Academic literature on the topic 'Language policy – Rwanda'

The aim of this article is to assess whether the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo) is likely to upgrade the status of English by constitutional or educational means. Indeed, neighboring countries such as Rwanda and Burundi adopted English as their official language in 1996 and 2014, but less writing in English is devoted to a potential linguistic transition in DR Congo, the most populous French-speaking country. This article will gauge DR Congo and Rwanda against the four criteria that arguably triggered Rwanda’s switch-to-English: historical factors in current linguistic trends; the role of charismatic leaders in sudden language policy changes; language-in-education policies; and economic incentives. The results of this interdisciplinary investigation into the language dynamics of the Great Lakes region indicate that, reflecting the vehicles of DR Congo’s domestic and regional evolutions, its leaders might be tempted to enhance the status of English as an official language in a way that, contrary to Rwanda’s radical switch-to-English, is more compatible with other languages.

AbstractResearchers have called for studies that link the macro and the micro in language policy research. In turn, the notion of ‘micro’ has been theorised as referring either to the micro implementation of macro policies or to micro policies. In this article, a third way of thinking about the relationship between the macro and the micro in language policy—referred to as the interpretive perspective—is proposed. In this perspective, macro language policies and micro language choice practices are seen as interdependent, as shaping each other. The article substantiates this view drawing on a practice I call translinguistic apposition and that I have observed in a variety of ‘most highly regulated’ texts in Rwanda. However, for an in- depth understanding, the practice is described drawing on data from a single source, namely the Rwandan multilingual media blog www.igihe.com. The article demonstrates how this practice can be seen as shaped by the Rwandan macro language policy and, conversely, how the same macro policy can be seen as written into being through the same micro level practice. (Language policy, micro language policy, micro implementation of macro policy, translanguaging, translinguistic apposition, interpretive perspective)

This contribution focuses on the study of Linguistic Landscapes in the Central/Western African state of Cameroon, with particular reference to its capital, Yaoundé. Linguistic landscapes is a relatively recent area of research, and can be broadly defined as the visual representation of languages in public space. This paper will show that the field of linguistic landscapes can act as a reflection of linguistic hierarchies, ideologies and acts of resistance in multilingual and multicultural communities. At the same time, the sociolinguistic situation in the country will be investigated, which is paramount to understanding the linguistic and ideological conflicts between the anglophone minority and the francophone government. Cameroon’s linguistic landscape will be explored via the various spaces that English, French, Pidgin English, Camfranglais and, to a minor degree, indigenous African languages occupy in its sociolinguistic composition. The methodological design is quantitative in nature, involving collecting more than 600 linguistic tokens (digital photos) in various public places mainly in and around the Cameroonian capital of Yaoundé. It will be demonstrated that the deployment of languages on signs and linguistic tokens, apart from serving informative and symbolic functions for the audiences or passers-by they target, also has social and political implications in an ethnically heterogeneous and linguistically hybrid society such as Cameroon. Whereas in some other former British colonies there are indications that the public space is being symbolically constructed in order to preserve some of Africa’s indigenous languages (e.g. in Botswana, Rwanda, Tanzania), in Cameroon the linguistic landscape almost exclusively focuses on the dominant status and role of one single language, i.e. French, and to a lesser extent English, whose speakers therefore feel marginalized and oppressed by the French government.

The purpose of this paper is to report about how teachers of English in Rwanda implement Grice’s cooperative principle in their classrooms, the challenges they face while implementing it, and how they deal with those challenges. The study upon which this paper is based used survey questionnaires, observations, and interviews as methods of data collection. Grounded theory analysis was employed to make sense of the data. Research findings are articulated according to four maxims including quantitative maxim, qualitative maxim, maxim of relevance, and the maxim of manner. They include the fact that teachers struggle with teaching the prescribed curriculum, communicating with students in English, and teaching what is at their students’ learning level. The paper concludes by devising implications of the findings for policy and practice.

