Academic literature on the topic 'Lactifers'

In the course of the present study, surveys on occurrence and distribution of ectomycorrhizal (EcM) fungi in tropical sal forests of foothills of the Himalayas, India, were undertaken. The species of two genera of agarics, namely Asproinocybe and Inocybe, were found organically associated with the roots of Shorea robusta (sal tree). However, prior to our study the genus Asproinocybe has not been reported from India. In this article, the morpho-anatomical details of mycorrhizal roots of Shorea robusta associated with Asproinocybe lactifera and Inocybe purpureoflavida are provided for the first time. The EcM colonized roots of the two species are distinguished by differences in the shape and colour of the roots, surface texture, size and shape of cystidia, type of mantle, as well as different chemical reactions. Asproinocybe lactifera EcM is mainly characterised by a monopodial pinnate mycorrhizal system with the dark brown to reddish brown and loose cottony surface, while in Inocybe purpureoflavida it is irregularly pinnate to coralloid, silvery grey to reddish brown, with densely woolly surface. The outer mantle layer is heterogeneous with obclavate to awl-shaped cystidia in Asproinocybe lactifera, whereas Inocybe purpureoflavida EcM have a plectenchymatous outer mantle with subcylindrical to obclavate metuloidal and non-metuloidal cystidia. The presence of lactifers in the mantle is a unique feature in Asproinocybe lactifera as compared to Inocybe purpureoflavida.

The Australian endemic bee, Pharohylaeus lactiferus (Colletidae: Hylaeinae) is a rare species that requires conservation assessment. Prior to this study, the last published record of this bee species was from 1923 in Queensland, and nothing was known of its biology. Hence, I aimed to locate extant populations, provide biological information and undertake exploratory analyses relevant to its assessment. Pharohylaeus lactiferus was recently rediscovered as a result of extensive sampling of 225 general and 20 targeted sampling sites across New South Wales and Queensland. Collections indicate possible floral and habitat specialisation with specimens only found near Tropical or Sub-Tropical Rainforest and only visiting Stenocarpus sinuatus (Proteaceae) and Brachychiton acerifolius (Malvaceae), to the exclusion of other available floral resources. Three populations were found by sampling bees visiting these plant species along much of the Australian east coast, suggesting population isolation. GIS analyses used to explore habitat destruction in the Wet Tropics and Central Mackay Coast bioregions indicate susceptibility of Queensland rainforests and P. lactiferus populations to bushfires, particularly in the context of a fragmented landscape. Highly fragmented habitat and potential host specialisation might explain the rarity of P. lactiferus. Targeted sampling and demographic analyses are likely required to thoroughly assess the status of this species and others like it.

AimsToker cells are clear cells present in the squamous epithelium of the nipple of some women. In contrast to squamous epithelium, they are cytokeratin 7 (CK7) positive. The origin of these cells is not completely understood. It has been suggested that they may represent abortive glands or migratory ductal cells; and may be precursors of Paget's disease of the nipple. Our aim was to investigate the incidence and distribution of Toker cells and their relationship with lactiferous ducts.MethodsWe examined nipple sections from 100 consecutive mastectomies performed at Charing Cross hospital. New sections were stained for CK7 using the immunoperoxidase technique.ResultsToker cells were identified in 11 cases. They were always clustered within the squamous epithelium superficial to sebaceous glands with no relationship with lactiferous ducts. Two cases in the study had Paget's disease and these were not associated with underlying sebaceous glands.ConclusionsThis study suggests that Toker cells are more likely to be developmentally related to sebaceous glands rather than lactiferous ducts. This raises doubts about the presence of a relationship between Toker cells and the common forms of Paget's disease, as the latter are commonly seen in association with ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) involving underlying lactiferous ducts. Toker cells, however, may be related to a less common form of Paget's disease which is not associated with underlying DCIS.

