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1
Breidenich, Clare, Daniel Magraw, Anne Rowley, and James W. Rubin. "The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change." American Journal of International Law 92, no. 2 (April 1998): 315–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2998044.
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In December 1997, in Kyoto, Japan, over 160 parties to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC or Convention) adopted the Kyoto Protocol, which, for the first time, establishes legally binding limits for industrialized countries on emissions of carbon dioxide and other “greenhouse gases.” The Kyoto Protocol (the Protocol) is quite complex, reflecting the complicated political, economic, scientific and legal issues raised by human-induced climate change. The result of more than two years of preparatory discussions and eleven days of often-intense negotiations in Kyoto, the Protocol will be opened for signature in March 1998 for one year, although countries may accede to it after that period. It will enter into force ninety days after at least fifty-five parties to the FCCC, encompassing FCCC Annex I parties that accounted in total for at least 55 percent of the total emissions for 1990 of carbon dioxide (CO2) of Annex I parties, have ratified, accepted, approved or acceded to the Protocol.
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Grunewald, Nicole, and Inmaculada Martinez-Zarzoso. "Did the Kyoto Protocol fail? An evaluation of the effect of the Kyoto Protocol on CO2emissions." Environment and Development Economics 21, no. 1 (March 16, 2015): 1–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1355770x15000091.
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AbstractIn this paper, we empirically investigate the impact of the Kyoto Protocol on CO2emissions using a sample of 170 countries over the period 1992–2009. We propose the use of a difference-in-differences estimator with matching to address the endogeneity of the policy variable, namely Kyoto commitments. Countries are matched according to observable characteristics to create a suitable counterfactual. We correspondingly estimate a panel data model for the whole sample and the matched sample and compare the results to those obtained using an instrumental variable approach. The main results indicate that Kyoto Protocol commitments have a measurable reducing effect on CO2emissions, indicating that a treaty often deemed a ‘failure’ may in fact be producing some non-negligible effects for those who signed it.
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French, D. "1997 KYOTO PROTOCOL TO THE 1992 UN FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE." Journal of Environmental Law 10, no. 2 (January 1, 1998): 227–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jel/10.2.227.
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Tsai, Wen-Hsien. "Carbon Emission Reduction—Carbon Tax, Carbon Trading, and Carbon Offset." Energies 13, no. 22 (November 23, 2020): 6128. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13226128.
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The Paris Agreement was signed by 195 nations in December 2015 to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change following the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) and the 1997 Kyoto Protocol [...]
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Sarvašová, Z., and A. Kaliszewski. "The policy process on climate change." Journal of Forest Science 51, No. 3 (January 10, 2012): 108–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/4549-jfs.
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The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change accepted in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro provides principles and framework for cooperative international action on mitigating climate change. But it soon became clear that more radical targets were needed to encourage particular countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In response, countries that have ratified the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change accepted the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. The rulebook for how the Kyoto Protocol will be implemented – the Marrakech Accord, was agreed in 2001. This paper describes political instruments and facilities of mitigating climate change by forestry proposed in those political documents.
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Brauch, Hans Guenter. "Climate paradox of the G-8: legal obligations, policy declarations and implementation gap." Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional 55, spe (2012): 30–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0034-73292012000300003.
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This article analyzes the climate policy performance of the G-8 from 1992 to 2012 based on their legal commitments (Annex-1 and Annex-B countries) under the UNFCCC (1992) and the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and their policy declarations on their GHG reduction goals until 2050. A climate paradox has emerged due to a growing implementation gap in Canada, USA and Japan, while Russia, Germany, UK, France and Italy fulfilled their GHG reduction obligation.
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Rajamani, Lavanya. "THE DURBAN PLATFORM FOR ENHANCED ACTION AND THE FUTURE OF THE CLIMATE REGIME." International and Comparative Law Quarterly 61, no. 2 (April 2012): 501–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020589312000085.
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The Durban Climate Conference,1 marked by tension, high drama and sleepless nights, agreed on a set of historic decisions under the climate regime 36 hours after the scheduled end of the conference. The climate regime—comprising the 1992 Framework Convention on Climate Change2 and its 1997 Kyoto Protocol,3 and decisions taken by Parties under these instruments—has been plagued in the last few years, in particular after the debacle at Copenhagen,4 by doubt and uncertainty. Doubt over its ability to meet climate goals, and uncertainty over its future, in particular that of the Kyoto Protocol. At Durban, Parties strengthened the climate regime with decisions to implement the 2010 Cancun Agreements,5 extend the beleaguered Kyoto Protocol, for a second commitment period,6 and launch a new process to negotiate a post-2020 climate regime.7 This new process, christened the Ad-Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action, is intended to craft the agreement that will govern, regulate and incentivize the next generation of climate actions.
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Beresford, R., and S. Waller. "THE KYOTO PROTOCOL- THREATS AND OPPORTUNITIES." APPEA Journal 40, no. 1 (2000): 643. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/aj99044.
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In 1997, Australia signed the Kyoto Protocol under which it had been assigned what will become a legally binding emissions cap of 108% of its 1990 emissions. This target may be appropriate for our national circumstances but will be challenging to meet. This paper examines the way Woodside Energy Ltd is addressing the threats and opportunities raised by the Kyoto Protocol.The major risk to Woodside's business arises from the division of the Protocol into Annex B and non-Annex B. Australia is in Annex B, which is composed primarily of developed countries that have assigned emission amounts that will be legally binding when the protocol comes into force and is ratified.Meeting the Australian target and the global greenhouse emission reduction objective will require increasing the substitution of gas into national fuel mixes. Natural gas, including LNG, has the lowest lifecycle emissions of any fossil fuel.The Australian LNG industry is the only major Annex B supplier of LNG to Japan and thus would be at a severe competitive disadvantage if the costs of unilaterally imposed abatement policies and measures were applied to the industry in Australia that were not applied to its international competitors. The LNG industry is seeking differential treatment to alleviate this risk. Woodside has proposed a solution, put forward in this paper, that a scheme be negotiated into the Protocol at CoP6, allowing for the repatriation of credits from the LNG fuel cycle to the exporting country. This would permit fair competition across all LNG exporters.Woodside is keen to undertake its fair share of emission reduction and has already implemented some projects that have been successful in this regard. Further implementation of beyond no regrets projects relies on the Commonwealth resolving the recognition for early action question. A trial framework for making decisions on early abatement projects is described.Woodside is also investigating potential opportunities arising from the Protocol. Progress is reported on early investigation into clean development mechanism (CDM) projects and greenhouse abatement research and development (R&D). Sink enhancement studies are nearly complete and a detailed business case is under preparation.
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NEWCOMB, TIM. "The case for long-term studies of greenhouse gas emissions." Environmental Conservation 26, no. 3 (September 1999): 166–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0376892999000247.
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Many nations have recognized the need to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). The scientific assessments of climate change of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) support the need to reduce GHG emissions. The 1997 Kyoto Protocol to the 1992 Convention on Climate Change (UNTS 30822) has now been signed by more than 65 countries, although that Protocol has not yet entered into force. Some 14 of the industrialized countries listed in the Protocol face reductions in carbon dioxide emissions of more than 10% compared to projected 1997 carbon dioxide emissions (Najam & Page 1998).
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Saura Estapà, Jaume. "Flexibility Mechanisms in the Kyoto Protocol: Constitutive Elements and Challenges Ahead." Revue générale de droit 34, no. 1 (November 7, 2014): 107–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/1027236ar.
