Journal articles on the topic 'Language and languages Language acquisition Grammar, Comparative and general Grammar, Comparative and general'

ABSTRACTPoverty of the stimulus (POS) arguments have instigated considerable debate in the recent linguistics literature. This article uses the comparative method to challenge the logic of POS arguments. Rather than question the premises of POS arguments, the article demonstrates how POS arguments for individual languages lead to a reductio ad absurdum as POS arguments from genetically related languages are compared. Comparison leads to different contradictions for poverty of the negative stimulus (PONS) and poverty of the positive stimulus (POPS) arguments. Comparing PONS arguments leads to the conclusion that Universal Grammar contains language-specific versions of linguistic rules. Comparing POPS arguments leads to the conclusion that Universal Grammar may supply knowledge that is ungrammatical in the target language. The reductio shows that universal principles of grammar cannot be established on the basis of POS arguments from a single language.

The methodology of teaching foreign languages is constantly looking for ways to effectively master foreign languages by primary school students. The article deals with the possibility of using digital and multimedia technologies in the process of forming foreign language grammar competence of younger students on the example of the German language. The analysis of foreign experience proved the relevance of the introduction of such technologies in the teaching process of educational institutions of all levels, but it also noted the lack of studying the method of using digital and multimedia tools in the process of forming foreign language competence of primary school students, in particular when learning grammar in German. It is considered that in modern educational development conditions it is important to take into account the features of modern students, who are digital native, and the use of digital and multimedia technologies in German lessons is a natural and understandable tool for them. Future teachers and those, who are practicing the early language teaching, need to overcome psychological barriers and doubts about the effectiveness of new tools to make digital and multimedia technology a daily practice. The article proposes digital and multimedia resources and programs that can be used in the process of forming a foreign grammar competence at different stages of grammar processing, while fully complying with the requirements of the program "Foreign Languages for General and Specialty Educational Institutions 1-4 classes" of Ukraine. The comparative analysis of online resources intended for the study of foreign languages, including German, with the existing foreign language program for the New Ukrainian School (2018), taking into account the level of foreign language communication competence at the time of graduation from 4th grade, allowed to systematize existing digital networks on the Internet and cartoon resources in accordance with vocabulary stock and vocabulary topics, which will help to apply them effectively in German lessons, to increase the motivation of younger students, to encourage an independent study of a foreign language

In this article is investigated the place of numeral names characteristic of the Kyrgyz literary language and their dialects in the Chagatai language. The commonalities of these languages were considered on the basis of the comparative-historical method, marked by specific examples. The views of scientists are studied on this issue . As a result of the work, based on the above facts, the names of numerals characteristic are determined of the Kyrgyz literary language and their dialects in the Chagatai language. More precisely, it is confirmed that in the Kyrgyz language and their dialects the functions of numerals, such features as the division into groups according to certain features in the grammar and vocabulary are characteristic of the Chagatai language. Therefore, it was concluded that the materials of the modern Kyrgyz language on the basis of historical and linguistic facts: close connection with the Chagatai language, the question of kinship, should be taken as an object of special scientific study.

Our familiarity with our teaching of Arabic grammar detect the state of phobia that infect the majority of students when they are studied the Arabic grammar (El-nahoo), but, when I analyzed this phenomenon as a teacher and - before - studying this science, I noticed that the beginner Arabic language learner may focus on the grammatical or morphological base independently of its linguistic and current context; as if His classical Arabic is other than the language used with its many names. From a dialect, to a daily language, etc, and it is in fact only one aspect of its development, and the strange thing is that the name of the language (Arabic) indicates "' Clarity' that may not be achieved with the same accuracy in other languages, and it is a miracle of rhetoric. The expression of the souls and their phenomena in this language may be in words with real connotations, and it is predominant in the language to achieve communication, and the meanings may arrive in a metaphorical form; some words deviate from the origin of their connotations using the linguistic and current contexts, and therefore it is clear that our understanding of language is not based on single words. Rather, by referring to the sentence or text in many times to determine the grammatical function of these words, and that is what has been suggested in this research to trace the actual functions based on the intellectual and reciprocal components, which are among the foundations of linguistic communication in all languages, including the Arabic language that is the subject of study. On the descriptive comparative approach in defining these functions, in order to be able to compare them with their interviews in French and English; To set the term and its origins first, and secondly to facilitate the translation of these verbs between the three languages.