AbstractIn this article, I explore the place of the just war tradition in US foreign policy by examining the use of just war language in the presidential debates in 2000 (Bush-Gore), 2004 (Bush-Kerry), 2008 (McCain-Obama), and 2012 (Obama-Romney). While critics focus on the use and abuse of just war language as rhetorical gloss to persuade the public an upcoming conflict is morally legitimate while serving the national interest, the debates showcase just war principles as part of a language of critical engagement. Each debate cycle allowed for critical reflection on the foreign policy decisions and just war philosophy of the incumbent president. During the time period I examine, the process of critical engagement identified two moral shortcomings of the past – the failure to act to stop the genocide in Rwanda and the premature use of force in Iraq. These perceived failures catalysed convergence, across party lines, on the way some jus ad bellum principles were understood: Just cause as including the moral obligation to intervene in some way to stop genocide and the renewed salience of the principle of last resort. There remained, however, stark differences in the way legitimate authority was understood.

Purpose Measurement of the quality of cancer care is essential for quality improvement and is widely implemented in oncology programs in high-income countries. Growing efforts are being made to measure care quality in emerging cancer care delivery systems in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). This will require the development of measures that are clinically important, actionable, relevant to existing resources, and feasible to routinely evaluate. As part of a project to develop resource-adapted quality measures for Rwanda and other LMICs, we conducted a systematic review of the literature to identify published quality measures for the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer. Methods We performed a literature search in accordance with PRISMA guidelines using the following terms in PubMed: ‘breast cancer’ and ‘quality indicator,’ ‘quality measure,’ or ‘quality metric’; and the following MeSH terms: ‘breast neoplasms’ and ‘healthcare quality indicator.’ We included English-language articles published before August 2017 that described the systematic identification of process measures for breast cancer diagnosis or treatment through literature review, clinical validation, and/or expert panel determination. We directly searched the Web sites of prominent cancer care organizations to identify additional publicly available measures. Income level was classified using World Bank definitions. Results We identified 521 published quality measures, including 419 measures from 27 peer-reviewed journal articles and 102 measures from the Web sites of national and international cancer care organizations. Twenty-five peer-reviewed publications (93%) originated from high-income countries, one from an upper-middle income country (People’s Republic of China), and one from the international Breast Health Global Initiative with process measures to assess the phased implementation of breast cancer services. No resources or articles other than that from the Breast Health Global Initiative provided suggestions for adapting measures to limited resources. Conclusion A large number of quality measures for breast cancer care have been identified and published in high-income countries; however, no breast cancer care quality measures have been systematically developed and validated for use in settings where resource limitations crucially affect care delivery and measurement feasibility. We are collaborating with clinicians in LMICs and global breast cancer experts to develop and validate quality measures that will enable quality improvement initiatives in Rwanda and other emerging cancer care delivery systems. AUTHORS' DISCLOSURES OF POTENTIAL CONFLICTS OF INTEREST The following represents disclosure information provided by authors of this manuscript. All relationships are considered compensated. Relationships are self-held unless noted. I = Immediate Family Member, Inst = My Institution. Relationships may not relate to the subject matter of this manuscript. For more information about ASCO's conflict of interest policy, please refer to www.asco.org/rwc or ascopubs.org/jco/site/ifc . No COIs from the authors.

ObjectivesThis study explored the experiences of accessing care across the border in East Africa.ParticipantsFrom February to June 2018, a cross-sectional study using qualitative and quantitative methods was conducted among 279 household adults residing along selected national border sites of Uganda, Kenya and Rwanda and had accessed care from the opposite side of the border 5 years prior to this study.SettingAccess to HIV treatment, maternal delivery and childhood immunisation services was explored. We applied the health access framework and an appreciative inquiry approach to identify factors that enabled access to the services.MeasuresExploratory factor analysis and linear regression were used for quantitative data, while deductive content analysis was done for the qualitative data on respondent’s experiences navigating health access barriers.ResultsThe majority of respondents (83.9%; 234/279) had accessed care from public health facilities. Nearly one-third (77/279) had sought care across the border more than a year ago and 22.9% (64/279) less than a month ago. From the linear regression, the main predictor for ease of access for healthcare were ‘‘ease of border crossing’ (regression coefficient (RegCoef) 0.381); ‘services being free’ (RegCoef 0.478); ‘services and medicines availability’ (RegCoef 0.274) and ‘acceptable quality of services’ (RegCoef 0.364). The key facilitators for successful navigation of access barriers were related to the presence of informal routes, speaking a similar language and the ability to pay for the services.ConclusionCommunities resident near national borders were able to cross borders to seek healthcare. There is need for a policy environment to enable East Africa invest better and realise synergies for these communities. This will advance Universal Health Coverage goals for communities along the border who represent the far fang areas of the health system with multiple barriers to healthcare access.

