Journal articles on the topic 'Land settlement patterns – Nigeria'

Climate variation largely impacts migration in with the capacity to worsen conflict and security situations in parts of Africa, Nigeria in particularly, already facing security threats from the activities of sedentary and nomadic pastoral farmer’s interaction. Increasing variations in rainfall patterns significantly impact the migration patterns of vulnerable households and constitute a risk factor to their livelihoods. For effective adaptation plan and sustainable livelihood decision that has climate resilient future, there is need for better understanding of the conflict and security implications of climate variation. This paper, therefore, interrogates the nexus between climate variation and migration, as well as the impact of this nexus on conflicts and security of lives and properties in Nigeria. Using critical analysis and qualitative methodology, the study establishes that migration settlement policies that fail to define the rights and duties of settlers and those of indigenes of any particular community, create loopholes for the reification of identities and identity-induced crisis. The conclusion of the paper is that migration issues resulting from climate variation have not been adequately addressed to involve all stakeholders. There is the need to harvest environmental impact assessment data of climate variation to guide the provision of alternative options to climate-related emergencies across Nigeria.

Urban forests are an essential component of urban areas as they provide many environmental and social services that contribute to the quality of life in cities. Urban forests in most cities of Nigeria are gradually becoming bitty as a result of urbanization activities, thereby posing adverse effects. In this study, we assessed the changes in the urban forests cover under the influence of different human settlement (HS) extents across the urban area of Ibadan city using remotely sensed data. The pattern of change(s) in the urban forests cover over 20 years were examined by analysing and manipulating Landsat and Sentinel-2 datasets using Google Earth Engine, ArcGIS 10.1, and Erdas 2014 software. The extents of human settlement (for the year 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020) were extracted (from Landsat datasets), analysed, and mapped to evaluate the status of the urban forests cover under different human settlement extents. The result reveals a substantial land cover changes within the urban area of Ibadan. The urban forest cover decreased from 24.14% to 7.99%. Also, there is a significant decrease in the urban forests cover as a result of a substantial increase in human settlement extent (102,806 to 122,572 pixels). The study provides an opportunity to map the status of urban forest cover and extents of HS in a developing city using remotely sensed data and applications of GIS tools.

The land use land cover change and its modeling approach has recently been considered by the scientific community to observe environmental changes. Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) give major techniques which can be useful in the analysis at the town locale as well as the city levels. RS data from Thematic Mapper sensor of 1998, 2002, 2010, 2014, and 2018, Operational Land Imager of 2018 were used for the analysis. The study used a supervised classification technique for classification, and Cellular Automata Markovian (CA-Markov) Model analysis was used for future projection of 2038. The result shows that the projected the year 2038 with 0.9079 K-standard value of stimulation, the study further uses Maximum likelihood classifier (MLC) a supervised classification method to classify the images. The study reveals a continuous pattern of urban growth from 3.96 km2 in 2018 to 4.73 in 2038 in terms of settlement growth, dense vegetation has decreased from 11.73 in 2018 to 8.55 in 2038 also shrubland has decreased from 44.82 to 36.30, the last bare land has increased more than all the classes from 162.69 to 173.69. The findings of the present study are useful for planners and decision-makers in sustainable natural resource management.

Abstract Studies have shown that information on landscape transformation is an important benchmark data set because of its value as an environmental change indicator. Therefore, dynamism of landscape transformation over a 34-year period are analysed for a case study in Ibiono-Ibom, Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria. The study adopted a mixed method consisting of remote sensing and GIS-based analysis, and semi-structured interviews covering 400 households while factors contributing to landscape structures and changes are studied. The results point out three main driving factors responsible for the landscape transformation in the study area: agricultural practices which lead to intensification of forest resources, riparian vegetation, vegetated wetlands and non-vegetated wetlands; urbanization which modifies the structure and morphology of the landscape, and finally, population growth directly related to massive infrastructural development which encroached on all other land spaces. GIS-based analysis of remotely-sensed data showed that built-up area had increased by 7535.2 ha between 1986 and 2020; shrub and arable land by 1343.9 ha and light forest decreased by 4998.3 ha. While bare-land reduced by 1522.1 ha; vegetated wetland reduced by 1092 ha; water body coverage reduced by 168 ha and non-vegetated wetland size also reduced by 2029.4 ha. Analysis of household survey results revealed that the perceptions of respondents validate the observed patterns during the remotely-sensed data analysis phase of the research, with 54 % (n=400) of respondents reporting a decline in agricultural land use, and 19.3 % (n=400) observing a decline in forest areas in the study area. Furthermore, agricultural intensification, urban development, timber exploitation, firewood collection and increase in settlements were identified as the proximate drivers of these observed landscape transformation dynamics in the study area. The study concluded that the variation in landscape transformation of the study area are clear indication of the extent of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation in the study area.