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Climate change has become in the past decades one of the major global problems that humanity must face. In order to try to stop it, and eventually reverse it, the international community has adopted the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992) and the Kyoto Protocol (1997, not yet in force). The Protocol sets quantified commitments for developed countries concerning the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases, but also the possibility to comply with such commitments in a flexible manner, through three instruments: joint implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading. The inclusion of additional instruments addressed to facilitate the curbing of emissions at a low cost, the so-called flexibility mechanisms, was a key element that allowed the final agreement to be reached. The paper describes briefly the main developments of the climate change regime and of each of these mechanisms. It then outlines their common constitutive elements, while underlining the aspects that remain unsolved, especially relating to their supplemental character to domestic action and the fact that any project approved under the JI or the CDM must provide a reduction in emissions that is additional to any that would otherwise occur. Throughout the examination of both the elements and challenges of the three mechanisms, the position and inputs coming from the European Union and its Member States within the climate change regime are also analysed.
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Noguchi, Masa. "Editorial." Open House International 33, no. 3 (September 1, 2008): 6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ohi-03-2008-b0001.
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Homes need to be socially, economically, and environmentally sustainable in response to societal pressure on our common future. The concept of ‘Sustainable Development’ was first advocated by the World Commission on Environment and Development, dated back to 1987, and it was considered as ‘a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet needs and aspirations.’ In 1992, this notion was given additional impetus at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (or the Earth Summit) held in Rio de Janeiro where an initial international treaty on environment was produced; however, this had neither limits on green house gas emissions nor legal enforcement provisions for individual nations. In 1997, the text of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was adopted eventually at the 3rd Conference of the Parties held in Kyoto, Japan. As of April 2008, 178 states signed and ratified the Protocol; in consequence, most industrialized nations and some central European countries agreed to legally binding the reductions of greenhouse gas emissions of an average of 6 to 8% below 1990 levels between the years 2008 and 2012.
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Okonkwo, Theodore. "Reshaping the Global Climate Change Regime through the Paris Agreement." Christ University Law Journal 6, no. 2 (July 1, 2017): 1–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.12728/culj.11.1.
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The Paris Agreement on Climate Change which aimed at halting climate change and limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius, remains the most important piece of international diplomacy in years, since the Kyoto Protocol of 1992 and the Copenhagen Accord (which endorsed the continuation of the Kyoto Protocol) 2009. The signing of the Paris Agreement underlies the fact that climate change remains one of the greatest challenges of our time and calls for a strong political will to urgently combat climate change in accordance with the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities. This article looks at Paris Agreement’s resolve to peak global greenhouse-gas emissions as soon as possible and also undertakes a cursory examination of the global climate regime. The article also examines how the problem of climate change has altered since the 2009 Copenhagen Accord and concludes by emphasizing the need to take the Paris Agreement forward in spirit.
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Romero, José, Richard Volz, Marzio Giamboni, and Willy Rüsch. "Die Rolle der Wälder im Protokoll von Kyoto – Abschätzung ihres Kohlenstoffvorrates gestützt auf Satellitendaten | The role of the forest in the Kyoto Protocol – Estimation of carbon reserve using satellite data." Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen 155, no. 5 (May 1, 2004): 125–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.3188/szf.2004.0125.
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Switzerland became a signatory to the climate convention in 1993 and ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2003. This means that in the period from 2008 to 2012 the country is committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by 8%compared to 1990. Switzerland has to deposit its annual greenhouse gas inventory with the Climate Convention Secretariat. This also includes accounts of the CO2 of the forest. Within the framework of its Data User Programme the European Space Agency (ESA) has offered to test the use of its Remote Collected Data System for forest reporting for the Kyoto Protocol. By participating in this project Switzerland aims to examine in how far it can automate its annual forest CO2 balance using objective data taken directly from the satellite.
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Bozkurt, Cuma, and İlyas Okumuş. "ENVIRONMENTAL KUZNETS CURVE HYPOTHESIS IN SELECTED EU COUNTRIES: KYOTO EFFECT." Balkans Journal of Emerging Trends in Social Sciences 2, no. 2 (2019): 134–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.31410/balkans.jetss.2019.2.2.134-139.
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The purposes of this study is to investigate the relationship between per capita CO2 emissions, per capita energy consumption, per capita real GDP, the squares of per capita real GDP, trade openness and Kyoto dummies in selected 20 EU countries over the periods from 1991 to 2013 in order to analyze the connection between environmental pollution and Kyoto Protocol using Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) framework. According to EKC hypothesis, there is an inverted-U shape relation between environmental pollution and economic growth. Generally, the relationship between environmental pollution, per capita GDP and energy consumption has been analyzed for testing EKC hypothesis. In this study, it is used dummy variable to analyze the effects of Kyoto protocol on environmental degradation in the context of EKC hypothesis model. The dummy variable indicates Kyoto Protocol agreement year 2005. The results show that there is long run cointegration relationship between CO2, energy consumption, GDP growth, and the squares of GDP growth, trade openness and Kyoto dummy variable. Energy consumption and GDP growth increase the level of CO2 emissions. On the contrary, Kyoto dummy variable decreases CO2 emissions in EU countries. In addition, the results reveal that the squares of per capita real GDP and trade openness rate are statistically insignificant. As a result of analysis, the inverted-U shape EKC hypothesis is invalid in these EU countries over the periods from 1991 to 2013.
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Missfeldt, Fanny, and Arturo Villavicenco. "The Economies in Transition as Part of the Climate Regime: Recent Developments." Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 27, no. 3 (June 2000): 379–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/b2659.
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Since the adoption of the Climate Convention in 1992 at the latest, formerly communist countries have been following the climate debate despite serious domestic economic and social problems. Since 1990 the region has contributed the most to curbing the problem of climate change, albeit accidentally, through the sharp decline in their emissions in parallel with the decline in their economies. In this paper we review the role played by the economies in transition in the climate negotiations until early 2000, especially in light of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol to the Climate Convention. We consider emissions trends and the scope for further emissions reductions. Subsequently, the potential benefits of the “Kyoto Mechanisms”, which include emissions trading, joint implementation, and the Clean Development Mechanism, are discussed. We find that the climate policies in Central and Eastern Europe and in the former Soviet Union are drifting further apart. Activities in Central and Eastern Europe are dominated by the EU accession process, while the countries further east continue to grapple with economic crises.
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Kim, Yoomi. "Technological Innovation, the Kyoto Protocol, and Open Innovation." Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity 7, no. 3 (September 8, 2021): 198. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/joitmc7030198.
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This study investigates the role of technological innovation in increasing the effectiveness of the Kyoto Protocol in terms of greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation. Panel data showing the number of patents for climate change mitigation technology as a measure of innovation are obtained from 54 countries for the period 1990–2015 to verify whether technological innovation is effective in reducing GHG emissions and whether it has a significant synergetic relationship with the Kyoto Protocol. The historical trends in the number of patents for climate change mitigation technology reveal a relationship between the Kyoto Protocol and technological innovation and show differences between specific types of mitigation technology. Based on these innovation data, this study conducts two-stage least squares analysis that considers the time-lag effect. The empirical results confirm that mitigation innovations for buildings and the production or processing of goods have a strong positive association with GHG emission reduction. The findings also support the long-term synergetic effect between innovation and participation in the Kyoto Protocol in terms of GHG mitigation. This study contributes to international climate change governance by providing empirical evidence for technological innovation’s role in strengthening the effectiveness of international regimes and implications for promoting open innovation.
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Palinkas, Peter. "The Climate Change Policy: The Position of the European Union." Energy & Environment 9, no. 4 (June 1998): 449–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0958305x9800900409.