Background: There has been continuous debate among scholars regarding fertility transition in Africa. Two conclusions emerge: slow pace of decline because of weak facilitating social programs and high demand for large families amidst weak family planning programs. Accelerated fertility decline is expected to occur if there is both substantial decline in desired fertility and increased level of preference implementation. Despite these conclusions, there are also emergent exceptions in Africa, even among the Eastern African countries. Our motivation for the study of this region therefore lies in this context. First, the East African countries share some similarities in policy framework. Secondly, Rwanda and Kenya appear as exceptional in the drive towards accelerating further fertility decline. Fertility change therefore in any one country may have implications in the neighbouring country due to the commonalities especially in language, cultural traits, diffusion and spread new models of behaviour. Methods: With the utilization of DHS data, we analyse trends overtime in two specific features that scholars have indicated to slow or increase fertility decline. Using Bongaarts supply-demand framework, we first deduce trends in fertility preferences among women of reproductive age (15-49 years) and second, the extent to which women have been able to implement their fertility preferences during the course of fertility decline and subsequently decomposing these trends. Results: We found that with the rising aggregate of the degree of fertility preference implementation index, continuous declining trends in demand for births and subsequent increases in the contribution made by either or both the wanted fertility and the degree of fertility preference implementation index across categories that fertility transition is certainly on course in all countries albeit at different levels, thanks to the family planning. Conclusions: Family planning programs must therefore be accompanied by rigorous, consistent sensitization and public education.

Thesis (Postgraduate Certificate in Research Preparation (Humanities)--Macquarie University, Dept. of Modern History, Politics and International Relations, 2009.
This thesis presented as a partial fulfilment to the requirements for the Postgraduate Certificate in Research Preparation (Humanities). Bibliography: p. 47-55.

Toute la population du Rwanda parle une même langue, le kinyarwanda, à la fois langue nationale et officielle. Cette homogénéité linguistique « de surface » se présente comme l’arbre qui cache la forêt d’une relative diversité linguistique « en profondeur » (dialectes, langues africaines et européennes en présence). L’heure n’est pas encore au chaos, mais l’adoption du trilinguisme officielle en 1996 [(kinyarwanda-français-anglais) impose, plus que par le passé, la définition d’une politique de gestion de la situation sociolinguistique du Rwanda, notamment par la détermination claire, par une loi linguistique, des fonctions des langues officielles dans les différents domaines, pour régler les problèmes qui se posent depuis le bilinguisme kinyarwanda-français adopté vers les années 1930. Les problèmes linguistiques et sociolinguistiques intéressent diverses catégories de personnes depuis le début du 20ème siècle. Cependant, la question de l’utilisation des langues dans les différents domaines et de leur connaissance approximative reste entièrement posée. Ce travail analyse les politiques linguistiques appliquées au Rwanda jusqu’à ce jour pour en dégager les enjeux et en établir le bilan afin de proposer de nouvelles stratégies de gestion de la situation sociolinguistique du Rwanda. Il s’agit en effet d’une politologie linguistique qui s’inscrit dans le cadre théorique et conceptuel déjà très rodé et dont l’efficacité a pu être testée sur le terrain dans différents pays ; cadre théorique qui est emprunté pour l’essentiel au linguiste québécois Jean-Claude Corbeil. Il est enrichi des analyses d’autres auteurs comme Robert Chaudenson, Louis-Jean Calvet, Loïc Depecker, Henri Boyer, etc. sur le concept d’aménagement linguistique et sur des situations concrètes. L’étude s’appuie à la fois sur une recherche documentaire minutieuse, une enquête de terrain qui a été effectuée au Rwanda auprès des diverses catégories de personnes et quelques entretiens informels avec certains intervenants en matière d’aménagement linguistique (linguistes et décideurs)
The whole population of Rwanda speaks the same language, Kinyarwanda, which is both the national and official language. This “surface” linguistic homogeneity is seen as a tree that hides a forest of a relatively “in depth” linguistic diversity (dialects, African and European languages). It is not yet time for chaos but the adoption of official trilingualism (Kinyarwanda-French-English) requires more than ever before the definition of the policy of managing the sociolinguistic situation of Rwanda, namely by clear determination, by a linguistic law, of the roles of official languages in various areas in order to solve the problems that have remained unanswered since the adoption of Kinyarwanda-French bilingualism in the 1930’s. From early the 20th century, the linguistic and sociolinguistic issues have interested various researchers. However, the question of the use of languages in various domains and their approximate mastery is still posed. This work analyses the linguistic policies that have been adopted in Rwanda with aim to bring out the stakes and assess the situation geared towards suggesting the new management strategies of the sociolinguistic situation of Rwanda. This is indeed a linguistic “politology” which falls within the theoretical and conceptual framework already explored whose efficiency has been tested on the ground in different countries. The theoretical framework has essentially been borrowed from the Quebec linguist Jean-Claude Corbeil. It is enriched with analyses of such other authors as Robert Chaudenson, Louis- Jean Calvet, Loïc Depecker, Henri Boyer, etc. on the concept of language planning and concrete situations. The study is based on both a meticulous documentary research and field work that have been carried out in Rwanda with various categories of people and some informal interviews with some stakeholders in language policy and planning [linguists and decision-makers]