In its determination to provide food and jobs for Nigerians, and appeal to educated young men to set the pattern for farming, many state governments have re-introduced Farm Settlement Scheme (FSS)/Graduate Employment Scheme once abandoned. One major challenge leading to programme failure in Nigeria is the inability to know the influence of the factors on the participation and constraints of such programmes. This study analysed the determinants of crop farmers? participation in FSS in Lagos State with the aim of drawing some lessons for future rural development programmes. One hundred and thirty (130) farmers were sampled through two-stage sampling procedures. Data were collected with the aid of a questionnaire and were analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics such as the logit regression model. Results show that about 67% of the respondents were male and 72% were married. The major constraining factors to participation in FSS were administrative bottlenecks, inadequate capital, and government interference. The logit regression showed that educational level, farming experience, extension contacts and security of land under FSS were the significant variables (P<0.5) that directly influenced the probability of participation of the farmers in FSS in Lagos State, Nigeria. Farming experience is very crucial for the survival of FSS. Therefore, it is recommended that the determinants of participation and constraints to the participation of the farmers be assessed in any rural development programme to know the necessary action against failure. The effort at increasing extension contacts about FSS will further encourage farmers to participate in FSS.

Background: In Nigeria, medicinal plants are now being threatened due to increased urbanization, land clearing for farming and over-harvesting from their natural habitats. As such, if such trends continue, some of these medicinal plants might increasingly become not available and in the extreme circumstance be faced with extinction. Methods: An epidemiological descriptive field survey that employed a carefully-structured, closed-ended, interviewer-administered, paper-based questionnaire designed to capture information on the use of medicinal plants as antimalarial and for management of other associated illnesses. We also employed Global Positioning System (Garmin etrex 75) to captures the geo-coordinates of previously identified medicinal plants across the footpath transect at 20 m intervals. A total of twenty-one (21) medicinal plant species were surveyed across five communities with varying numbers per locations. Results: Out of the nine (9) identified traditional healers across the communities, all claimed to have used at least one or combinations of these plants for treatment of malaria. An image classification performed through land cover land use map of the study area revealed six classes: swamp /water bodies, river valley, savanna woodland, degraded woodland, grassland and settlements cluster. Most threatened species such as Aristolochia ringes, Mucuna prurins, Azadirachta indica, Kigelia africana, Citrus limon, Ludwigia suffruticosa, Parkia biglobosa, and Picralima nitida are those found in Malete KWASU campus axis in the degraded woodland and settlement cluster classes. This is due to the high level of forest destruction in the area as a result of growing student population and massive constructions of students’ hostel. We reported that about 60% of original plant cover has been lost between 2005 and 2015. It was observed that availability of surface water bodies played a crucial role in influencing the distribution of identified medicinal plants. The nearest neighbour analysis gave a nearest neighbour index of 0.695 at p=0.000003 and z-score of -4.70314. This shows that the observed random distribution of medicinal plants in the study area was statistically significant. It has been observed that random patterns are usually associated with natural occurrences. The random spatial pattern confirms that these plants have not yet been affected by anthropogenic activities and hence need to be conserved there in the wild. Conclusion: There is need to leverage on conservation of medicinal plants for treating malaria in their natural habitats. Also, the need to ensure sustainable harvesting and other socio-ecological process to ensure these are not threatened to the extreme case of extinction in these communities. In the view of the above, we recommend that KWASU-Malete campus axis be monitored, proper urban planning initiatives implemented and ensure cultivation and preservation of these plants are incorporated into the greening efforts of the Kwara state government in this area.

Globally there are concerns about outdoor air pollution and its effects on the environment and human health. Researchers are concerned with the negative effects of and best mitigation strategies for air pollution. Climate change and human health are a common phenomenon associated with air pollution, as carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed and emitted naturally as part of the carbon cycle. This study was aimed at assessing the emission level of CO2 in Kuje Area Council in the Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria and its effect on the environment and human health. Fifty specific residential and commercial locations were considered, and over 1200 observations of CO2 field data were collected and analysed during two seasons–dry and wet. The land-use settlement pattern was taken into consideration. The data were collected weekly at different time bands (2-, 4-, 6-, and 8-hour time intervals) using the AMPROBE CO2-100, CO2 meter gas detection instrument with self-calibration capability of ±30 parts per million (ppm), ±5% reading (0–5000) accuracy. A Garmin CX60 global positioning system was used to obtain the point locations Universal Transvers Mercator coordinates. The results showed higher mean CO2 emission values of >541 ppm and <713 ppm during the dry and wet seasons, respectively. It was also observed that these values were contrary to and exceeded the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers and Occupational Safety and Health Administration normal outdoor level standards of 350–450 ppm. These higher CO2 values were found in the residential and commercial districts, and if not monitored and controlled they will have adverse effects on human health and climate change effects. Quick interventions would be to plant trees to sequestrate the CO2 and to regulate the transportation system within the area due to continuous carbon emission.