SummaryThe levels of N-acetyl-β-glucosaminidase (NAGase) and acid phosphatase were analysed in tissue from the teat and lactiferous sinus epithelia of dairy cows at different stages of lactation. Enzyme levels were lower in the epithelia of the teat sinus than of the lactiferous sinus. For both enzymes, levels were highest in tissue from post-partum glands, lowest in those from dry and mid-lactation glands. In involuting glands the levels were high, but not as high as the post-partum glands.

Breast abscesses are a common surgical problem, typically occurring secondary to lactation mastitis. Recurrent subareolar abscesses are rarely reported and may be poorly recognised as a presentation of squamous metaplasia of lactiferous ducts, known eponymously as ‘Zuska’s disease’. Other synonyms include subareolar breast abscess and lactiferous or mammary fistulas. Recognition of this painful entity is crucial for optimal outcomes since typical breast abscess management of recurrent aspiration or incision and drainage can lead to recurrence and chronic complications, such as fistula formation.

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Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos - FINEP, CNPq, CAPES, FAPES
A meleira, causada pelo Papaya meleira virus (PMeV), é uma doença importante no Brasil e no México devido as grandes perdas econômicas que ela causa. Estudos para avaliar a interação patógeno-hospedeiro em nível histológico são fundamentais para compreender os mecanismos responsáveis pela resistência natural das plantas. Neste estudo foram coletadas folhas de mamoeiros saudáveis e sintomáticos para meleira e observou-se a topografia e a dureza da parede celular dessas plantas por microscopia de força atômica (AFM). As imagens em duas dimensões obtidas a partir de diferentes áreas da parede celular mostraram que as paredes celulares das plantas saudáveis são mais uniformes do que as paredes de plantas doentes. As plantas saudáveis também apresentaram características constitutivas da parede celular mais elevadas do que as de plantas doentes e a média da força de adesão máxima observada foi maior em plantas saudáveis do que em plantas doentes. Estes resultados indicam que o PMeV promove alterações nas paredes das células, tornando-as mais frágeis e suscetíveis à ruptura. Estas alterações, associadas ao aumento da captação de água e aumento da pressão interna dos laticíferos, provocam o rompimento celular que leva à exsudação espontânea do látex e facilita a disseminação de PMeV para outros laticíferos. Os resultados deste trabalho fornecem novas percepções sobre a interação mamoeiro-PMeV que podem revelar-se úteis no que se refere a entender e controlar a meleira do mamoeiro.
Papaya sticky disease, caused by Papaya meleira virus (PMeV), is an important papaya disease in Brasil and Mexico due the severe economic losses it causes. Studies to assess the pathogen-host interaction at a histological are fundamental in order to understand the mechanisms that underlie natural resistance. In this study we collected leaves of healthy and symptomatic papaya sticky diseased plants and observed the topography and mechanical properties of plant cell walls by atomic force microscopy (AFM). Two-dimensional images obtained from different areas of the cell wall showed that the cell walls of healthy plants are smoother than the walls of sticky diseased plants. Also healthy plants displayed higher constitutive characteristics of the cell wall than diseased plants and the average maximum adhesion force was higher on healthy plants than on diseased plants. PMeV promotes changes on cell walls, making them more fragile and susceptible to breakage. These changes, associated with increased water uptake and internal pressure of laticifers causes cell disruption that leads to spontaneous exudation of latex and facilitates the spread of PMeV to other laticifers. The results of this work provide new insights on the interaction papaya-PMeV which could prove helpful when trying to understand and control the papaya sticky disease.

Thesis: S.B., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 2015.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (pages 36-37).
Plugged lactiferous ducts are a common problem that many nursing women encounter. This occurs when the tissue around a milk duct has become inflamed, thus preventing milk from passing through the duct. Women treat and prevent plugged ducts by massaging the affected area on the breast. There are no products currently on the market that use massage techniques to help mothers with plugged ducts. This study proposes a design of a device to treat plugged lactiferous ducts. The problem is explored and formulated into a problem statement. Design requirements of the device are derived from the problem statement and are listed and explained. The concept generation, concept selection, concept refinement, and prototyping phases are described. Finally, recommendations for future development are discussed.
by Xochitl L. Mellor.
S.B.