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD
This study explores second and third year students' and teachers‟ views on factors that hinder or facilitate the mastery of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) in the Science and Engineering Technology Higher Institutions of learning in Rwanda (KIST) and seeks to establish the extent to which the current programme meets the needs of the students. This is done by highlighting a whole range of teacher and student perspectives on the EAP programme. Two key requirements invite students to write their academic assignments in the form of research proposals and research project reports. In order to help them perform well in their field subjects, KIST introduced a department of English with a General English Programme under the umbrella of the then School of Language Studies (SORAS) in 1997. The department‟s first assigned mission was to teach English to students in all departments in a bid to support and encourage them to cope with their field specific courses which are taught in English. Rwanda‟s National Council for Higher Education (2007), on language teaching and learning, states that the trio, that is Kinyarwanda (the Mother Tongue and national language) and English and French (as foreign languages), should be taught at primary, secondary and higher education levels in order to reconcile the divide between Rwandan returnees (who had lived abroad for many decades) and locals. It is in this context that KIST, one of the institutions of higher learning, adopted the bilingual policy to cater to students‟ needs to learn both French and English as media of academic communication. However, after Rwanda‟s integration into the East African Community and the Commonwealth, English has been officially adopted as the medium of instruction in all schools and higher institutions of education. That is why there was a sudden language shift in 2006 from French to English as a medium of instruction at KIST. French and Kinyarwanda are now merely taught as subjects. The motive behind the move was to cater for Rwanda‟s needs to fully participate in the economic community of East African Community in general and in the global economy in particular. The move drastically affected students‟ ability to read and write English in their respective disciplines. The move also affected lecturers of other speciality areas. To avert the obvious challenges emanating from this sudden shift in language policy, the Institute introduced the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP) programmes under the then KIST School of Language Studies (SOLAS) and the KIST Language Centre. However, appropriate instructional materials for such courses have not been easily available. Given this situation, English teachers have had to create their own materials rather than the existing generalised and pre-packaged language teaching materials. As a result, students‟ specific needs for induction into a scientific writing community at tertiary level have rarely been met. It is against this background that the study seeks to investigate factors that are facilitating and the mastery of EAP. The study operates on post-colonial/post-structuralist theoretical perspectives. These were founded on the analytical framework that is guided by thematic and/or conceptual underpinnings of language policy in the post-colonial Africa. Thus, English Language Teaching (ELT), developed into English as a second and additional language that is multi-semiotic and multi-modality in EAP and science genres, focusing mostly on its academic literacy, identity, ideology, power and agency, as well as its investment in language teaching and learning and the scientific community practice. Using a combination of ethnographic principles/practices like participants‟ observations, oneto- one interviews, focus group discussions and documentary review in data collection, the study utilises thematic/conceptual analysis to draw its conclusions. Drawing from the above conceptual perspectives, therefore, as well as from the methodological approach, this thesis emphasises the fact that the inability of students to successfully master EAP is caused by various factors, including the choice of English language learning materials. Contradictory approaches to language learning and to academic literacy practices create further challenges to the Rwandan students‟ advancement in English mastery. These same practices also serve to limit the students‟ ability to learn this language and complicate their access to local and global cultural exposure that is necessary for their socio-economic development of Rwanda. The study also reveals lack of appropriate discursive competence and multi-semiotic repertoires as some of the major factors inhibiting students‟ academic progress. This is partly explained by the nature of the English language learning and teaching materials that is in use which neither provides general nor disciplinary specific academic and learning opportunities in English. Similarly, a range of structural and professional constraints on „agency‟ exists for teachers of English in Rwanda as an additional language to the students, including lack of induction into scientific discourses or the EAP community of language practice. The overall lack of power and agency by teachers also contributes to constraints and constrictions in English language learning practices for these students in Rwanda. The study, however, observes that this situation is not only peculiar to KIST, as it is also common in almost all tertiary institutions in Rwanda. Specific recommendations are made in the study to improve the quality of English language learning and teaching in general and EAP in particular at KIST as an institution of higher learning, through the establishment of a clearer language policy and training opportunities for staff to update and develop required language skills in EAP, especially with regards to writing skills in sciences and engineering. The government of Rwanda, under the umbrella of Rwanda Education Board (REB) and the contribution of English language experts at the Institute, should provide a clearer direction of the language policy and curriculum that addresses Rwandan students‟ specific needs. KIST, as an institution of higher learning, should value and facilitate the teaching and learning of English in general and the teaching of EAP in particular, bearing in mind its assigned mission. The management of the Institute should encourage interaction between EAP and subject area lecturers to discuss and agree upon, text types to be used by EAP lecturers in teaching. KIST management should also provide room for regular interactions with English lecturers to listen to their views and offer them further language training opportunities in order to update and develop the required skills in EAP, especially with regards to writing skills in science and engineering.
South Africa