Rapid urbanization rates impact significantly on the nature of Land Cover patterns of the environment, which has been evident in the depletion of vegetal reserves and in general modifying the human climatic systems (Henderson, et al., 2017; Kumar, Masago, Mishra, & Fukushi, 2018; Luo and Lau, 2017). This study explores remote sensing classification technique and other auxiliary data to determine LULCC for a period of 50 years (1967-2016). The LULCC types identified were quantitatively evaluated using the change detection approach from results of maximum likelihood classification algorithm in GIS. Accuracy assessment results were evaluated and found to be between 56 to 98 percent of the LULC classification. The change detection analysis revealed change in the LULC types in Minna from 1976 to 2016. Built-up area increases from 74.82ha in 1976 to 116.58ha in 2016. Farmlands increased from 2.23 ha to 46.45ha and bared surface increases from 120.00ha to 161.31ha between 1976 to 2016 resulting to decline in vegetation, water body, and wetlands. The Decade of rapid urbanization was found to coincide with the period of increased Public Private Partnership Agreement (PPPA). Increase in farmlands was due to the adoption of urban agriculture which has influence on food security and the environmental sustainability. The observed increase in built up areas, farmlands and bare surfaces has substantially led to reduction in vegetation and water bodies. The oscillatory nature of water bodies LULCC which was not particularly consistent with the rates of urbanization also suggests that beyond the urbanization process, other factors may influence the LULCC of water bodies in urban settlements. Keywords: Minna, Niger State, Remote Sensing, Land Surface Characteristics References Akinrinmade, A., Ibrahim, K., & Abdurrahman, A. (2012). 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Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, 26(11), pp. 2310-2323. Yengoh, G. T., Dent, D., Olsson, L., Tengberg, A. E., & Tucker III, C. J. (2015). Use of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) to Assess Land Degradation at Multiple Scales: Current Status, Future Trends, and Practical Considerations: Springer. Yu, Q., Gong, P., Clinton, N., Biging, G., Kelly, M., & Schirokauer, D. (2006). Object-based detailed vegetation classification with airborne high spatial resolution remote sensing imagery. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 72(7), pp. 799-811. Zhou, D., Zhao, S., Zhang, L., & Liu, S. (2016). Remotely sensed assessment of urbanization effects on vegetation phenology in China's 32 major cities. Remote Sensing of Environment, 176, pp. 272-281. Zhu, Z., Fu, Y., Woodcock, C. E., Olofsson, P., Vogelmann, J. E., Holden, C., . . . Yu, Y. (2016). 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Debt collateral is often unacceptable to the execution of debt collateral because there is coercion and leads to court so that many debts are not collected. In Minangkabau customary law, there is no compulsion to pay off debts. This research answers how people make debt-receivables agreements and must be repaid by the debtors in the Minangkabau customary law arrangement in Sungai Dareh village, West Sumatra. This research method is through observation and interviews of local customary leaders. The implementation of the pattern of execution of debt collateral settlement in Minangkabau is motivated by the legal relationship between the creditor and the collateral in the form of land. The creditor only has the right to cultivate or take the proceeds from the land given by the debt recipient until the debt is paid off or redeemed by the debt recipient, so that debt settlement will never transfer ownership rights to the land. In an urgent situation, the creditor can transfer the debt to the new lender, which stops the legal relationship between the first creditor and the debt recipient and creates a new legal relationship between the second creditor and the debt recipient. Creditors' rights remain a priority, and there is no time limit in paying off debts. This debt settlement is very different from debt settlement in positive law in Indonesia. The creditor has the right to sell the land as collateral for the debt if the debt cannot be settled after a certain period, which results in the loss of ownership of the debt recipient over the land that is used as debt collateral. There is a need for positive legal reform in Indonesia regarding the execution of debt guarantees.

This study aim to attempt mapping out the Land Use or Land Cover (LULC) status of Regional Project Coordination Committee (RPCC) between 2009-2019 with a view of detecting the land consumption rate and the changes that has taken place using RS and GIS techniques; serving as a precursor to the further study on urban induced variations or change in weather pattern of the cityn Rangpur City Corporation(RCC) is the main administrative functional area for both of Rangpur City and Rangpur division and experiencing a rapid changes in the field of urban sprawl, cultural and physical landscape,city growth. These agents of Land use or Land cover (LULC) varieties are responsible for multi-dimensional problems such as traffic congestion, waterlogging, and solid waste disposal, loss of agricultural land. In this regard, this study fulfills LULC changes by using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) as well as field survey was conducted for the measurement of change detection. The sources of data were Landsat 7 ETM and landsat 8 OLI/TIRS of both C1 level 1. Then after correcting the data, geometrically and radiometrically change detection and combined classification (supervised & unsupervised) were used. The study finds LULC changes built-up area, water source, agricultural land, bare soil in a change of percentage is 17.23, 2.58, -9.94, -10.19 respectively between 2009 and 2019. Among these changes, bare soil is changed to a great extent, which indicates the expansion of urban areas is utilizing the land to a proper extent. Keywords: Urban expansion; land use; land cover; remote sensing; geographic information system (GIS); Rangpur City Corporation(RCC). References Al Rifat, S. A., & Liu, W. (2019). 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Policymakers in the Brazilian Amazon face the challenge of meeting environmental and developmental goals as cities and towns within these tropical forests continue to face migration pressure. Alternative government planning strategies have been implemented to address forest clearing in conjunction with meeting social agendas. This paper uses panel estimation methods to investigate the impact of settlement design on land use. Results indicate that new settlement designs developed to further social interaction have had a negative impact on land cover and land use transformation. Thus, while new settlement designs appear to positively impact stated social goals, including greater contact between families and access to water and services, these social advances have come at the expense of environmental goals.