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The EU has always tried to play a major role in coordinating the activities of its now 15 Member States in the broad area of climate change policy. This active role of the EU was demonstrated in the first climate protection negotiations (Rio de Janeiro, 1992), the follow-up conferences (Berlin 1995 and Geneva 1996) and finally at the Kyoto-Conference in December 1997. At the Kyoto-Conference the EU negotiators had to abandon their original negotiating position of 15% reduction based on three greenhouse gases. The final Protocol requires a collective EU reduction by 8% based on 6 gases. This modification is, however, closer to the initial EU position than it indicates, since the final commitment based on six gases is roughly equivalent to a 13% reduction based on 3 gases only. Further compromise made by the EU was on the issue of differentiation. Keeping the “EU-bubble” approach, the EU had to accept country-specific reduction targets as initially proposed by the Japanese delegation. The EU also had to agree on including emissions-trading and joint implementation in the Protocol. During the negotiations EU representatives expressed their concern that trading must not become a substitute for any domestic actions. Consequently, in the Protocol any emission trading is declared as supplementary to domestic actions. Despite the number of unavoidable concessions made by the EU negotiators, the European Commission recognized that the Kyoto protocol is an important first step toward reversing the upward trend in the emissions of greenhouse gases. However, the EU Commissioner Ritt Bjerregaard expressed a certain disappointment in not reaching agreement on even more ambitious commitments.
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NAJAM, ADIL, and THOMAS P. PAGE. "The Climate Convention: deciphering the Kyoto commitments." Environmental Conservation 25, no. 3 (June 1998): 187–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s037689299800023x.
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The third meeting of the Conference of Parties (COP-3) of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) concluded with the signing of the Kyoto Protocol (UNFCCC 1997). After much political wrangling and an extended all night negotiation session, delegates agreed to a Protocol that mandates specific emissions limits for industrialized countries and economies in transition (collectively listed as Annex I countries). The Protocol mandates that the average anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent emission of each Annex I country should be no more than its agreed allowance in the ‘first quantified emission limitation commitment period’ which is defined as the five years between the beginning of 2008 and the end of 2012 (UNFCCC 1997, Article 3.7). The base-period for most countries in Annex I is 1990. The exceptions, which were granted during COP-2 (UNFCCC 1996, decision 9/CP.2), are Bulgaria (1989), Hungary (1985-87), Poland (1988) and Romania (1989).
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Fitzmaurice, Malgosia. "Biodiversity and Climate Change." International Community Law Review 23, no. 2-3 (June 29, 2021): 230–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18719732-12341473.
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Abstract This article analyses the question of a relationship between biodiversity and climate change. The legal framework for the protection of biodiversity from climate change is contained in the climate change system of treaties, i.e. the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; the 1997 Kyoto Protocol; the 2015 Paris Agreement, on one hand; and the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity on the other. There are also important global Conventions which contribute to combating of impacts of climate change on biodiversity, such as the Desertification Convention and the Ramsar Convention. The article discusses the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities within the context of climate change and biodiversity. The case study is the Arctic, which illustrates the impact of climate change on biodiversity.
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Thürig, Esther, and Stéphanie Schmid. "Jährliche CO2-Flüsse im Wald: Berechnungsmethode für das Treibhausgasinventar | Annual CO2 fluxes in forests: calculation method for the Greenhouse Gas Inventory." Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen 159, no. 2 (February 1, 2008): 31–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.3188/szf.2008.0031.
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Forests can be carbon sinks as well as carbon sources. In the Kyoto Protocol, forests play a special role. According to Art. 3.4 of the Kyoto Protocol, Switzerland has decided to account for forest management. Since 1990, each participating country must submit the Greenhouse Gas Inventory (GHGI) to the climate convention. These inventories build the basis for the annual estimation of carbon sink and sources under the Kyoto Protocol. This article describes the calculation method of the forest carbon budget in the Swiss GHGI, which is obtained by utilizing the database of the Swiss National Forest Inventory (NFI 1 and 2). Annual CO2-budgets are derived from using the annual wood production, annual climate values, and a climate-sensitive growth model. The large spatial and temporal resolutions of the emission data and factors optimally represent the spatial heterogeneity in Switzerland. The main gaps are in estimating carbon fluxes in dead wood and soil. Moreover, the effect of the annual climate variation on average growth should be investigated in more detail. Once the NFI3 data are available, CO2-budgets will need to be recalculated going as far back as 1995.
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Howden, S. M., and P. J. Reyenga. "Methane emissions from Australian livestock: implications of the Kyoto Protocol." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 50, no. 8 (1999): 1285. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar99002.
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Human activities have increased the atmospheric concentration of methane by about 140% since pre-industrial times. The accumulation of methane and other ‘greenhouse’ gases is anticipated to cause significant climate changes in the future. Ruminant livestock are the largest producers of methane in Australia and this source constitutes about 12% of the national net emissions. Australia is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, which, if it comes into force, requires limiting annual emissions during the period 2008–2012 to 8% over the 1990 value. Australian livestock emissions are projected to increase by 7% by 2010 with total Australian emissions expected to increase by 28–43%. Emissions per unit GDP are higher for the livestock sector than for most other sectors and this may negatively affect the sector if free market emission trading is implemented and no new technologies to reduce emissions cost-effectively are introduced. Using information from the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory, we demonstrate that reductions in emissions per unit product are already occurring in at least one Australian livestock industry and discuss ways to ensure that similar future changes will be recorded. Cautionary notes are made regarding options of grain feeding and more intensive production, which appear to be attractive but may lead to increasing emissions when viewed on a broader basis. The potential for increased animal production with new technologies developed to reduce methane emissions suggests that there may be significant opportunities for the Australian livestock industries arising from the issue of greenhouse gas reductions. Opportunities to establish carbon sinks are also discussed. We suggest that addressing reduction of emissions per hectare rather than per head or per kilo of product results in a strong alignment with the development of more sustainable livestock industries.
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Chasek, Pamela S. "Creating Space for Consensus: High-Level Globe-trotting into the Bali Climate Change Conference." International Negotiation 16, no. 1 (2011): 87–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157180611x553881.
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AbstractThe international community has been trying to find a comprehensive and effective solution to the problem of anthropogenic climate change for well over two decades. The fundamental problem posed by climate change is that any solution, if it is to be effective, requires collectively agreed upon global initiatives. If enough countries do not take sufficient action, any collective endeavors to mitigate the problem will be less effective or may even fail. As a result, mitigating climate change requires a high level of international cooperation. In the climate change arena, negotiators spent much of 2007 searching for common ground and securing universal participation in a new global regime to take effect when the first commitment period under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change’s Kyoto Protocol expires at the end of 2012. This article examines one of the strategies used to address this challenge in the lead up to the December 2007 Climate Change Conference in Bali, Indonesia: a variation of track-two diplomacy, where climate change was addressed at numerous workshops and high-level meetings to enable parties to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the 1997 Kyoto Protocol to create space for building trust and exploring innovative solutions in determining whether or not to embark on negotiations on a post-2012 regime.
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Penedo, Antonio Sergio Torres, Vinícius Silva Pereira, Gustavo Henrique Silva de Souza, Nilton Cesar Lima, Elvis Silveira-Martins, and Talita Moscardini Ferreira Penedo. "International Socio-Environmental Conferences and Agreements: A Thematic Review." Revista em Agronegócio e Meio Ambiente 9, no. 3 (September 20, 2016): 741. http://dx.doi.org/10.17765/2176-9168.2016v9n3p741-763.