Rwanda is a small resource poor country in East Africa that has experienced almost two decades’ worth of significant growth following a genocide that claimed almost 10% of the country’s population. This paper explores the role of positive autonomy in the countries path to development hoping to demonstrate that countries that are ready to pursue independent policy initiatives ought to be encouraged to do so by their international partners. Positive autonomy has three defining characteristics; the ability of a country to pursue its own internally driven policy choices, especially in the face of external opposition but not necessarily in the face of opposition, “ownership” of a community over policy developments that affect them, i.e. their involvement in the administration of policy, and lastly, the ability of a country to reject policy propositions from the outside. Negative autonomy would be a lack of two or more of those conditions. Using this model, I seek to show that these three characteristics have been pursued by Rwanda as a result of its pre-genocide history. I also seek to show that these three characteristics have played a vital role in the development of Rwanda by allowing the government to pursue innovative strategies outside of international norms. To demonstrate this conclusion, I first look to the pre and post-colonial histories of Rwanda in order to examine the role of negative autonomy, seeking to build a case that demonstrates its lasting impact in Rwanda’s political character. I then examine an extreme case of negative autonomy in the case of the CFA monetary union followed by an extended examination of a clear case of positive autonomy in Rwanda and the benefits and failures it has produced. I then briefly examine the relationship between development aid and influence also demonstrating that Rwanda’s position on development aid mirrors its position on positive autonomy in general. Finally, I briefly examine three different examples of positive autonomy in Rwanda as a supplement to the extended example to demonstrate that some of the biggest policy initiatives undertaken by the Rwandan government are either the result of positive autonomy, are successful because of positive autonomy or can be drastically improved by a better implementation of positive autonomy. I hope that this research can be seen as a fresh lens for examining the relationship between weak and powerful states to validate the position that more autonomy for weaker states in their decision-making processes can produce much more successful results in their development drives.

This research was conducted in the particular context of the 2009 new language in education policy in Rwanda. The problem examined within this context, concerns the attitudes and motivation of teachers and students from different language backgrounds (both Anglophone and Francophone) as they have experienced the shift from French and/or English as MoI to the sole use of English as medium of instruction (MoI) in education, all the way from the Primary School stage up to and including tertiary institutes. In this unique context where English was being used as MoI whilst simultaneously learning the language, the aim of this study was to investigate an often overlooked psychological aspect of the language policy shift literature, viz., Teachers’ and Students’ Attitudes and Motivation toward learning English; and toward using it for teaching and learning. Through the lens of Gardner’s (1985) second language (L2) motivation construct as a theoretical framework; this study used quantitative and qualitative methods of enquiry in the context of Mixed Methods approach, to ascertain implementers’ reaction amid challenges of policy change. The study established that, in a quasi monolingual society with Kinyarwanda as the national language, Teacher Training College (TTC) teachers and students form a diverse community of language users; that they converge on knowledge and use of English despite this diversity; that they hold positive attitudes toward learning the language and using it as MoI; and that the main reason for these positive attitudes is that the use of English as MoI offers an opportunity to learn the language. This study thus recommends that all stakeholders in the education enterprise in Rwanda be sensitized on the necessity to distinguish between the tasks of learning English and using it for teaching and learning.