This paper, describes an agent based model of the spreading of a population over a territory. The models aims at reproducing a distribution of settlements with statistical and spatial characteristics similar to a historically produced pattern. The model operates on a representation of a real territory, taking into account hydrography and relief. The two main goals are to obtain a rank size distribution of the size of settlements which corresponds to a power law (also known as the Zipf Law of settlements) and to place the settlements in the territory in patterns that are close to the real ones, in zones where settlements were the result of a long historical process. The goal of the project was to demonstrate that a set of relatively simple rules could produce a complex pattern, similar to the result of a long and complex historical process. Therefore, it is an assumed reductionist approach. Our conclusions show that a simple territorial logic, taking into account the quality of land, accessibility, population growth and migration preferences could reproduce Zipf distributions and interesting patterns of agent flow among the settlements created. However, achieving spatial patterns closer to the historical record needs an extra dimension involving field of sight. The best results were achieved by creating an artifical population which chooses to create settlements in places where a wide field of view exists of quality territory.

For transportation planners, the use of Origin-Destination (OD) matrix adjustment, is receiving considerable attention. However, there are concerns about the validity of results, primarily related to the number and location of traffic count posts. This leads to the question “What would be the best set of traffic count posts to use in OD matrix adjustment modules?” It has been proved that solving this problem is cumbersome. There have been several attempts (either exact or heuristic approaches) to address this problem. But due to the inherent complexities, there is no efficient and easy-to-use methodology able to address situations on the scale of actual cases. This study demonstrates a simple way of identifying traffic count posts tailored to deal w ith real-size cases. The proposed methodology is based on a maximum matrix coverage criterion. Using a limited number of incremental trials, a set of links whose traffic flows give maximum coverage of the demand and maximum fitness to the corresponding traffic count rates are identified as traffic count posts. The results show that more traffic count posts do not necessarily yield a better result. This article reports on a project conducted for the public works ministry of the UAE city of Sharjah.

Land and associated resources are crucial factors of agricultural production; hence, continuous petroleum exploitation activities cause an imbalance in the ecosystem and subsequently on agriculture. Against this background, this study examines the effects of petroleum exploitation on spatial pattern of agricultural production in Udu Local Government Area of Delta State, Nigeria. The primary source is a sample of 320 farmers chosen at random from two settlements selected from and outside Abura (OML 65) oil producing field. The questionnaire covered social and demographic characteristics of farmers and effects of petroleum exploitation on distance to farms, number, sizes of farms and output. Descriptive statistics and the pair-wise Student‟s t-test were used to analysed data collected for the study. The study reveals that petroleum exploitation resulted in increased distance to farms, reduced farm number and sizes and decreased agricultural output. There were significant differences in distance to farms (t= 1.000, df=9, p<0.05), farm sizes (t =1.000, df=9; p<0.05) and agricultural output (t=0.578, df=9, p<0.05) of the two settlements selected from and outside oil producing field. Impact evaluation of petroleum exploitation activities is recommended for sustainable development of agriculture in the study area.

With the advent of the British in India, the colonial institutions were introduced throughout the country. In the Bahawalpur State, the Agency government stimulated the fiscal patterns of British India particularly its settlement policy, which brought amelioration in the native revenue system. This paper traces the historical process of land settlement for revenue generation and their impact over the agrarian economy of the State. These settlements became the major contributing factor towards the economic advancement. The different phases of settlement of land, along with the extent of government demand are established in this research. The third phase of land settlement resulted by the beginning of weir control water system, brought some revolutionary changes in the land pattern and revenue structure therefore, it has been particularly focused in this paper. The data for this study is mainly based on unpublished archival documents and unpublished assessment reports.