FundaÃÃo Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientifico e TecnolÃgico
O lÃtex da planta lactÃfera Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br. à um composto biologicamente ativo importante que apresenta propriedades relevantes como as atividades antiinflamatÃria e antidiarrÃica, embora jà tenha sido previamente mostrado que esse lÃtex produz efeitos tÃxicos considerÃveis em animais. Um outro fato à que nÃo à sabido, ainda, se as proteÃnas do lÃtex de C. procera produzem efeitos alergÃnicos, assim como as proteÃnas do lÃtex de Hevea brasiliensis. O potencial do lÃtex como um fÃrmaco, por essa razÃo, depende da separaÃÃo das propriedades curativas das propriedades tÃxicas e alergÃnicas, mas nÃo existe investigaÃÃo cientÃfica nessa Ãrea. O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar aspectos bioquÃmicos, toxicolÃgicos e alergÃnicos do lÃtex da planta C. procera, atravÃs do estudo da digestibilidade in vitro e in vivo, avaliaÃÃo da toxicidade subcrÃnica e aguda por via oral e anÃlise da induÃÃo de resposta imune pelas vias subcutÃnea e oral das suas fraÃÃes. O lÃtex foi fracionado em trÃs fraÃÃes distintas de acordo com a sua solubilidade em Ãgua e tamanho molecular. As fraÃÃes foram assim denominadas: proteÃnas do lÃtex (PL), correspondendo Ãs principais proteÃnas do lÃtex; proteÃnas da diÃlise (PD), representando as substÃncias de baixa massa molecular; e borracha do lÃtex (BL) que à altamente insolÃvel em Ãgua. A fraÃÃo PL foi investigada, com relaÃÃo a alguns aspectos bioquÃmicos, como seu perfil protÃico por PAGE-SDS e anÃlise da composiÃÃo de seus aminoÃcidos. As proteÃnas do lÃtex tambÃm foram submetidas à digestÃo in vitro com as enzimas proteolÃticas pepsina, tripsina, quimiotripsina e protease de Streptomyces griseus e a digestibilidade in vitro foi avaliada por cromatografia de filtraÃÃo em gel ou PAGE-SDS. A digestibilidade in vivo de PL foi analisada quando animais experimentais ingeriram essa fraÃÃo por 35 dias. O volume de PL consumido foi registrado diariamente e amostras das fezes dos animais coletadas, tratadas e submetidas à PAGE-SDS e ensaios de imunodifusÃo radial dupla de Ouchterlony, com anticorpos policlonais contra PL. Com relaÃÃo aos aspectos toxicolÃgicos, a fraÃÃo PL foi oralmente administrada a animais experimentais por 35 dias, para a avaliaÃÃo da toxicidade subcrÃnica. Aumentos na massa corpÃrea foram registrados e amostras sangÃÃneas foram analisadas semanalmente. ApÃs o perÃodo experimental, os animais foram sacrificados e um nÃmero de parÃmetros bioquÃmicos e fisiolÃgicos foram determinados. Esses incluÃram determinaÃÃes sÃricas de glicose sangÃÃnea, colesterol total, HDL-colesterol, triglicerÃdeos, testes da funÃÃo hepÃtica (proteÃnas totais, albumina, alanina aminotransferase â ALT e aspartato aminotransferase â AST), testes da funÃÃo renal (urÃia e creatinina), contagens total e diferencial de leucÃcitos sangÃÃneos e do fluido peritonial e anÃlise das proteÃnas sÃricas por PAGE-SDS. Os animais tiveram seus ÃrgÃos vitais (fÃgado, rins, baÃo, intestino delgado, intestino grosso, pÃncreas e estÃmago) dissecados e as massas frescas relativas foram determinadas. Na avaliaÃÃo da toxicidade aguda, a fraÃÃo PL foi administrada por via oral a animais experimentais e a monitoraÃÃo de alteraÃÃes comportamentais desses animais tambÃm foi realizada. Quanto aos aspectos alergÃnicos, respostas imunolÃgicas do lÃtex de C. procera foram investigadas pelas vias oral e subcutÃnea em camundongos. Anti-soros contra as fraÃÃes PL, PD e BL foram analisados quanto a IgG e IgA por ELISA, enquanto IgE e IgG1 foram monitoradas por anafilaxia cutÃnea passiva (PCA) em ratos e camundongos, respectivamente. Os perfis protÃicos das fraÃÃes PL e BL foram analisados por PAGE-SDS. Com relaÃÃo aos resultados dos aspectos bioquÃmicos, a fraÃÃo PL possui uma quantidade apreciÃvel de proteÃnas, baixo conteÃdo de aminoÃcidos sulfurados (metionina e cisteÃna) e um nÃmero considerÃvel de aminoÃcidos (arginina, lisina, fenilalanina e tirosina) que representam sÃtios de clivagem para as enzimas proteolÃticas