This research study aims to evaluate how the trilingual policy (Kinyarwanda, French and English) is implemented in Kigali City’s nursery and primary schools in terms of facilitating learners’ cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) development, in both the pre-2008 and post-2008 language policies. It is an exploratory-qualitative-interpretative research study, which analyses the language preference, the age of change-over and the multilingual models adopted and how they contribute to learners’ CALP development. It also analyses the implications of the post-2008 policy. The findings indicated that initial bilingualism, initial trilingualism, early total immersion and gradual transfer models were implemented in the pre-2008 policy; while the post-2008 policy implements early total immersion. The learners’ CALP in both the MT and the AL could be more developed in public schools under the pre-2008 policy due to exposure to Kinyarwanda instruction from the start but it may not be developed fully under the post-2008 policy, because English is used as MOI from the onset of education.
Linguistics
M.A. (Applied Linguistics)

This study explores second and third year students' and teachers‟ views on factors that hinder or facilitate the mastery of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) in the Science and Engineering Technology Higher Institutions of learning in Rwanda (KIST) and seeks to establish the extent to which the current programme meets the needs of the students. This is done by highlighting a whole range of teacher and student perspectives on the EAP programme. Two key requirements invite students to write their academic assignments in the form of research proposals and research project reports. In order to help them perform well in their field subjects, KIST introduced a department of English with a General English Programme under the umbrella of the then School of Language Studies (SORAS) in 1997. The department‟s first assigned mission was to teach English to students in all departments in a bid to support and encourage them to cope with their field specific courses which are taught in English. Rwanda‟s National Council for Higher Education (2007), on language teaching and learning, states that the trio, that is Kinyarwanda (the Mother Tongue and national language) and English and French (as foreign languages), should be taught at primary, secondary and higher education levels in order to reconcile the divide between Rwandan returnees (who had lived abroad for many decades) and locals. It is in this context that KIST, one of the institutions of higher learning, adopted the bilingual policy to cater to students‟ needs to learn both French and English as media of academic communication. However, after Rwanda‟s integration into the East African Community and the Commonwealth, English has been officially adopted as the medium of instruction in all schools and higher institutions of education. That is why there was a sudden language shift in 2006 from French to English as a medium of instruction at KIST. French and Kinyarwanda are now merely taught as subjects. The motive behind the move was to cater for Rwanda‟s needs to fully participate in the economic community of East African Community in general and in the global economy in particular. The move drastically affected students‟ ability to read and write English in their respective disciplines. The move also affected lecturers of other speciality areas. To avert the obvious challenges emanating from this sudden shift in language policy, the Institute introduced the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP) programmes under the then KIST School of Language Studies (SOLAS) and the KIST Language Centre. However, appropriate instructional materials for such courses have not been easily available. Given this situation, English teachers have had to create their own materials rather than the existing generalised and pre-packaged language teaching materials. As a result, students‟ specific needs for induction into a scientific writing community at tertiary level have rarely been met. It is against this background that the study seeks to investigate factors that are facilitating and the mastery of EAP. The study operates on post-colonial/post-structuralist theoretical perspectives. These were founded on the analytical framework that is guided by thematic and/or conceptual underpinnings of language policy in the post-colonial Africa. Thus, English Language Teaching (ELT), developed into English as a second and additional language that is multi-semiotic and multi-modality in EAP and science genres, focusing mostly on its academic literacy, identity, ideology, power and agency, as well as its investment in language teaching and learning and the scientific community practice. Using a combination of ethnographic principles/practices like participants‟ observations, oneto- one interviews, focus group discussions and documentary review in data collection, the study utilises thematic/conceptual analysis to draw its conclusions. Drawing from the above conceptual perspectives, therefore, as well as from the methodological approach, this thesis emphasises the fact that the inability of students to successfully master EAP is caused by various factors, including the choice of English language learning materials. Contradictory approaches to language learning and to academic literacy practices create further challenges to the Rwandan students‟ advancement in English mastery. These same practices also serve to limit the students‟ ability to learn this language and complicate their access to local and global cultural exposure that is necessary for their socio-economic development of Rwanda. The study also reveals lack of appropriate discursive competence and multi-semiotic repertoires as some of the major factors inhibiting students‟ academic progress. This is partly explained by the nature of the English language learning and teaching materials that is in use which neither provides general nor disciplinary specific academic and learning opportunities in English. Similarly, a range of structural and professional constraints on &bdquo
agency‟ exists for teachers of English in Rwanda as an additional language to the students, including lack of induction into scientific discourses or the EAP community of language practice. The overall lack of power and agency by teachers also contributes to constraints and constrictions in English language learning practices for these students in Rwanda. The study, however, observes that this situation is not only peculiar to KIST, as it is also common in almost all tertiary institutions in Rwanda. Specific recommendations are made in the study to improve the quality of English language learning and teaching in general and EAP in particular at KIST as an institution of higher learning, through the establishment of a clearer language policy and training opportunities for staff to update and develop required language skills in EAP, especially with regards to writing skills in sciences and engineering. The government of Rwanda, under the umbrella of Rwanda Education Board (REB) and the contribution of English language experts at the Institute, should provide a clearer direction of the language policy and curriculum that addresses Rwandan students‟ specific needs. KIST, as an institution of higher learning, should value and facilitate the teaching and learning of English in general and the teaching of EAP in particular, bearing in mind its assigned mission. The management of the Institute should encourage interaction between EAP and subject area lecturers to discuss and agree upon, text types to be used by EAP lecturers in teaching. KIST management should also provide room for regular interactions with English lecturers to listen to their views and offer them further language training opportunities in order to update and develop the required skills in EAP, especially with regards to writing skills in science and engineering.