This study applied GIS and remote sensing technology to assess agricultural land use and vegetative cover in Kano Metropolis. It specifically examined the intensity of land use for agricultural and non agricultural purpose from 1975 – 2015. Images (1975, 1995 and 2015), landsat MSS/TM, landsat 8, scene of path 188 and 052 were downloaded for the study. Bonds for these imported scenes were processed using ENVI 5.0 version. The result indicated five classified features-settlement, farmland, water body, vegetation and bare land. The finding revealed an increase in settlement, vegetation and bare land between 1995 and 2015, however, farmland decreased in 2015. Indicatively, higher percentage of land use for non agricultural purposes was observed in recent time. Conclusively, there is need to accord surveying the rightful place and priority in agricultural planning and development if Nigeria is to be self food sufficient. Keywords: Geographic Information System, Agriculture, Remote sensing, Land use, Land cover

This study analyzes the patterns of land-use and land-cover changes for the last three decades (1986–2017) and its drivers for Owabi and Barekese watersheds in the moist semi-deciduous forest of Ghana. The study used Landsat satellite imageries of 1986, 1998, 2007, and 2017 and population data to analyze land cover and use changes of the two watersheds. A decline in natural vegetation cover by 57% and 71.3% has occurred for Owabi and Barekese watersheds respectively. Cropland increased by 77.1% and 105.2% while settlement has increased by 1,018% and 4%, respectively, for Owabi and Barekese watersheds. Cropland is the main form of land-use change for Barekese watershed while settlement is the main land-use change in the Owabi watershed. Annual expansion of settlement within the Owabi site was 38.1%, and cropland was 5.2% for the Barekese site. Population trends had a significant negative relationship with forest cover and a positive relationship with settlement and cropland. Catchment degradation was also influenced by the management model used.

The historical timing and movement of Navajo communities in the U.S. Southwest continue to be key, but unresolved, issues. This paper analyzes tree-ring data to consider initial Navajo settlement patterns in the Little Colorado River watershed, Black Mesa, and nearby regions in northern Arizona. We are critical of previous studies that deem all tree-ring dates to be equally valid, so we present a new approach to systematically identify potential early Navajo sites. After analyzing hundreds of tree-ring specimens from 774 sites, we conclude that dendrochronological evidence offers moderate-to-high confidence that 18 Navajo sites in the study area were settled prior to 1882. These dendrochronological data support the hypothesis of a westward Navajo migration from the Dinétah, reaching Black Mesa in Arizona about 1840, other areas north and east of the Hopi Mesas in the 1850s, and land west of Hopi in the 1870s after the release of Navajos from Fort Sumner in 1868.

The urban cities in Nigeria are experiencing a deformation causing an urban decay with poor housing construction, improper use of unplanned land hindering urban spatial development. In this paper examination of slum prevalence in Nigeria and aims to propose development scheme to improve informal settlement of the urban cities focusing on governmental intervention and development policies in all level of governmental authorities to upgrade the living conditions and obtain value for the urban low class. Harvesting the potential of the work force of this regions for urban development, aims to provide highlight to the use of infrastructural development particularly road network to aid connectivity and urban design. A review of informal settlement mainly on the absence of infrastructure and degraded environmental conditions in an unplanned settlement in the city of Kaduna popularly known as Railway Down Quarter, proposes a possible strategy and approach for a sustainable upgrading policy. This research develops a conceptual approach of the necessity of mainly road infrastructure a medium that introduces services and a sustainable development in informal settlements in Kaduna, Nigeria by government intervention. Keywords: Slum upgrade, government policy, road infrastructure, Railway Down Quarter, Kaduna, Nigeria

Over the past 200 years, the population of the United States grew more than 40-fold. The resulting development of the built environment has had a profound impact on the regional economic, demographic, and environmental structure of North America. Unfortunately, constraints on data availability limit opportunities to study long-term development patterns and how population growth relates to land-use change. Using hundreds of millions of property records, we undertake the finest-resolution analysis to date, in space and time, of urbanization patterns from 1810 to 2015. Temporally consistent metrics reveal distinct long-term urban development patterns characterizing processes such as settlement expansion and densification at fine granularity. Furthermore, we demonstrate that these settlement measures are robust proxies for population throughout the record and thus potential surrogates for estimating population changes at fine scales. These new insights and data vastly expand opportunities to study land use, population change, and urbanization over the past two centuries.

Where and how have precolonial institutions of conflict resolution remained intact? Although it is often argued that “traditional” institutions can play a key role in managing communal conflicts, little is known about the conditions of their “survival.” This article argues that historical, political, and cultural topographies are essential to understanding patterns of the persistence and demise of precolonial institutions. Traditional modes of conflict resolution remain strong where they have been internalized over centuries: in the cultural and political centers of precolonial states. I use original geocoded survey data and historical spatial information on precolonial Burundi to analyze this hypothesis. The estimations yield robust correlations between the geographic patterns of the precolonial kingdom and current modes of resource-related conflict resolution.

Abstract The traditional character of Hutsul villages and their spatial development has been changing slowly but inevitably over the course of time. Historically, single farmsteads were built separately and were mostly self-sufficient, the distance between them being considerable. Nowadays, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the economic transformation brought along many changes, among these the fact that depopulation is taking place and alterations in spatial development are occurring again. The localisation of secluded farmsteads, situated far away from each other is no longer as important as it used to be. Reasons for the abandonment of farmsteads were examined, and factors such as altitude, distance from the village centre and the administration affiliation were taken into account. Land use changes were analysed in relation to the slope inclination. Some of the most important factors influencing the intensity and direction of these processes are high prices of land, improvement in living conditions, better access to services and the general ‘westernisation’ of lifestyles. The depopulation rate has been seen to increase in correlation with the rising altitude and distance from the village centre. On the other hand, there was no unambiguous link between the abandonment of farmsteads and administration affiliation. Mowed areas were localised on the slopes with the smallest inclination. Animal breeding has become unprofitable due to a lack in demand and low product prices, which has led to an increasing number of meadows and pastures lying fallow.