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This article presents a theoretical analysis on international socio-environmental conferences and agreements organized by the United Nations, which, concerned about climate change, biodiversity loss, among other environmental consequences, have resorted to international cooperation tools to seek ways to preserve the planet. The United Nations conferences were developed in order to promote the sustainable management and the overall commitment with the assumptions of more equitable development. Among the conferences and meetings, stand out Stockholm in 1972, the ECO-RIO in 1992, the Kyoto protocol in 1997, The Global Compact in 2000, The Millennium Development Goals in 2000, the Green Book in 2001, Johannesburg in 2002, The Equator Principles in 2003, Copenhagen in 2010. This study brings relevant considerations on innovative issues that covering the sustainable development and its consequences for the environment, taking into account the current context in which the world is passing away. Thus, we understood that, although the structural foundations of green marketing are essential in the scope of international socio-environmental conferences and agreements, a stronger awareness is necessary among the world’s population, especially with regard to consumer culture. CONFERÊNCIAS E ACORDOS SOCIOAMBIENTAIS INTERNACIONAIS: UMA REVISÃO TEMÁTICA RESUMO: Este artigo apresenta uma análise teórica sobre as conferências e acordos socioambientais internacionais organizados pelas Nações Unidas que, preocupada com as mudanças climáticas, perda da biodiversidade, dentre outras consequências ambientais, têm recorrido a instrumentos de cooperação internacional para buscar formas de preservar o planeta. As conferências das Nações Unidas são desenvolvidas a fim de promover a gestão sustentável e o compromisso global com as premissas de um desenvolvimento mais equitativo. Dentre as conferências e acordos (reuniões), destacam-se Estocolmo em 1972, a ECO-RIO em 1992, o protocolo de Kyoto em 1997, o Pacto Global em 2000, os Objetivos de Desenvolvimento do Milênio em 2000, o Livro Verde em 2001, Johanesburgo em 2002, os Princípios do Equador em 2003 e Copenhagen em 2010. Este estudo traz relevantes considerações acerca das questões inovadoras que tratam do desenvolvimento sustentável e suas consequências para o meio ambiente, levando em conta o atual contexto em que o mundo passa. Assim, depreende-se que, embora as noções estruturantes do marketing verde sejam essenciais no escopo das conferências e acordos socioambientais internacionais, é preciso uma conscientização mais forte dentre a população mundial, especialmente no que diz respeito à cultura do consumo. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Acordos; Conferências; Nações Unidas; Questões socioambientais; Responsabilidade ambiental.
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Kutlu, Levent. "Greenhouse Gas Emission Efficiencies of World Countries." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 23 (November 25, 2020): 8771. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238771.
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Greenhouse gas emissions have increased rapidly since the industrial revolution. This has led to an unnatural increase in the global surface temperature, and to other changes in our environment. Acknowledging this observation, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change started an international environmental treaty. This treaty was extended by Kyoto protocol, which was adopted on 11 December 1997. Using the stochastic frontier analysis, we analyze the efficiencies of countries in terms of achieving the lowest greenhouse gas emission levels per GDP output in the years between 1990–2015. We find that the average greenhouse gas emission efficiencies of world countries for the time periods 1990–1997, 1998–2007, 2008–2012, and 2013–2015 are 82.40%, 90.37%, 89.54%, and 84.81%, respectively. Moreover, compared to the 1990–1997 period, 92.50%, 79.51%, and 59.84% of the countries improved their greenhouse gas emission efficiencies in the 1998–2007, 2008–2012, and 2013–2015 periods, respectively. Hence, the Kyoto protocol helped in increasing greenhouse emission efficiency. However, this efficiency-boosting effect faded away over time.
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Russill, Chris. "The Billion-Dollar Kyoto Botch-up: Climate Change Communication in New Zealand." Media International Australia 127, no. 1 (May 2008): 138–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1329878x0812700117.
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New Zealand's greenhouse gas emissions have increased significantly since 1990. This article examines how the fact of increasing emissions is discussed and given significance in New Zealand's national public discourse on climate change. Greenhouse gas emissions became a serious public concern on 17 June 2005, when the New Zealand government estimated a $307 million Kyoto Protocol liability in its 2005 financial statements. Conservative media coverage of this report emphasised governmental miscalculation, the financial liabilities generated by Kyoto Protocol regulations and a struggle between Climate Change Minister Peter Hodgson and industry voices over how to define the problem. This article links the arguments and discursive strategies used in the 17 June 2005 newspaper coverage of increasing greenhouse gas emissions to the institutional actors shaping New Zealand climate change policy. The increased effectiveness of industry challenges to government climate change policy is noted and discussed.
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White, T. M., and W. A. Kurz. "Afforestation on private land in Canada from 1990 to 2002 estimated from historical records." Forestry Chronicle 81, no. 4 (August 1, 2005): 491–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.5558/tfc81491-4.
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Information on afforestation on private lands in Canada from 1990 to 2002 was compiled from a variety of sources in support of the Government of Canada's Feasibility Assessment of Afforestation for Carbon Sequestration (FAACS) initiative. Data collection focused on afforestation that was verifiable and consistent with definitions in the Kyoto Protocol. Analysis of the dataset provides insight into the scale, scope and trends in afforestation activity in Canada. Most of the planting occurred in Quebec and Ontario. Ninety-five percent of the afforestation events were smaller than 10 ha. The national average area planted in an afforestation event is 2 ha. Regional averages were higher in the west than in the east. The annual area planted declined from 1990 to 2002 in most provinces, though the Prairie Provinces were an exception. The data agree with other sources of information on afforestation activity in Canada. An analysis of carbon sequestration in the plantations documented in the FAACS database is presently underway and will be reported in the near future. Key words: afforestation, reforestation, climate change, carbon sequestration, Kyoto Protocol, private forest lands
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Babić, Ilija. "Životna sredina - opasnosti i pravna zaštita / Human Environment ‒ Risks and Legal Protection." Годишњак факултета правних наука - АПЕИРОН 6, no. 6 (July 11, 2016): 48. http://dx.doi.org/10.7251/gfp1606048b.
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The most relevant factors that affect climate are astronomic cycles ant their effects on planet Earth and Earth’s orbit around the Sun. They have impact on the occurrence of glacial and interglacial periods at generally 100.000-year frequencies, which were affected by orbital shape variations and effects of greenhouse gases.The youngest geological epoch of the geological history of Earth is Holocene (started with warming) that began approximately 11.000 years BP. In that epoch, the shape of Earth’s orbit around the Sun was nearly circular, close to a perfect circle, and the seasonal contrast was less severe, due to decreased tilt of Earth’s axis from the plane of its orbit around the Sun. However, most scientists are arguing that the causes of rapid climate change are rooted in human activity, and not in its internal orbital variations. The main causes of global warming are increased level of carbon dioxide, but also of methane and chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. These gases are responsible for the greenhouse effect, ozone layer depletion in stratosphere and rapid global warming. In order to set up the legal framework of environmental protection, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment has adopted Stockholm Declaration in June 16, 1972. About twenty industrial states have ratified in 1987 the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, which has undergone many revisions by London Convention (1990), Copenhagen Accord (1992), Vienna Convention (1995), Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement ‒ an international universal agreement on climate adopted at the 2015 Paris Climate Conference (COP21). Environmental protection in the European Union is provided for by its primary and secondary law, and the most EU environmental regulations were implemented in the Serbian legislation.
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Mohareb, Adrian K., Mostafa Warith, and Roberto M. Narbaitz. "Strategies for the municipal solid waste sector to assist Canada in meeting its Kyoto Protocol commitments." Environmental Reviews 12, no. 2 (June 1, 2004): 71–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/a04-006.