THESIS Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Language and Literacy Education Faculty of Humanities School of Education University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
This study entitled “Foundation Phase Learners’ and Teachers’ Attitudes and Experiences with the Rwandan Language-in-Education Policy Shifts” is a contribution to the field of language-in-education policy. It focuses on the Rwandan foundation phase (i.e. lower primary school) learners and teachers. It examines their attitudes and experiences towards the Rwandan unfamiliar consecutive language-in-education policy shifts whereby the former trilingual medium shifted to initial English medium (initial submersion) in 2008, and then switched to Kinyarwanda medium (sudden transfer) in 2011, in the Rwandan lower primary schools. While several language attitudes studies in the existing literature have mainly concentrated on attitudes to individual languages, there is dearth of attitudes research studies which uncover the true nature of attitudes towards different language types, such as exoglossic or endoglossic languages within the African context (Adegbija, 1994, p. 52) or attitudes to balanced bilingualism (Baker, 1992, p. 3). Thus, this study contributes to addressing these gaps by investigating the learners’ attitudes and experiences towards initial submersion they started with English medium in grade 1, and then shifted to sudden transfer with Kinyarwanda medium in grade 2 and 3; within an African endoglossic and unicultural country. Drawing insights from the “Concurrent Embedded Strategy” of the mixed methods (Creswell, 2009, p. 210), qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis were used. This study was conducted among a sample of 324 informants which comprised 300 learners, 18 teachers and 6 principals, who were selected from 6 lower primary schools in Rwanda. The striking finding is that in addition to the universal preference for English medium, the Rwandan rural school learners and teachers showed more positive attitudes towards the shift to an African endoglossic language (Kinyarwanda), which debunks the folklore in the existing literature that exogenous languages are preferred over indigenous languages.

Drawing on recent theorising of 'nation branding', this article examines how mediatised security narratives are used as part of the current Government of Rwanda's public diplomacy strategy to establish post-conflict Rwanda's peacekeeping identity and brand image as a Troop Contributing Country. It does so by undertaking an analysis of media discourse published by the state-owned English language national newspaper The New Times between 2008 and 2018, and two 'twitter storms' that occurred in March 2017 and 2018 in response to the Central African Republic Sexual Exploitation and Abuse scandal involving French military peacekeepers and a second scandal involving Ghanaian police peacekeepers in South Sudan. Specifically, we ask, how does the Government of Rwanda use mediatised security narratives as a nation branding tool after genocide and civil war? We argue that mediatised security narratives are employed to erase Rwanda's negative brand informed by the frameworks of victimology, poverty and violence and reposition Rwanda as an emerging strategic player in international peacekeeping. The RPF achieves this by 'niche building' and mimicking the public diplomacy strategies of middle-powers in order to present Rwanda as a catalyst and facilitator of contemporary peacekeeping policy and practice.