Abstract Forest Reserves in Southwestern Nigeria have been threatened by urbanization and anthropogenic activities and the rate of deforestation is not known. This study examined the vegetation characteristics of Akure Forest Reserve using optical remote sensing data. It also assessed the changing pattern in the forest reserve between 1986 and 2017. Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receiver was used to capture the location of the prominent settlements that surrounded the Forest Reserve in order to evaluate their effects on the forest. Landsat TM 1986, Landsat ETM+ 2002 and Landsat OLI_TIRS 2017 with 30m resolution were classified to assess the spatio-temporal changing pattern of the forest reserve. The results showed different composition of vegetation, which include undisturbed forest, secondary regrowth and farmlands. The study further revealed that in 1986, 2002 and 2017, undisturbed forest constituted 63.3%, 32.4% and 32.1% of the entire land area respectively, while secondary regrowth occupied 8.3% in 1986, 9.5% in 2002 and 15.6% in 2017. The farmlands had erratic growth between 1986 and 2017. It was 16.9% in 1986, 22.1% in 2002 and 17.5% in 2017. The bare ground exhibited inconsistency in the coverage. In 1986 the areal extent was 11.5%, when it increased to 36% in 2002 and decreased to 31.9% in 2017. In conclusion, the study revealed the extent of forest depletion at Akure Forest Reserve and it is therefore important that the residents, the government and the researchers show major concern about some of the critical factors to human beings that are responsible for forest depletion.

Introduction. The sustainability of the rural settlement is a key land use planning objective in the present-day socio-economic environment. This issue is particularly relevant Belarus as the most urbanized country of the European region. The retrospective analysis is the most effective tool for studying the transformational processes underway in the settlement system. The mission of this article is to study the transformation of the rural settlement pattern in Belarus. Materials and methods. The research methodology encompasses general scientific methods (a system approach, a retrospective analysis) and special transdisciplinary methods (cartographic modeling backed by GIS tools). Population census data, open-access cartographic sources and land-use planning documents were studied, as well. Results. Three periods were identified in the history of rural settlement in Belarus: pre-revolutionary (1897–1917), Soviet (1917–1991) and contemporary ones (1991–present). Within these periods, transformational processes were particularly active. A retrospective analysis of the structure and spatial organization of rural settlement processes was performed for each period. Special features of the Belarus rural settlement structure were highlighted. They include polarization, growing population shares and sizes of major rural populated areas, the “drain” of large and medium-sized populated areas, and the degradation of small ones. Conclusions. The retrospective analysis enabled the author to identify the most significant historical periods in the history of rural settlement. Any settlement transformation was mainly driven by social and political factors. By summarizing the findings, the author identified two patterns of transformation applicable to rural settlement patterns: development and degradation. Three types of spatial reorganization of rural populated areas were formulated: relocation to the city, relocation to rural populated areas, or settlement system centres, and relocation to ordinary rural populated areas. Further research undertakings will focus on conceptualizing the spatial organization model of the rural settlement system.

Ciliwung Watershed is one of watershed that across the Jakarta capital region. Ciliwung Watershed is categorized as super-priority watershed in Indonesia. The study was conducted in downstream of Ciliwung Watershed in Jakarta. This study aimed to analyze land cover changes from greenery open space to build up area in period of 1993-2013 and to analyze the distribution of settlement and its characteristics in the downstream of Ciliwung Watershed. LANDSAT images data of 1993 and 2013 were classified using supervised classification method to produce land cover map. The results of the map are analyzed spatially and descriptively to determine the changes. The greenery open space have changed into built up area about 70.07% during 20 years in the downstream of Ciliwung watershed. While, the settlement is dominated by the unplanned settlement (87.23%). Meanwhile, the settlements were dominated by unplanned settlements (87.23%) which characterized by linier settlement patterns, very lage size of settlement, low to medium building density, and good condition of insfrastructure. Five recommendations have provided for landscape managing of settlement in downstream of Ciliwung Watershed.

Defining territories and settlement hierarchies is a primary goal of archaeological survey, involving the mapping of different-sized settlements on the ground. However it may not always work, owing to the particular land use or political strategies anciently employed. With the aid of cuneiform documents from Tell Leilan, Syria, the author shows how the settlements found by archaeological survey in northern Mesopotamia actually relate to a number of intersecting authorities, with a hold on major tracts of pasture as well as on arable land and cities. These insights from the Near East have important implications for the interpretation of surveyed settlement patterns everywhere.