animais usadas. A fraÃÃo PL foi digerida pela aÃÃo da pepsina, tripsina e quimiotripsina como revelado por anÃlises de filtraÃÃo em gel e PAGE-SDS. A digestÃo completa das proteÃnas do lÃtex foi facilmente obtida pelo tratamento com a protease de S. griseus. Anticorpos policlonais de coelho produzidos contra PL nÃo apresentaram reaÃÃo cruzada com as molÃculas presentes nas fezes dos ratos experimentais. PadrÃes semelhantes de eletroforese foram observados para as quantidades desprezÃveis de proteÃna observadas nos materiais fecais dos animais controle e experimentais. Quanto aos resultados da avaliaÃÃo da toxicidade subcrÃnica, nenhuma morte foi observada durante o experimento. Animais controle e experimentais apresentaram taxa de crescimento semelhante e os ÃrgÃos vitais exibiram massas frescas relativas similares. As funÃÃes hepÃtica e renal, parÃmetros glicÃmicos e lipidÃmicos sÃricos situaram-se em nÃveis normais. Os padrÃes protÃicos eletroforÃticos dos soros dos animais controle e experimental exibiram perfis muito similares. A fraÃÃo PL nÃo induziu inflamaÃÃo aguda na cavidade peritonial dos ratos, como determinado pelas contagens total e diferencial de leucÃcitos. O resultado mais relevante detectado foi um aparente efeito proliferativo das proteÃnas do lÃtex sobre os linfÃcitos sangÃÃneos que tenderam a aumentar, enquanto os neutrÃfilos permaneceram em nÃvel normal. Deve ser enfatizado que os animais experimentais exibiram comportamento, aspectos morfolÃgicos e bioquÃmicos normais, indicando ser improvÃvel que os mesmos estivessem sob qualquer condiÃÃo patolÃgica ou infecciosa. Portanto, o incremento da populaÃÃo de linfÃcitos no soro sangÃÃneo deve ser atribuÃdo a um efeito notÃvel das proteÃnas do lÃtex e nÃo a qualquer evento prejudicial. A fraÃÃo PL foi incapaz de induzir toxicidade aguda, pois nenhuma mudanÃa comportamental foi observada nos animais experimentais. Com relaÃÃo aos resultados dos aspectos alergÃnicos, nenhuma das fraÃÃes induziu aumentos nos nÃveis de anticorpos, quando os camundongos receberam as fraÃÃes do lÃtex por via oral e, portanto, nÃo desenvolveram alergia. Entretanto, anti-soros de camundongos sensibilizados com PL e BL por administraÃÃo subcutÃnea apresentaram resposta imunolÃgica considerÃvel, e PD nÃo induziu sÃntese de anticorpos. O nÃvel de IgG aumentou consistentemente contra PL e BL, enquanto a resposta de IgA foi detectada unicamente contra PL. PL e BL induziram reaÃÃes de PCA muito fortes, sugerindo que ambas as fraÃÃes contÃm substÃncias do lÃtex envolvidas na alergenicidade. AlÃm disso, a anÃlise protÃica de PL e BL sugere que BL ainda retÃm proteÃnas residuais, co-precipitadas com a borracha, abundantemente encontradas na fraÃÃo PL, que poderiam explicar as alergenicidades semelhantes. Nenhuma reaÃÃo de IgG1 foi detectada em quaisquer dos anti-soros testados. Conclui-se que as proteÃnas do lÃtex foram parcialmente susceptÃveis à proteÃlise em ensaios in vitro e, ou foram digeridas e absorvidas, ou foram absorvidas Ãntegras, quando ingeridas em ensaios in vivo. Eventos tÃxicos ou letalidade associados ao lÃtex, como descritos na literatura, nÃo estÃo relacionados com a fraÃÃo PL. A fraÃÃo PL produziu efeito proliferativo parcial sobre as cÃlulas mononucleadas, principalmente linfÃcitos e nÃo induziu resposta inflamatÃria aguda, quando administrada pela via oral. Efeitos alergÃnicos puderam ser detectados, por via subcutÃnea, com as fraÃÃes PL e BL, e nÃo foram observados por via oral. EvidÃncias para uma possÃvel tolerÃncia sistÃmica Ãs proteÃnas do lÃtex por via oral foram fornecidas. As proteÃnas do lÃtex podem atuar como imunoestimulantes. As proteÃnas do lÃtex permanecem uma fonte interessante de molÃculas biologicamente ativas que devem ser estudadas em detalhe quanto Ãs suas propriedades estruturais, funcionais e aplicativas.