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The Government of Canada has ratified the Kyoto Protocol, committing to a 6% reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from 1990 levels during the commitment period of 20082012. To attain this target, emission reductions throughout many sectors must be achieved. The waste sector can assist Canada in reducing GHG emissions to meet its commitments under the Kyoto Protocol. In 2001, the waste sector generated 24.8 megatonnes (Mt) of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) from landfill gas (LFG) generation, wastewater treatment, and incineration. Emissions from the transportation of solid waste were not considered, and are seen to be small. Several strategies for reducing GHG emissions from solid waste are analyzed. Source reduction decreases the amount of material being generated, thus reducing from the source any emissions that might be related to the life cycle of the material. Recycling can reduce GHG emissions by reducing the amount of virgin material being processed, avoiding life cycle emissions. Landfill gas collection for energy recovery can reduce methane (CH4) emissions from organic wastes in landfills, and the Government of Canada's Climate Change Plan has considered this strategy. Anaerobic digestion converts some of the organic matter in the municipal solid waste (MSW) to both CH4 and carbon dioxide (CO2), where the CH4 can be used to generate power, while composting converts some of the organic fraction to CO2. Both of these processes produce a soil conditioner as their residue. Waste incineration reduces MSW volume and can generate power, displacing generation from fossil fuels. An integrated approach, considering these techniques where appropriate, can succeed in reducing emissions from the solid waste sector. Policy choices such as extended producer responsibility, minimum recycled content laws, and LFG capture criteria would increase the impact of solid waste management on GHG emissions. Key words: climate change, Kyoto Protocol, municipal solid waste, source reduction, recycling, landfill gas capture, anaerobic digestion.
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DALMASSO, Elsa Inés. "Las Conferencias sobre el Cambio Climático – COP: Compromiso de Estados, Empresas y Comunidad." Revista Em Tempo 17, no. 01 (November 30, 2018): 448. http://dx.doi.org/10.26729/et.v17i01.2630.
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Resumen:
La Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas para el Cambio Climático (CMNUCC) establecida en mayo de 1992, en la «Cumbre de la Tierra de Río de Janeiro», entró en vigor en marzo de 1994 con la premisa de reforzar la conciencia pública a escala mundial sobre los problemas relativos al Cambio Climático. Entre sus objetivos principales se destaca la estabilización de las concentraciones de Gases de Efecto Invernadero (GEI) en la atmósfera, para impedir riesgos en el sistema climático.
La Conferencia de las Partes (COP) se establece como el órgano supremo de la Convención y la asociación de todos los países que forman parte de ella. Como asimismo lo es en calidad de Reunión de las Partes del Protocolo de Kioto (PK),
En las reuniones anuales de la COP participan expertos en medio ambiente, ministros, jefes de estado y organizaciones no gubernamentales con la función de supervisar y examinar la aplicación de la Convención y del Protocolo. El objetivo es preparar inventarios de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero por las fuentes y su absorción por los sumideros, promoviendo y facilitando el intercambio de información sobre las medidas adoptadas y el desarrollo del proceso de negociación entre las Partes de la Convención. Concluyendo con la elaboración de un Compromiso de Estados, Empresas y Comunidad respecto a la regulación de los efectos sobre cambio climático.
Palabras clave: Cambio Climático; Naciones Unidas; Conferencia de las Partes.
Abstract:
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) established in May 1992, at the "Earth Summit of Rio de Janeiro"; It entered into force in March 1994 with the premise of strengthening public awareness on a global scale about the problems related to Climate Change. Among its main objectives is the stabilization of concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere, to prevent risks in the climate system.
The Conference of the Parties (COP) is established as the supreme organ of the Convention and the association of all the countries that are part of it. As it is also in the capacity of the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (KP),
Environmental experts, ministers, heads of state and non-governmental organizations participate in the annual meetings of the COP, with the function of supervising and examining the application of the Convention and the Protocol, in order to prepare inventories of greenhouse gas emissions. greenhouse effect by the sources and their absorption by the sinks, promoting and facilitating the exchange of information on the measures adopted and the development of the negotiation process between the Parties to the Convention. Concluding with the elaboration of a Commitment of States, Companies and Community regarding the regulation of the effects on climate change
Keywords: Climate Change; United Nations; Conference of the Parties
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Chu, Po-Young, Yu-Ling Lin, and Cyuan-Sian Guo. "The Effect of Ecological Elasticity in Taiwan’s Carbon Reduction Policies: The STIRPAT Model." Journal of Management and Sustainability 6, no. 1 (February 26, 2016): 121. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jms.v6n1p121.
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<p>The challenges from the climate change and the global warming have become one of the most important issues to solve in the world. Under the Kyoto Protocol, countries which have signed the Kyoto Protocol have faced the pressure of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The two main policies for reducing carbon dioxide are “carbon tax” and “carbon trading”. This research explores which policy will be more suitable for the society and economic environment of Taiwan. This research uses EIA database, the statistical data from the Taiwan Bureau of Energy, Ministry of Economic Affairs, and the data from AREMOS database from 1982 to 2010. The dependent variable is the emission of carbon dioxide, and the independent variables are premium diesel oil price index, population, GDP per capita and the squared term of GDP per capita. The research method is based on the Ordinary Least Squares to estimate the ecological elasticity in the STIRPAT model by analyzing the influence of the change of energy price to the change of the emission of carbon dioxide. From the empirical result, it was discovered that though the energy price and the emission of carbon dioxide was negatively correlated, the ecological elasticity was inelastic. As a result, carbon trading seems a more suitable policy for Taiwan.</p>
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Plume, Helen, Roger Lincoln, and Hayden Montgomery. "An overview of the international context for greenhouse gas reductions." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48, no. 2 (2008): 251. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea07241.
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The international context for addressing greenhouse gases, including those from agriculture, is presented. The Kyoto Protocol rules are set for the first commitment period from 2008 to 2012. During this period, industrialised country parties (countries that have both signed and ratified the agreement) are to collectively reduce total greenhouse gas emissions by 5% below 1990 emission levels. Arrangements for a post-2012 agreement are currently being discussed. Science plays a vital role in identifying options for greenhouse gas emission reductions in the agriculture sector.
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Godoy, Sara Gurfinkel Marques de, and Maria Sylvia Macchione Saes. "Cap-and-trade and project-based framework: how do carbon markets work for greenhouse emissions reduction?" Ambiente & Sociedade 18, no. 1 (March 2015): 135–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1809-4422asoc795v1812015en.
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There are two examples of carbon market mechanisms: i ) trading based on the cap-and-trade principle establishes Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emission limits for companies that can negotiate allowance to pollute (as in European Union Emission Trading Scheme, EU ETS) , and ii ) carbon credits, project-based emission reductions of GHG (such as the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol, CDM). Given the importance of these two, this paper presents the dynamics of the evolution of carbon markets evolution by analyzing different markets (including other examples) and their framework, performances, potential and barriers. Besides these two programs, other national and regional systems are being developed, bu EU ETS and Kyoto stand in terms of volume and visibility. Despite existing criticism, in some countries volume of GHG emissions decreased between 1990 and 2011, probably influenced by the modernization of some formerly obsolete and inefficient industrial plant, and also by the poor performance of world economies in recent years.
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Yates, C. M., S. B. Cammell, J. France, and D. E. Beever. "Prediction of methane emissions from dairy cows using multiple regression analysis." Proceedings of the British Society of Animal Science 2000 (2000): 94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1752756200000958.
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The UK is bound by the UN Framework Convention on climate change to reduce methane emissions to below 1990 levels by the year 2000. The Kyoto protocol requires a further cut of 12.5% by 2010. Ruminants are estimated to produce 74 Tg of methane per year (Benchar et al. 1998) which represents about 15% of total emissions (Crutzen et al., 1986). Therefore any reduction in the release of methane gas by enteric fermentation from the dairy herd is environmentally important. The objective of this study was to use data obtained from calorimetry trials to generate multiple regression equations predicting the levels and variability of methane emissions from dairy cows.