Our experience of working with students of a transport (technical) university shows that many of them have serious problems in learning foreign languages. Students will not be able to realize their potential in future professional activities, involving foreign-language partners, since poor knowledge of a foreign language prevents them from establishing business contacts. The object of our research was linguistic competence as the basis for developing a communicative competence. Having analysed the existing linguistic and methodological literature, the educational process including learning English and French as a FL2 and the reasons for the students’ poor knowledge of foreign languages, we came to the conclusion that the problem does not lie solely with the small number of school hours or poor knowledge obtained at school. The lack of linguistic competence results from the insufficient knowledge acquired from native language studies, it is one of the main reasons for the poor proficiency of students in foreign languages. Students are not familiar with linguistic terminology in their native language, and this fact greatly complicates explanation of the grammar of the studied foreign language. The purpose of this paper is to focus the attention of university teachers on the need to work with students to master Russian and foreign language terminology in the framework of a comparative approach, which is one of the main methods of teaching a foreign language, as it expands the general language awareness and develops the “linguistic flair”of students.

Our experience of working with students of a transport (technical) university shows that many of them have serious problems in learning foreign languages. Students will not be able to realize their potential in future professional activities, involving foreign-language partners, since poor knowledge of a foreign language prevents them from establishing business contacts. The object of our research was linguistic competence as the basis for developing a communicative competence. Having analysed the existing linguistic and methodological literature, the educational process including learning English and French as a FL2 and the reasons for the students’ poor knowledge of foreign languages, we came to the conclusion that the problem does not lie solely with the small number of school hours or poor knowledge obtained at school. The lack of linguistic competence results from the insufficient knowledge acquired from native language studies, it is one of the main reasons for the poor proficiency of students in foreign languages. Students are not familiar with linguistic terminology in their native language, and this fact greatly complicates explanation of the grammar of the studied foreign language. The purpose of this paper is to focus the attention of university teachers on the need to work with students to master Russian and foreign language terminology in the framework of a comparative approach, which is one of the main methods of teaching a foreign language, as it expands the general language awareness and develops the “linguistic flair”of students.

Summary This article examines the views about syntax held by Humboldt, on the one hand, and by the founders of historical-comparative grammar (Bopp, Rask, Grimm, Pott, Schleicher), on the other. In general, it is noted that the grammaire générale tradition of 17th and 18th centuries still survives in the work of such scholars, despite of all criticism they seemingly raised against it. For Humboldt, the common core of all languages has its source in the identity of human thought; also his treatment of the verb and especially his reference to a ‘natural’ word order (i.e., SVO) are clearly reminiscent of this tradition. Traces thereof are also found in Bopp’s analysis of Indo-European conjugation, and in some of Rask’s writings. For instance, Rask, just as Humboldt, assumes a ‘natural’ word order and proposes a list of possible syntactic forms which closely remind us of Girard’s membres de phrase. Grimm’s position appears as more innovative, heavily influenced by a Romantic view of language, but some older conceptions sometimes show up in his work, e.g., when he deals with the notion of ‘subject’. Pott does not completely reject general grammar and a logically-based view of language; he only stresses the need of a more empirical approach than that adopted by the 17th and 18th century linguists. This picture radically changed with Steinthai and Schleicher: the former scholar pronounced a ‘divorce’ between grammar and logic, while the latter one argued that syntax does not belong to linguistics proper and rejected any possibility of postulating syntactic distinctions which do not have any direct morphological correlate.

Summary In this paper an attempt has been made to draw a picture of linguistics in the Netherlands during the 19th century. The aim of this survey is to make clear that the influence of German linguistics on Dutch works of the period is characteristic of the development of Dutch linguistics in that century. Emphasis has been placed on the period 1800–1870; three traditions are distinguished: First of all there is the tradition of prescriptive grammar and language instruction. Next attention is drawn to the tradition of historical-comparative linguistics. Finally, by about the middle of the century, the linguistic views of German representatives of general grammar become prominent in Dutch school grammars. Successively we point to the reception by the schoolmasters of K. F. Becker’s (1775–1849) work; then Taco Roorda (1801–1874) is discussed, and the relationship between L. A. te Winkel (1809–1868) and H. Steinthal (1823–1899) is presented. In conjunction with Roorda’s work on Javanese the analysis of the so-called exotic languages is mentioned, an aspect of Dutch linguistics in the 19th century closely connected with the Dutch East Indies. It is obvious that the German theme is one of the most conspicuous common elements in 19th-century Dutch linguistics, as Dutch intellectuals in many respects took German culture as a model.