The latex of the lactiferous plant Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br. is an important biologically active compound that displays relevant properties like antiinflammatory and antidiarrhea activities, although the latex has previously been shown to produce considerable toxic effects on animals. Another question is that it is not known yet whether the latex proteins from C. procera induce allergenic effects, just like the latex proteins from Hevea brasiliensis. The potential of the latex as a pharmaceutical, therefore, depends on separating the curative properties from the toxic and allergenic properties, but there has been a lack of scientific investigation in this area. The objective of the present study was to investigate biochemical, toxicological and allergenic aspects of the latex from the plant C. procera, through the study of in vitro and in vivo digestibility, evaluation of acute and subchronic toxicity by oral route, and analysis of immune response induction by subcutaneous and oral route of its fractions. The latex was fractionated into three distinct fractions according to their water solubility and molecular size. The fractions were named as: latex proteins (LP), corresponding to the major latex proteins; dialysis proteins (DP), representing low molecular size substances; and rubber latex (RL), which was highly insoluble in water. LP fraction was investigated in some biochemical aspects, like its protein profile by SDS-PAGE analysis and its amino acid composition determination. Latex proteins were also subjected to in vitro digestion with trypsin, chemotrypsin, pepsin and Streptomyces griseus protease and in vitro digestibility was evaluated by gel filtration and SDS-PAGE analysis. The in vivo digestibility of LP was analyzed when experimental animals ingested this fraction for 35 days. The volume uptake of LP was recorded daily and samples of fecal material from animals were collected, treated and submitted to SDS-PAGE analysis and radial double immunodifusion assays, with polyclonal antibodies raised against LP. In relation to toxicological aspects, LP fraction was orally administered to experimental animals for 35 days, to allow subchronic toxicity evaluation. Increases in body mass were recorded and blood samples were analyzed weekly. After the test period, the animals were sacrificed and a number of biochemical and physiological parameters determined. These included sera determinations of blood glucose, total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, triglycerides, hepatic function tests (total proteins, albumin, alanine aminotransferase â ALT and aspartate aminotransferase â AST), renal function tests (urea and creatinin), total and differential leukocyte counts in blood and peritoneal fluid and analysis of sera proteins by SDS-PAGE. Animals had internal key organs (liver, kidneys, spleen, small intestine, large intestine, pancreas and stomach) dissected and the relative fresh masses were determined. In the acute toxicity evaluation, LP fraction was administered by oral route to experimental animals and behavioral changes in animals were also monitored. With reference to allergenic aspects, immunological responses of latex from C. procera were investigated by oral and subcutaneous routes in mice. Anti-sera against LP, DP and RL fractions were assayed for IgG and IgA titration by ELISA, while IgE and IgG1 were accessed by passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) in rats and mice, respectively. Protein profiles of LP and RL fractions were analyzed by SDS-PAGE. Concerning biochemical aspects results, LP fraction possesses appreciable amount of protein, low content of sulphurated amino acids (methionine and cysteine) and a considerable number of amino acids (arginine, lysine, phenylalanine and tyrosine) that represent cleavage sites to animal proteolytic enzymes studied. LP fraction was digested by the action of pepsin, trypsin and chemotrypsin as revealed by gel filtration and SDS-PAGE analyses. The full LP digestion was easily achieved by S. griseus protease treatment. Rabbit polyclonal antibodies raised against LP failed to detect cross-reactive molecules in faeces of experimental rats. Similar patterns of electrophoresis were observed for the negligible amounts of protein observed in the fecal materials of