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Stewart, Caleb, and Mir-Akbar Hessami. "Greenhouse Gas Emissions Due to Power Consumption of Household Whitegoods Appliances." Energy & Environment 13, no. 6 (November 2002): 833–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1260/095830502762231304.
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This paper presents information related to greenhouse gas emissions due to the power consumption of the following household appliances: refrigerators, clothes washers, clothes dryers, freezers, and dishwashers; a possible extension to this analysis would include heaters and air-conditioners. Actual energy consumption data for the period 1993 to 1999 were used to estimate the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1994 to 2009 incremented at 5 years; these data can also be used to estimate the energy consumption of these appliances for 2008–2012 with reference to 1990 for reasons of comparison under the Kyoto Protocol. The total carbon dioxide equivalent emissions for the above household appliances show a peak of 29.6 mega-tonnes CO2 around 1999 with a decreasing trend post 1999 to 27.4 mega-tonnes CO2 in 2009. Details of the analysis for selected appliances show that refrigerators account for over half of total emissions, decreasing from 60.1% in 1994 to 51.6% in 2009. The aggregate trend activity was found to highly depend on the trend activity for emissions for refrigerators. The trend activity for freezers, clothes dryers and clothes washers is increasing for consecutive years from 1994 to 2009 defying the trend exhibited by refrigerators and dishwashers. The reason for this discrepancy is the relatively higher decreases in kWh/annum for refrigerators and dishwashers in contrast to other appliances. The energy consumption curves for each appliance take this differential into account. The energy consumption curve for refrigerators predicts a much faster decrease in kWh/annum than for other appliances thus causing the downward trend post 1999.
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Mahoro, Jean Claude Geofrey. "ICAO’s ROLE IN ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND ITS SHORTCOMINGS UNDER RAPID GROWTH OF AVIATION INDUSTRY." Diponegoro Law Review 4, no. 2 (October 1, 2019): 136. http://dx.doi.org/10.14710/dilrev.4.2.2019.136-151.
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The growth of the aviation sector has significantly contributed to the global interconnectivity since World War II and presented a strong need for regulation. The Chicago Convention is the first air law that shaped the aviation industry. With that, the United Nations General Assembly set up the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) with responsibilities that could realise the aviation’s ideal. Despite this development, environmental protection was not a serious concern. However, aviation emissions and noise were later documented to be a serious threat to human health and welfare. ICAO, in its remits, has played a significant role in by establishing a regulatory framework through its policies and standards. With doctrinal method, the researcher discusses those policies and standards in the environmental perspective and their shortcomings in the prevention of GHG emissions and aircraft noise. He also reflects the importance of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 1992 and Kyoto Protocol 1997. Considerably, this paper highlights some areas that need improvements such as ICAO policies and standards’ implementation mechanisms, Global Market-Based Measure (GMBM), Radio Frequency (RF) spectrum, and conventional framework in ICAO. Hence, the researcher recommends respective stakeholders to enhance their partnership by embracing the concept of sustainability in the aviation industry.
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Fernandes, Valdir, Cleverson Vitorio Andreoli, Gilda Collet Bruna, and Arlindo Philippi Jr. "History and Evolution of the Environmental Management System in Brazil." Historia Ambiental Latinoamericana y Caribeña (HALAC) revista de la Solcha 11, no. 2 (August 17, 2021): 275–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.32991/2237-2717.2021v11i2.p275-310.
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The idea of sustainable development emerges first as a socio-political movement, from a series of questions and concerns that have arisen at the international level, related to the contamination of natural environments and human beings, a result of industrial activities. From these concerns, a series of events and movements caused significant changes in international and national policies, leading to the construction of a significant legal framework and institutional apparatus, never seen in any other theme. The establishment of environmental management systems in most countries was a direct reflection of an international agenda launched during the Stockholm Conference, in 1972, which was continued with several other conferences and protocols, such as Rio-92, Rio+20, Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement, among others, that have consolidated an international environmental agenda over the past 50 years. In Brazil, this process generated direct reflexes with the construction of a significant legal framework and institutional apparatus. In this article, we describe this process, an important part of both the world’s and the Brazilian environmental history until 2014.
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Maljean-Dubois, Sandrine, and Pilar Moraga Sariego. "Le principe des responsabilités communes mais différenciées dans le régime international du climat." Les Cahiers de droit 55, no. 1 (June 3, 2014): 83–112. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/1025500ar.
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Parmi les accords internationaux sur l’environnement, le régime du climat offre l’application la plus aboutie du principe des responsabilités communes mais différenciées. Mais ce domaine révèle aussi tout particulièrement les difficultés d’application dudit principe. Justice, équité, responsabilités communes mais différenciées sont invoquées par les uns et par les autres pour servir parfois des fins diamétralement opposées. Depuis l’adoption de la Convention-cadre des Nations Unies sur les changements climatiques (1992) et du Protocole de Kyoto (1997), la structure des émissions mondiales de gaz à effet de serre a considérablement évolué, ne serait-ce que du fait de l’augmentation considérable des émissions des pays émergents et en particulier de la Chine. Bouclier pour les uns, repoussoir pour les autres, le principe est aujourd’hui très fréquemment invoqué dans les difficiles négociations du « post-2012 » et du « post-2020 », et voit son rôle progressivement évoluer.
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Solilová, Veronika, and Danuše Nerudová. "Evaluation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Related Aspects: Case of the Czech Republic." Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis 63, no. 1 (2015): 281–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.11118/actaun201563010281.
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The most important drivers of increasing greenhouse gas emissions are increasing world’s population, economic development resulting in higher level of productions and consumption, but also unanticipated increases in the energy intensity of GDP and in the carbon intensity of energy. The EU committed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by 20% until 2020 or 40% until 2030 compared to 1990 levels of the Kyoto Protocol. The Czech Republic enlarged EU in 2004 as a country from Eastern Europe where usually the heavy industries or agriculture prevail over other sectors. The aim of the paper was an evaluation of the development of greenhouse gas emissions and related aspects in the industry of the Czech Republic. Based on the results was concluded that although greenhouse gas emissions of the Czech Republic are deeply below the Kyoto targets, there are areas for improvements e.g. in case of energy intensities, as well as in case of carbon intensity and carbon productivity, where the Czech Republic reaches worse results than the EU28. Therefore is recommended to decrease greenhouse gas emission and increase gross value added generated by each NACE sector. Both those factors will impact on improvement of energy intensity, carbon productivity as well as greenhouse gas emissions per capita.
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Shatokha, Volodymyr. "Historic Context of European Union Leadership in Climate Change Mitigation." European Historical Studies, no. 8 (2017): 74–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/2524-048x.2017.08.74-96.
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The role of European Union in defining of the international climate change mitigation policy was studied in the historic context of overcoming the differences in the approaches to reaching the sustainable development targets among the EU, the USA, China and some other influential countries. It has been shown that currently the processes of climate policy definition became more polycentric than in 1992, when the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change was signed. The ability to adjust to a new context, to build coalitions and to reach compromise with the wide range of international actors has been crucial for maintaining the EU’s influence on definition of the international climate change mitigation policy. Despite not always supportive internal and external factors, during a quarter of century the EU has managed to maintain its leadership and many times helped to enhance the ambition of global climatic targets by establishing the high level of own commitments and implementing relevant policy instruments. The EU and its members played a decisive role in ensuring of the non-interruptive international climate action during implementation of the Kyoto Protocol and in setting of the Paris Agreement which will define climate regime after 2020. Mitigation of climate change is a complicated task not only in terms of technology and socio-economic aspects but also with respect to policy implementation. Therefore the EU leadership in this sphere remains very important.