In this study I examine local-scale associations between land resources and the density distribution of Maya residential sites for the prehistoric population maxima of the Late Classic period (ca. A. D. 600-900). Methods involve agricultural land evaluation following USDA guidelines, under assumptions of hand-cultivation technology. I give specific attention to the issue of concordance between the geographic scale of household agricultural production and the scale at which agricultural land evaluation is conducted. The focus is the upper Belize River area of Belize, Central America, where intensive archaeological survey and local-scale land-resource mapping provide the data necessary for a detailed analysis of ancient land-use patterns. The analysis reveals a strong and consistent relationship between prehistoric Maya settlement density and the agricultural productive capability of local soil types. For each land type, I discuss the amount of land available for each residential locus and probable cultivation methods used. I argue that the ability to identify clearly and quantitatively the association (or lack of association) between household settlement pattern and agricultural land capability is a necessary component of regional studies that seek to test models of Maya political economy and social change.

Whilst Sicily is the largest and perhaps most geographically diverse island in the Mediterranean, archaeological survey has been slow to develop there and has had little impact on general accounts of Sicilian prehistory. Discussions of prehistoric settlement distribution in the island have to contend with uneven data obtained by different means and limited evidence for past land-use and environmental change. Nevertheless, survey data point to contrasting settlement patterns between the fourth and first millennia BC (Copper, Bronze and Iron Ages), which can usefully be compared with information from conventional (non-survey) distribution maps. Surveys have the potential to promote new accounts of Sicilian prehistory in which traditional historicist paradigms are at least complemented by those which place a stronger emphasis on relationships or dynamics within the specific island context.

Settlement models help to understand the social–ecological functioning of landscape and associated land use and land cover change. One of the issues of settlement modeling is that models are typically used to explore the relationship between settlement locations and associated influential factors (e.g., slope and aspect). However, few studies in settlement modeling adopted landscape visibility analysis. Landscape visibility provides useful information for understanding human decision-making associated with the establishment of settlements. In the past years, machine learning algorithms have demonstrated their capabilities in improving the performance of the settlement modeling and particularly capturing the nonlinear relationship between settlement locations and their drivers. However, simulation models using machine learning algorithms in settlement modeling are still not well studied. Moreover, overfitting issues and optimization of model parameters are major challenges for most machine learning algorithms. Therefore, in this study, we sought to pursue two research objectives. First, we aimed to evaluate the contribution of viewsheds and landscape visibility to the simulation modeling of - settlement locations. The second objective is to examine the performance of the machine learning algorithm-based simulation models for settlement location studies. Our study region is located in the metropolitan area of Oyo Empire, Nigeria, West Africa, ca. AD 1570–1830, and its pre-Imperial antecedents, ca. AD 1360–1570. We developed an event-driven spatial simulation model enabled by random forest algorithm to represent dynamics in settlement systems in our study region. Experimental results demonstrate that viewsheds and landscape visibility may offer more insights into unveiling the underlying mechanism that drives settlement locations. Random forest algorithm, as a machine learning algorithm, provide solid support for establishing the relationship between settlement occurrences and their drivers.

<p><em>This paper examines the urban planning implications of informal sector activities in Barkin-Ladi Town, a post mining settlement in Plateau State, Nigeria. The objective of the paper is to examine the planning challenges posed by the informal sector activities and to make appropriate recommendations towards integrating and regulating such activities within the settlement. A total of 187 questionnaires were administered on three categories of informal sector activities in the area, while interviews were conducted with the staff of the Area Office of the Ministry of Lands, Survey and Town Planning and of the Works Department of the Barkin Ladi local government council, which is the planning authority. The research revealed that trading was the dominant informal activity being undertaken by 63% of the respondents, followed by cottage industries (14%) and tertiary services (23%). Planning challenges pose by informal activities included: change of use without planning approvals, encroachment on access roads, conflicting land uses, non-compliance with the relevant planning law on zoning. There were no spatial developmental plans or guidelines by the relevant planning authority to regulate the activities of informal sector activities. Environmental management challenges were lack of access to basic infrastructure, degradation of the urban environment, and insecurity of life and property. It is recommended that there is the need for planners to understand the valuable contributions of the informal activities to the local economy by integrating them in the spatial development frameworks through appropriate zoning, location, space management and regulatory policies. Basic infrastructure and services should be provided to enhance their productivity, while government and other stakeholders should improve access to loans, micro-finance, material resources and capacity building of informal participants.</em></p>

Abstract This paper outlines some key transformations in rural society and settlement patterns in the 4th to 7th c. western Mediterranean, as revealed by archaeological evidence. An overview of discernible trends and current debates about their socio-political contexts is illustrated with examples of well-investigated sites. From this data, two contrasting patterns emerge: intensive, and partly state-stimulated, cultivation of land; systematic animal breeding and specialised production up to the end of the 4th c.; and much more varied patterns of exploiting the landscape, including changes in animal husbandry, changes in land use and crops, and increasing use of uncultivated areas, in the 5th–7th c. This overview is intended to provide a broader framework for the detailed examination of environmental evidence which follows in this volume.