control and test animals. With relation to subchronic toxicity evaluation results, no death was observed during the experiment. Experimental and control animals presented similar growth rate and key organs exhibited similar relative fresh masses. Hepatic and renal functions, sera glycemic and lipidemic parameters were determined to be at normal levels. Likewise, the electrophoretic protein patterns of sera from untreated and treated animals exhibited quite similar profiles. Uptake of latex proteins did not induce acute inflammation into peritoneal cavity of rats as determined by the total and differential leukocytes counts. The most relevant result discovered was an apparent proliferative effect of the latex proteins upon blood lymphocytes that tended to increase, whilst neutrophils remained at normal level. It should be emphasized that the experimental rats were normal in their behavior, morphological and biochemical aspects, indicating that it is unlikely that they were under any pathological or infectious condition. Therefore, the increment of lymphocytes population in the blood serum should be attributed to the staking effect of the latex proteins rather than any harmful event. LP fraction was unable of presenting acute toxicity in experimental animals, because no behavioral changes in animals were observed. Concerning allergenic aspects results, none of the fractions induced antibodies level increases when mice received latex fractions by oral route and thus, did not develop allergy. Nonetheless, anti-sera of mice sensitized with LP and RL by subcutaneous administration displayed considerable immunological response, while DP did not induce antibodies synthesis. IgG level augmented consistently against LP and RL, while IgA response was detected to LP solely. LP and RL induced very strong PCA reactions suggesting that both fractions would contain latex substances involved in allergenicity. Furthermore, protein analysis of LP and RL suggests that RL still retain residual proteins, co-precipitated with rubber, abundantly found in LP, that could explain its similar allergenicity. No IgG1 reaction was detected in any of the anti-sera tested. It can be concluded that latex proteins were partially susceptible to digestive proteolysis when accessed by in vitro assays, and were digested and absorbed, or were absorbed in its intact form, when ingested and analyzed by in vivo tests. Toxic events or lethality associated with latex, as described in the literature, are not related to LP fraction. Latex proteins produced partial proliferative effect upon mononuclear cells, mainly lymphocytes and did not induce an acute inflammatory response, when administered by oral route. Allergenic effects could be detected, by subcutaneous route, with LP and RL fractions, and were not observed by oral route. Evidences for an inducible tolerance acquired to latex proteins by oral route were provided. Latex proteins may act as immune stimulants. The proteins from the latex remain an interesting source of biologically active molecules that should be studied in detail for their structural, functional and applicative properties.

In this chapter, normal breast anatomy is discussed, with a succinct pictorial summary of breast glandular elements, the chest wall, and the axilla. The locations of breast lesions are often arbitrarily divided into upper outer, upper inner, lower inner, and upper inner quadrants. However, the lobes within a specific quadrant cross over into adjacent quadrants. The terminal duct lobular unit (TDLU) is composed of an interlobular duct and associated lobules with multiple grape-like structures where the milk is secreted and drains into the terminal ducts, interlobular ducts, excretory ducts, lactiferous sinus, lactiferous duct, and the nipple. Axillary lymph nodes are divided into three levels, based on their location in relation to the pectoralis minor muscle. Level I axillary lymph nodes are located below the edge of the pectoralis minor; level II lies posterior to the pectoralis minor; and level III lies medial to the pectoralis minor.