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Schreurs, Miranda A., and Yves Tiberghien. "Multi-Level Reinforcement: Explaining European Union Leadership in Climate Change Mitigation." Global Environmental Politics 7, no. 4 (November 2007): 19–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/glep.2007.7.4.19.
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The European Union has played a leading role in pushing for the establishment, ratification, and meaningful implementation of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, although it still has significant efforts to make to achieve its target of an 8 percent cut of greenhouse gas by 2008–2012 relative to the 1990 level. This article explores the political factors behind continued EU leadership in climate change. It argues that a few individual states (including Sweden, the Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, and the UK) played an essential role in establishing the EU's agenda in this domain. However, the decentralized governance structure of the EU has also encouraged a process of mutual reinforcement, whereby individual states, the European Commission, and the European Parliament are competing for leadership.
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Cabrera Perramón, Jorge. "El pago por servicios ambientales, conceptos y mercado." Ciencia & Investigación Forestal 13, no. 1 (July 9, 2007): 117–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.52904/0718-4646.2007.276.
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A partir de la realización de la Cumbre de la Tierra en el año 1992, el Protocolo de Kyoto y varios otros encuentros sobre los problemas del planeta, surgen importantes acuerdos internacionales sobre medio ambiente y desarrollo, hay una mayor comprensión de la importancia de los temas ambientales y las implicancias que tienen para la humanidad y aparecen los llamados mercados verdes, pago por servicios ambientales, mecanismos de desarrollo limpio y otros instrumentos de mercado. Los servicios ambientales son aquellos que se originan en formaciones naturales, principalmente boscosas, tales como la calidad del agua, belleza escénica, biodiversidad y aire puro. El punto crucial del concepto es que los costos por proteger y mejorar el ecosistema que genera el servicio sean internalizados por quienes obtienen los beneficios de dichos servicios. Este trabajo pretende aclarar conceptos, identificar los distintos servicios ambientales que presentan un potencial de desarrollo en Chile y como estos presentan una expresión de mercado.
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Maraseni, Tek, and Kathryn Reardon-Smith. "Meeting National Emissions Reduction Obligations: A Case Study of Australia." Energies 12, no. 3 (January 30, 2019): 438. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en12030438.
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Akin to a public good, emissions reduction suffers from the ‘free rider’ syndrome. Although many countries claim that they are meeting their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction commitments, the average global temperature and GHG emissions continue to rise. This has led to growing speculation that some countries may be taking advantage of the system by effectively exploiting a range of loopholes in global agreements. Using a case study approach, we critically review the evidence from Australia, exploring how Australia has participated in global climate change negotiations and the way in which this emissions intensive country’s national emissions reduction obligations have been met. The findings suggest that: (1) successful negotiation to include Article 3.7 (‘Adjusting the 1990 Baseline’ or ‘the Australia Clause’) in the Kyoto Protocol significantly favored Australia’s ability to meet its First Kyoto Commitment (2008–2012); and (2) successful bargaining for the accounting rule that allowed carbon credits from the first commitment period to be carried over to the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol benefitted Australia by 128 MtCO2e. At the national level, a lack of bipartisan political support for an effective mechanism to drive emissions reduction has also been problematic. While the introduction of the Carbon Pricing Mechanism (CPM) in 2012 reduced emissions from electricity production from about 199.1 MtCO2e to 180.8 MtCO2e in 2014, a change of government led to the abolition of the CPM in 2014 and emissions from electricity production subsequently rose to 187 MtCO2e in 2015 and 189 MtCO2e in 2016 with adverse impacts in many sectors as well as Australia’s overall emissions. The current Australian government continues to undermine its commitment to mitigation and the integrity and credibility of its own emissions reductions policy, introducing a softer ‘calculated baseline’ for its own Safeguard Mechanism, which allows companies to upwardly adjust their calculated baselines on the basis of their highest expected emissions, permitting emissions in excess of their historical emissions. While disappointing in the context of the global emissions reduction project, Australia’s actions are sadly not unique and we also provide examples of loopholes exploited by countries participating in a range of other negotiations and emissions reduction projects. Such strategies undoubtedly serve the short-term political and economic interests of these countries; however, it is increasingly apparent that the cumulative impact of such tactics will ultimately impact the entire global community.
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Cossu, Raffaello, Dario Sciunnach, Silvia Cappa, Giorgio Gallina, Valentina Grossule, and Roberto Raga. "FIRST WORLDWIDE REGULATION ON SUSTAINABLE LANDFILLING: GUIDELINES OF THE LOMBARDY REGION (ITALY)." Detritus, no. 12 (August 27, 2020): 114–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.31025/2611-4135/2020.14001.
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The environmental sustainability principle, since the Rio de Janeiro Conference (1992) and the Kyoto Protocol (1997), has produced a marked change in environmental protection strategies. In waste management practices this trend is reflected in the passage from a linear to a circular approach, where strong attention is paid to the recovery of resources from waste, with a dramatic reduction of untreated waste landfilling. But deposition of waste on soil still plays a crucial role in acting as a final sink for closing materials loop in Circular Economy. Paradoxically the regulations of landfilling at international level appear obsolete, not taking into account the environmental sustainability concept, still promoting unsustainable approaches, with environmental protection measures mainly based on physical barriers, without any consistent control of long term emissions of contaminants which last longer than the barriers themselves. “Guidelines for Sustainable Design and Management of Landfills” issued by the Lombardy Region in 2014 represents the first official regulation which introduced systematically the principle of environmental sustainability. They highlight the modern role of landfilling as a final sink and promote measures and procedures for controlling the mobility of the potential contaminants in the waste, until reaching, within a generation time, a Final Storage Quality in equilibrium with the environment. The aim of this paper is to illustrate and discuss the main aspects introduced by the Guidelines, offering an interesting base for a future spread of the practical application of the sustainability concept to landfilling.
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SUZUKI, Hitoshi, and Izuru MAKIHARA. "Japan-EEC/EU Relations, 1970-2005: Re-Emergence as Strategic Partners in Trade and Environment." Journal of European Integration History 25, no. 1 (2019): 23–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/0947-9511-2019-1-23.
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Negotiations on a Japan-EEC trade agreement faced a deadlock only three years after the launch of the common foreign trade policy in 1970. The European Commission adopted a step-by-step approach to change the climate. European business people were sent to Japan under the ETP-Japan. The Commission welcomed Japanese investments so that Japanese exports could be reduced. Japanese plants were launched in Britain. After the cold war ended, Japanese manufacturers headed towards the newly liberalised countries. Japan’s policy of commitment - via both aid and investments - was an extension of her relations with the Central and Eastern European countries during the cold war, namely towards the GDR. However, after 1991, Japan’s priority was not limited to her market share in Europe and gained a longer perspective to stabilise the region. Joint efforts made Japan and the EU claim themselves as global actors. Both shared fears on global warming and agreed upon the Kyoto Protocol of 1997.
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Tkachenko, A. A. "National and Planetary Interests in Preserving Balance between Nature and Economic Growth." Economics, taxes & law 12, no. 5 (October 31, 2019): 6–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.26794/1999-849x-2019-12-5-6-17.
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The subjects of the research are international agreements on the environment protection and the national ecological policy. The importance of the research lies in the ongoing discussion about the role of developing countries in reducing unfavorable climate changes. The purpose of the article is to demonstrate that nowadays we need not only joint efforts of different groups of countries to restore the equilibrium in the “nature — society” system, but also a new economic growth policy philosophy. The article shortly analyses the history of the international cooperation development in the attempts to solve ecological problems within the framework of UN initiatives, and considers the stages of the cooperation and the role of Kyoto Protocol. The author examines the discussions about Paris Agreement, analyses its impact on the development of international and national efforts to achieve ecological climate aims, demonstrates the role of the positions and disagreements in G20 countries, as well as the role, goals and policy of decarbonization in modern economy.