The aim of this research will be to conduct a comparative study of the category of aspectuality; that implies defining and analysing the whole complex of general and distinctive properties, characteristic of the languages under consideration, that is, Russian and German, revised in the comparative aspect. The research methods include descriptive method, distributive and introspective analyses. The authors indicate that today contrastive studies are especially relevant to identify common and distinctive features in systems of different languages. It is noted that actional and aspectual semantics, as well as the means of its expression, have become objects of study by linguists at the beginning of the 20th century. Attention is drawn to the actual domestic and foreign significant research in the field of aspectology of genetically unrelated languages, as well as languages that are in a distant genetic relationship. The form and tense of a verb are characteristics of temporality, since, for example, in the Slavic languages, the form organizes and determines temporal relationships. In contrast to the Slavic languages, in the Romance and Germanic languages, species relations are structured on the basis of temporal forms. The comparative approach to the study of time and species in languages belonging to different groups makes it possible to better understand the specifics of species-temporal relations. It is pointed out that the grammatical category of the species as a binary category is represented only in some languages. The need to distinguish between species as a grammatical category inherent in the Slavic languages and as a broad functional and semantic category that exists in all languages is emphasized, since it represents the entire complex of linguistic means that express the nature of the course of action. In the process of analyzing some texts, it was concluded that the absence of a grammatical category of the species in the German language does not indicate the absence of a corresponding concept. During the research, the authors came to the conclusion, that when studying the verb tense, it is necessary to take into account several other factors, apart from the verb forms: the context, the lexical, lexical-grammatical, grammatical and syntactic components, considered within the framework of their interaction in speech, since the functional-semantic field includes interacting means, united by the common function of expressing the semantic attribute of aspectuality, namely, grammar, lexical-grammatical and lexical means.

The article is devoted to the comparative analysis of the basic methods of teaching English in chronological order of their development. The following teaching methods are studied: grammar translation method, direct method, audio-linguistic method, communicative teaching method. The specific features of each method, their positive and negative characteristics are revealed. The peculiarities of their application in the system of training in public administration are considered. It is determined that training in the field of public administration corresponds to the activities of those who study, namely, public administration, both in terms of subject matter and linguistic content and language learning activities. In general, teaching / learning a foreign language is not essential, so teachers and students / students should only focus on certain aspects of a foreign language. Thus, general language learning should be combined with professional training. In groups with a sufficient level of language proficiency, it is immediately possible to begin a special vocational-oriented training. And, conversely, in groups with low and average English proficiency it is necessary to focus first of all on general language training, and then on professionally oriented. Grammatical material should always be developed and used in oral language. It is noted that an important role in the study of foreign languages is given to the assimilation of professional vocabulary. Assimilation of lexical units is carried out in order to develop the skills of oral communication and is aimed at the implementation of communication skills and an adequate response in typical situations of professional communication, both verbal (for compilation of messages on professional subjects) and written (ability to write resume, any documents, etc.). After all, the possession of the working or official languages of the community provides in practice wide opportunities for obtaining international experience in public administration, undergo internships, work in international projects, etc. In the context of broad international relations with other countries, it is important to communicate with foreign specialists, to develop professional-business and personal contacts with foreign partners, colleagues, to read different editions in the original language.

Background and Purpose: Cross-cultural studies help to reduce linguistic misunderstandings. Owing to the mastery of the grammar and vocabulary of any language, speakers who may be fluent in a second language, may still be unable to produce language that is socially and culturally acceptable, thus indicates the importance of pragmatics in general and cross-cultural pragmatics in particular. The development of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) creates urgency for the Baloch and the Chinese people to know each other's language and culture, as the project is located in 'Gwadar', a Baloch region, where Balochi is widely spoken. The purpose of this paper is to explore apology strategies used in the Balochi language spoken in Balochistan, Pakistan with reference to Chinese, including Baloch cultural values which influence language.
 