New nipple retraction and new nipple inversion can be secondary to malignancy, post-surgical change, inflammation, or infection. Paget disease of the nipple is characterized by an inflammatory response of the nipple epidermis to malignant cells extending from ductal carcinoma in the lactiferous sinus. A mass arising within the nipple is rare and usually a variant of a papilloma arising in the nipple (nipple adenoma). This chapter, appearing in the section on nipple, skin, and lymph nodes, reviews the key clinical features, associated imaging findings, imaging protocols and pitfalls, differential diagnoses, and management recommendations for patients presenting with nipple retraction. Topics discussed include imaging features of nipple retraction, both benign and malignant causes of nipple retraction, Paget disease of the nipple, and masses occurring in the nipple.

Biology is 3D. Therefore, it is important to be able to analyze phenomena in a spatio-temporal manner. Different fields in computational sciences are useful for analysis in biology; i.e. image analysis, pattern recognition and machine learning. To fit an empirical model to a higher abstraction, however, theoretical computer science methods are probed. We explore the construction of empirical 3D graphical models and develop abstractions from these models in L-systems. These systems are provided with a profound formalization in a grammar allowing generalization and exploration of mathematical structures in topologies. The connections between these computational approaches are illustrated by a case study of the development of the lactiferous duct in mice and the phenotypical effects from different environmental conditions we can observe on it. We have constructed a workflow to get 3D models from different experimental conditions and use these models to extract features. Our aim is to construct an abstraction of these 3D models to an L-system from features that we have measured. From our measurements we can make the productions for an L-system. In this manner we can formalize the arborization of the lactiferous duct under different environmental conditions and capture different observations. All considered, this paper illustrates the joint of empirical with theoretical computational sciences and the augmentation of the interpretation of the results. At the same time, it shows a method to analyze complex 3D topologies and produces archetypes for developmental configurations.

The four most common diagnoses for a breast lump are: • Benign cystic change (also known as fibrocystic change, fibroadenosis, or benign breast change) • Fibroadenoma • Cyst • Carcinoma If we consider women of all ages, there are a number of other potential diagnoses: • Fat necrosis • Periductal mastitis • Abscess • Galactocele • Phyllodes tumour • Sarcoma • Duct papilloma • ‘Non-breast’ lumps, e.g. lipoma, sebaceous cyst, prominent costal cartilage/rib. The age of the patient is one of the most useful pieces of information for narrowing the differential. As an approximate guide, the most common diagnoses in the following age groups are: • <30 years: physiologically normal lumpy breast; benign cystic change; fibroadenoma; abscess (if breast-feeding); galactocele (if breast-feeding) • 30–45 years: benign cystic change; cyst; abscess (especially smokers); carcinoma • 45–60 years: cyst; abscess (smokers); carcinoma • >60 years: carcinoma ▲ Note: It is worth emphasizing that breast cancer is possible in all ages, is common, and is potentially very serious. Therefore you must exclude it in any presentation of breast lump, regardless of how benign it seems. Failure to diagnose breast cancer is one of the most common malpractice claims in the USA. Galactoceles may occur during or shortly after the cessation of lactation. They may present as a firm mass (often subareolar) and are caused by the obstruction of a lactiferous duct. The duct gradually becomes more distended with milk and epithelial cells, and may rarely be complicated by a secondary infection leading to abscess formation. Clinically, a galactocele is very similar to a cyst on examination. In addition, lactating women are predisposed to mastitis (whether or not they have a galactocele). The causative organisms are usually skin commensals such as Staphylococcus aureus or Staphylococcus epidermidis—this is in contrast to the periductal mastitis and abscess formation seen in older women, in whom anaerobic bacteria may also be implicated. Two of the greatest risk factors for breast cancer are being female and increasing age. Otherwise, the following are recognized as important factors: • Previous breast cancer • Family history of breast cancer. Suspicions should be raised if: ■ Three close blood relatives (on the same side of the family) develop breast cancer at any age