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Vanderheiden, Steve. "Globalizing Responsibility for Climate Change." Ethics & International Affairs 25, no. 1 (2011): 65–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s089267941000002x.
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Who should pay the costs associated with anthropogenic climate change, how much should they pay, and why? This burden-distribution problem has become the central question of climate justice among scholars and activists, and it remains the primary obstacle to the development of an effective climate regime. The costs are expected to be significant and varied, but can generally be categorized in terms ofmitigation—that is, those costs associated with reducing further human contributions toward the increasing atmospheric concentrations of heat-trapping greenhouse gases (GHGs) that cause climate change; andadaptation—that is, those costs that result from attempting to insulate humans from the harms associated with the anthropogenic environmental damage of climate change. Since mitigation actions undertaken by developed countries under the auspices of the Kyoto Protocol are self-financed and mitigation targets accepted by developing countries are widely viewed as contingent upon financing from developed countries, imperatives to reduce GHGs are fundamentally matters of allocating mitigation costs. Adaptation intervenes in the causal chain between climate change and human harm, allowing the former but preventing the latter, but when this is not possible, a third category ofcompensationcosts must be assigned in order to remedy failed mitigation and adaptation efforts. Because the formulas for assessing liability for adaptation and for compensation are identical, and since climate justice requires adaptation efforts that render compensation unnecessary, for the purposes of this essay the category of adaptation shall be understood to include prevention of harm as well asex postcompensation for it. As expected, the “Copenhagen Accord” that emerged from the Fifteenth session of the Conference of the Parties (COP15) to the 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in December 2009 failed to satisfactorily address this core burden-allocation issue, making its resolution the primary problem to be addressed at the COP16 in Cancún, Mexico, at the end of 2010.
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Liubarskaia, Maria Aleksandrovna, Viktoria Sergeevna Merkusheva, and Olga Sergeevna Zinovieva. "Participation of Russia in the International Cooperation for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Energy Companies." Vestnik RUDN. International Relations 19, no. 3 (December 15, 2019): 377–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2313-0660-2019-19-3-377-391.
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The article analyzes the participation of the Russian Federation in international cooperation on the climate change prevention. Global climate change in terms of its impact on world economy is presented as a catalyst for multidirectional shifts in many sectors of economy. The adoption of international documents such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992), the Kyoto Protocol (1997), the Paris Agreement (2015), and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (2015) are viewed as vital steps for regulating international cooperation in this sphere. Analyzing the provisions of the 2020 Climate Doctrine of the Russian Federation (2009), the authors emphasize the aspiration for international political and economic integration and deep economic interest in modernization as main factors, affecting Russian climate policy strategy. One of the mechanisms of implementing state policy in the field of environmental safety is the adoption of state regulation of greenhouse gas emissions and the consideration of these measures in the development of longterm strategies for socio-economic development. The authors urge for creating regional strategies for climate change prevention with necessary adjustment and adaptation to a specific region or constituent entity of the Russian Federation. In presenting the research results, the concept of “global warming potential” and the role of managing this potential in achieving sustainable development goals are disclosed. The authors argue that a significant contribution to the increase in greenhouse gas emissions is made by the production activities of the energy sector. Based on the data of the largest international companies (Chevron, ExxonMobil, ConocoPhillips, BP, PetroChina, Shell, Gazprom, LUKOIL, Rosneft), directions for reducing their negative environmental impact were determined, including the classification of tools for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. International practice analysis forms the necessary ground to elaborate the most promising modern tools for reducing greenhouse gas emissions by Russian oil and gas companies.
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Leslie, M., M. Aspin, and H. Clark. "Greenhouse gas emissions from New Zealand agriculture: issues, perspectives and industry response." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48, no. 2 (2008): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea07306.
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The prosperity of New Zealand (NZ) rests to a large extent on agriculture. Although our total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are unusually small for a developed nation, agricultural emissions make up almost half of the total emissions from NZ. Emissions from NZ agriculture have been rising at close to 1% a year since 1990 and by 2010, the midpoint of the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, they are projected to be 7.2 Mt per year higher than the 1990 baseline. This excess has a potential cost of over NZ$0.5 billion. Despite the continued rise in absolute emissions, emissions intensity, the amount of GHG produced per unit of food produced, has been dropping and the emissions intensity of NZ agriculture goods compares favourably with that of other developed nations. The NZ agricultural sector has actively engaged in the search for cost-effective mitigation solutions and, in partnership with the government, has funded research through the Pastoral Greenhouse Gas Research Consortium (PGGRC). The PGGRC has been in existence since 2002 and has invested NZ$16 million in research into reducing methane and nitrous oxide emissions from pastoral agriculture. The structure of this research funding body, its objectives, achievements and future challenges are briefly outlined.
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Bicalho, Gustavo Inácio, Bruno de Souza Baptista, Felipe Vereza Lopes da Silva, Sérgio de Morais Hanriot, Luben Cabezas-Gómez, and Cristiana Brasil Maia. "Analysis of the Impact of the New Emissions Limits on the Temperatures of the Vehicle Floor." Applied Mechanics and Materials 152-154 (January 2012): 976–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.152-154.976.
Full textAbstract:
The Kyoto Protocol established the reduction of pollutant emissions limits for all sectors of industrial economy in 8%, compared to 1990´s levels, to be adopted in the period between 2008 and 2012. Individual countries defined a progressive scale for the emission reduction applied to automotive vehicles. These new emission limits are reached altering the calibration of the Electronic Central Unit (ECU), altering the volume and the composition of the catalytic converters and also adding new components to the engine, such as EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) system and phasing sensor. This work evaluates the impact of these modifications in the exhaust system temperatures and in the peripherical devices. In order to meet the requirements of the new emissions limits, the volume of the catalytic converter is higher, increasing the heat rejected. It provokes a temperature raise on the exhaust system and under the vehicle pavement, which impact the functionality of some components and also the passenger's thermal comfort. It is observed that the new emission standards in Brazil resulted in an increase of the vehicle temperatures, affecting the passengers’ thermal comfort, and eventually producing more emissions due to the use of an air conditioning system.
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Hong, Ying-Yi, Faa-Jeng Lin, and Fu-Yuan Hsu. "Enhanced Particle Swarm Optimization-Based Feeder Reconfiguration Considering Uncertain Large Photovoltaic Powers and Demands." International Journal of Photoenergy 2014 (2014): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/704839.
Full textAbstract:
The Kyoto protocol recommended that industrialized countries limit their green gas emissions in 2012 to 5.2% below 1990 levels. Photovoltaic (PV) arrays provide clear and sustainable renewable energy to electric power systems. Solar PV arrays can be installed in distribution systems of rural and urban areas, as opposed to wind-turbine generators, which cause noise in surrounding environments. However, a large PV array (several MW) may incur several operation problems, for example, low power quality and reverse power. This work presents a novel method to reconfigure the distribution feeders in order to prevent the injection of reverse power into a substation connected to the transmission level. Moreover, a two-stage algorithm is developed, in which the uncertain bus loads and PV powers are clustered by fuzzy-c-means to gain representative scenarios; optimal reconfiguration is then achieved by a novel mean-variance-based particle swarm optimization. The system loss is minimized while the operational constraints, including reverse power and voltage variation, are satisfied due to the optimal feeder reconfiguration. Simulation results obtained from a 70-bus distribution system with 4 large PV arrays validate the proposed method.