 Methodology: The data were collected through Discourse Completion Test from 30 native speakers of Balochi language enrolled in various departments at International Islamic University Islamabad Pakistan. On the other hand, the Chinese language data were adopted as a reference from a research study conducted by Chang (2016). The Balochi data were analyzed by employing the framework presented by Blum-Kulka, House, and Kasper (1989).
 
 Findings: The findings show that the Baloch native speakers use indirect strategies of apology, explanation strategy, and taking and denying responsibility which are similar to the Chinese language.
 
 Contribution: The paper may help to expand the scope of cross-cultural pragmatics to non-western languages. The paper may also be significant in the teaching curricula to design comparative courses in Chinese and Balochi.
 
 Keywords: Apology, Balochi, Chinese, cross-cultural pragmatics, strategies.
 
 Cite as: Hussain, M., & Aziz, A. (2020). Cross-cultural pragmatic study of apology strategies in Balochi with reference to Chinese language. Journal of Nusantara Studies, 5(2), 152-169. http://dx.doi.org/10.24200/jonus.vol5iss2pp152-169

<p><strong>Abstract.</strong> Maps are a means of communication with their own language. This contribution makes a methodological proposal for a tool for to analyse the cartographic language of thematic maps and atlases. Based on the work of Jacques Bertin and on approaches of the Visual Studies, this methodology works on decoding maps in terms of their basic elements, the signs and graphic objects that compose them. As a tool it should allow comparative research on cartographic productions, both, synchronically and diachronically. It suggests two analytical schemes, one for maps and the other for complex map-editions, e.g. atlases.</p><p> On the example of spatial entities (state territories, natural areas etc.), the first part of this contribution introduces the semiotic analysis-scheme for thematic maps. It shows how to deal systematically with signs, signatures and graphic objects on maps. Such analyses should produce the fundament for comparative approaches, which allow to detect typical patterns in cartography and to identify elements of cartographic languages.</p><p> We are interested in the cartographic languages of maps used in atlases. To do this we have chosen a quantitative analysis of the visual content, maps, diagrams and images. The quantitative method makes it possible to analyse a large corpus of maps and atlases, thus making it possible to make comparisons between contents both diachronically and synchronically, i.e. comparisons in time and space. This is an approach relatively rarely used in cartography. There are few studies that produce a quantitative analysis of cartographic content. Among the existing ones, that of Alexandre Kent and especially that of Muelhenhaus on the Goode atlas series. We are following in the footsteps of these studies. To do this, we decided to adopt a semiological approach to the study of maps. Of course, we cannot talk about maps and semiology without mentioning Jacques Bertin and his book: graphic semiology: diagrams, networks, maps (1963) in which he tried to define a “grammar” by establishing rules of good cartographic practice, even if the book is not exclusively reduced to the map.</p><p> The book itself does not contain any reference, but it can be said that graphic semiology is itself derived from linguistic semiology, developed in particular by Ferdinand Saussure. However, although Bertin's work has influenced many cartographers in the design of maps, the method has been little used in the cartographic analysis itself. Semiology is an approach that has been used mainly in the analysis of images and diagrams rather than in cartography. Although it is true that iconographic analysis studies in semiology claim more Barthes and Saussure than Bertin.</p><p> The map can also be considered as an image. Several iconographic analysis studies have thus integrated the map as an object of study. This is the case, for example, of engelhardt who, in his <i>thesis</i> “<i>the language of graphics: a framework for the analysis of syntax and meaning in maps, charts and diagram</i>” (2002), focuses on several types of iconography, even if the map remains a central element of his analysis. Another example is the work of André Lavarde, who in his article “<i>la flèche : le signe qui anime les schémas</i>” (1996) focuses on the history of the use of the arrow in diagrams, while evoking its use in geographical maps. There are therefore bridges between iconographic and cartographic analysis.</p><p> This research is therefore a continuation of the work of Bertin, Mulhenhaus and to a certain extent Engelhardt. The coding system we have developed for our cartographic analysis is divided into three parts and divided tehemselves into several categories. Each category corresponds to a column in the table. From there, there are two ways to fill in the columns. In the first case by filling in the field with the requested information such as the title of a map. Or in a second case to enter 0; 1; or 2 depending on whether the information that corresponds to the absence, presence or uncertainty of the requested information. So if the map coded uses the Mercator projection then it will be entered 1 in the column “map projection: cylindrical projection” and 0 in the column “map projection: compromise”.