sufficient to justify the risk of complications during the branch weld or hot tap or during the subsequent operation of the system. Despite their extraordinary costs and throughput impacts, the perceived certainties of cold connections were often sufficient to justify their regular use. The recent Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change has resulted in new commitments by the world’s governments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. For the North American gas industry, these initiatives could result in voluntary compliance objectives, incentive based programs or legislated reforms — any of which will have significant impacts on current practices. TransCanada PipeLines Limited (TransCanada) has successfully managed the risk/reward conundrum and completed more than 700 large diameter (NPS 12 to NPS 30) horizontal high pressure hot taps without incident since 1960. TCPL’s research and development work has enabled it to refine its procedures to the point where it can now complete branch welding and hot tapping work with minimal effects on throughput, negligible emissions and no system integrity impacts. For TransCanada, the direct advantages of a hot tap over a cold connection have resulted in the avoidance of gross revenue losses of $1 million or more per hot tap, no environmental emissions, seamless service and no impacts whatsoever to shippers. TransCanada PipeLines Services Ltd. (TPSL) has further streamlined the supporting field procedures and now provides a complete turn key service to industry.

Since the Kyoto Protocol in Japan in 1997, countries have been on a drive to reduce their carbon emissions but recently this drive has been given a new thrust. Security of energy supplies is now a high priority and one of the possible methods is by harnessing offshore renewable energy. It is proposed, that the use of a hybrid or a combination of two sources of renewable energy that utilizes a single floating structure can effectively reduce the cost of delivering renewable energy. Cost reduction is of key importance, however, it will not be the focus of this paper as it is a well proven concept. However, the motion characteristics of such a novel structure as the one that is presented here has never been fully examined and the literature is very limited on the subject. A scaled model of a conceptual structure was fabricated and subjected to regular waves for a range of wave heights and periods. The effect of wave-current interaction was noted and mooring line forces were measured. Conventional hydrodynamic analysis and rules used in ship structures and semi-submersible design were merged into one cohesive analysis and a comparison was made with the experimental results. There are two operational states that are mentioned, the ‘hybrid mode’ i.e. acting as a barge and a semisubmersible by virtue of the volume of the structure below the Mean Water Level (MWL). The second state is the ‘semisubmersible mode’, which has the pontoon and 75% column of the structure only below the MWL.