A common property regime was established at the founding of the Maya site of Actuncan, Belize, in the Terminal Preclassic period (175 BC–AD 300), which governed access to land until the Terminal Classic period (AD 780–1000). This interpretation is based on urban settlement patterns documented through household excavation and remote-sensing programs. Excavations of all visible patio-focused groups in the urban core provided data to reconstruct residential histories, and a 60,621 m2 gradiometer survey resulted in a magnetic gradient map that was used to document buried constructions. Twenty ground-truth testpits correlated types of magnetic signatures to buried patio-focused groups and smaller constructions, including walled plots in agricultural field systems that were later exposed more fully through large-scale excavations. Combined, these methods provided data to reconstruct four correlates of land tenure systems: (1) the spatial proximity of residential units to land and resources, (2) diachronic changes in community settlement patterns, (3) land subdivision and improvements, and (4) public goods. Spatial analyses documented that houselots did not cluster through time, but instead became gradually improved, lending evidence to suggest the transgenerational inheritance of property rights in the Late and Terminal Classic periods.

How do prehistoric settlement patterns relate to competition for resources? The distribution of fortified and open sites provides one indication, but using an example from Fiji, the author shows that land holding recorded in historic times may also provide a fossil of earlier competition. Comparing the land parcels and the fortified sites with the ecological zones showed that it was the richer – but less reliable – lower parts of the Sigatoka valley that were most fought over, leaving a patchwork of small defended claims, while the upper areas supported larger, co-operative land units.

Spatial datasets of building footprint polygons are becoming more widely available and accessible for many areas in the world. These datasets are important inputs for a range of different analyses, such as understanding the development of cities, identifying areas at risk of disasters, and mapping the distribution of populations. The growth of high spatial resolution imagery and computing power is enabling automated procedures to extract and map building footprints for whole countries. These advances are enabling coverage of building footprint datasets for low and middle income countries which might lack other data on urban land uses. While spatially detailed, many building footprints lack information on structure type, local zoning, or land use, limiting their application. However, morphology metrics can be used to describe characteristics of size, shape, spacing, orientation and patterns of the structures and extract additional information which can be correlated with different structure and settlement types or neighbourhoods. We introduce the foot package, a new set of open-source tools in a flexible R package for calculating morphology metrics for building footprints and summarising them in different spatial scales and spatial representations. In particular our tools can create gridded (or raster) representations of morphology summary metrics which have not been widely supported previously. We demonstrate the tools by creating gridded morphology metrics from all building footprints in England, Scotland and Wales, and then use those layers in an unsupervised cluster analysis to derive a pattern-based settlement typology. We compare our mapped settlement types with two existing settlement classifications. The results suggest that building patterns can help distinguish different urban and rural types. However, intra-urban differences were not well-predicted by building morphology alone. More broadly, though, this case study demonstrates the potential of mapping settlement patterns in the absence of a housing census or other urban planning data.

Late Archaic (4000-1000 B.C.) settlement patterns in the State of New Jersey are poorly understood in comparison with other parts of the Northeastern United States. This study is designed to evaluate current settlement pattern data, using logistical models of land use, against available archaeological data. Current data indicate that Late Archaic populations exhibited a complex series of seasonal movements, based upon seasonal availability of resources and highly ritualized cremation burial behavior. Late Archaic groups coalesced in riverine zones of the Inner Coastal Plain in the fall, as economic activities oriented toward nut harvesting, mammal hunting, and fishing, coincided with increasingly formal and complex cremation burial ritual; settlement systems at this time broadly correspond to collectors. With the completion of the fall season food harvesting and ritual cycle, mobile groups most resembling foragers dispersed into upland zones in the winter months to hunt mammals and coastal zones in the spring and summer to procure aquatic-related resources. Regional climatic changes toward the end of the Late (Terminal) Archaic and the early portion of the Early Woodland (1200-500 B.C.) may have necessitated higher group mobility more typical of foragers and corresponding changes in cremation burial ritual.

SUMMARYExtinctions have altered island ecosystems throughout the late Quaternary. Here, we review the main historic drivers of extinctions on islands, patterns in extinction chronologies between islands, and the potential for restoring ecosystems through reintroducing extirpated species. While some extinctions have been caused by climatic and environmental change, most have been caused by anthropogenic impacts. We propose a general model to describe patterns in these anthropogenic island extinctions. Hunting, habitat loss and the introduction of invasive predators accompanied prehistoric settlement and caused declines of endemic island species. Later settlement by European colonists brought further land development, a different suite of predators and new drivers, leading to more extinctions. Extinctions alter ecological networks, causing ripple effects for islands through the loss of ecosystem processes, functions and interactions between species. Reintroduction of extirpated species can help restore ecosystem function and processes, and can be guided by palaeoecology. However, reintroduction projects must also consider the cultural, social and economic needs of humans now inhabiting the islands and ensure resilience against future environmental and climate change.