</p><p> The table is composed of three parts. The first part concerns the general information of the coded map (image 1). This is for example the name of the atlas, the page, the chapter in which the map is located. Then more general information about the map itself is coded like for example its title, theme, scale, type of projection used, etc. This makes it possible to collect a set of basic data. It should be noted that, as mentioned above, we do not only code maps but also other forms of visual representations of space that can be found in atlases. For example, there are images, satellite photos or diagrams that can represent different geographical areas. If the coded object is not a map, this is specified. There is a category provided for this purpose. When coding, cartography-specific elements, such as map projection, are therefore not taken into account. Not all the columns in our table are intended to be filled by each map or coded image. The codification process is therefore flexible. Although the code does not focus only on maps, they represent the vast majority of the content of the atlases studied. This is why we refer more to the “map” rather than to the “visual representation of space”. However, even if they are in the minority, it is important in the analysis to take into account representations of space other than cartography.</p><p> The second part of the table focuses on the signs used by the maps. First of all, we have chosen to divide them into three categories: symbols that are related to the point of the line and the surface. These are the three elementary figures of geometry that Bertin calls implantations. It is from these three types of locations that the different symbols are created. We have distinguished them between the thematic symbols, which are there to illustrate the theme of the map, to convey its message and the Background symbol present to help the reader to orientate himself in space. This is the case, for example, of the equator's path, which is rarely thematic, but rather serves as a geographical point of reference. Of course, the thematic symbols vary according to the theme of the map. Thus, territorial borders can be considered thematic if it is a political map, but will be considered Background information if it is present on a map representing global forest cover. The purpose of this part is to have as much content as possible on the elements that make a map.</p><p> The third and last part of the table refers to visual variables. To be interested in visual variables is to be interested in the interactions between symbols. It is on this part that we rely most on Bertin's work. We have thus taken 5 of the 7 variables he defined. The orientation and the two dimensions of the plan were excluded from our study because they are constant in the cartographic production. It would therefore be irrelevant to record them each time. This is not the case for the remaining components: size, value, texture, shape, and colour. These are elements that may be present in cartography but are not individually necessary. These visual variables form the basic grammar of the “cartographic language”. Studying the visual variables is a way for us to observe how the different signs interact with each other and to see how an information is convey. These visual rules have been established in the 1960s, therefore it the relevance of using this framework to study historical map can be questioned. But Bertin did not design his rules from scratch, he relied on previous mapping practices. It is therefore interesting to observe how often they have been used.</p><p> The second part deals with map themes and regional structures of atlases. Using principles of Visual Studies, it suggests to observe atlases as a whole as cultural products, each subject to a visual programme that determines the frameworks of its expressions and its claim for representativeness. By comparing elements like projection, scale, maps-themes, regional sequences etc. systematically, one may unveil the specific interpretations of world views which are contained in the atlas’ concepts. As some atlases are published in a long series of editions, they become interesting research objects in an evolutionary perspective.</p><p> In a diachronic perspective the coding scheme suggested here, focussing themes and regional subdivisions of atlases, builds the fundament for longitudinal studies. Both methodological parts should make cartographic and atlas-studies more compatible to cultural and historical research approaches.</p><p> Taking the example of a few maps from French atlases from nineteen centuries to the early 2000s the second part of this contribution wants to give an idea, how this methodology can be used to study the evolution of cartographic language over time under the influence of the global condition and how French cartographers faced the challenge of representing a growing interconnected world and which graphical tools they developed.</p>

A large number of studies have explored grammar instruction through implicit and explicit instructional conditions. The general conclusion drawn from these studies points to the superiority of explicit instruction; however, the claim has been attenuated by a number of reservations raised regarding its generalizability across types of grammatical structures and learners of different characteristics. Therefore, the present study aims to investigate the comparative effectiveness of these two types of instructional conditions in acquiring explicit and implicit knowledge of complex and simple linguistic features by participants holding different epistemic beliefs. The results demonstrated a relative advantage for explicit instruction. However, the results also showed that the effectiveness of explicit/implicit instructional conditions varied for the participants. Additionally, the findings provided evidence against the assumption that complex structures are best learned through implicit instructional conditions and simple structures are best taught explicitly. The hypothesis that learners with more sophisticated epistemic beliefs outperform those with more naive epistemic beliefs in learning complex grammatical structures was not borne out by the analyses. Conclusions and suggestions for further research are provided.