Academic literature on the topic 'Lapis Niger'

Antifungal Activity of Some Synthesized Mono-Carbonyl Analogue Compounds of CurcuminABSTRACTFungal resistance can pose a threat to future fungal infections, therefore studies to find other compounds that have antifungal activity need to be done. The aim of this study was to examine antifungal activity of synthesized curcumin analogue compounds i.e. 2,6-Bis-(2'-furilidin)-cyclohexanone (26FuH); 2,5-Bis-(2'-furilidine)-cyclopentanone (25FuP) and 1,5-Difuril-1,4-pentadien-3-on (15FuA). The curcumin analogue compound was successfully synthesized with Aldol condensation using KOH 7.5% as the catalyst. The compound was purified and characterized by melting point, thin layer chromatography, gas chromatography with mass spectrometry, FTIR spectrophotometry, spectrophotometry 1H-NMR. The results showed pure compounds and have a structure that corresponds to the target compounds. All compound were assayed as antifungal against Candida albicans, Pityrosporum ovale, Aspergillus niger, and Trichophyton mentagrophytes. The activity of each compound represented by inhibitory diameter was analyzed by one-way ANOVA followed by post hoc Tukey (p<0.05). All three compounds showed antifungal activity against Candida albicans, Pityrosporum ovale, and Aspergillus niger. The best antifungal activity was shown by 26FuH against Pityrosporum ovale.Keywords: antifungal activity, curcumin, monocarbonyl, Pityrosporum ovale, synthesis ABSTRAKResistensi jamur dapat menjadi ancaman pada kasus infeksi jamur di masa mendatang, oleh sebab itu penelitian untuk menemukan senyawa lain yang memiliki aktivitas antijamur perlu dilakukan. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menguji aktivitas antijamur senyawa analog curcumin hasil sintesis yaitu senyawa 2,6-Bis-(2’-furilidin)-sikloheksanon (26FuH); 2,5-Bis-(2’-furilidin)-siklopentanon (25FuP) dan 1,5-Difuril-1,4-pentadien-3-on (15FuA). Senyawa analog curcumin sudah berhasil disintesis dengan metode kondensasi Aldol menggunakan katalis KOH 7,5%. Senyawa hasil sintesis dimurnikan dan dikarakterisasi dengan menggunakan pemeriksaan organoleptis, titik lebur, kromatografi lapis tipis, kromatografi gas dengan spektrometri massa, spektrofotometri FTIR, spektrofotometri 1H-NMR. Hasil menunjukkan senyawa murni dan struktur sesuai senyawa target. Hasil sintesis diuji aktivitas antijamur terhadap Candida albicans, Pityrosporum ovale, Aspergillus niger dan Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Hasil diameter daya hambat dianalisis dengan ANOVA satu arah dilanjutkan post hoc Tukey (p<0,05). Ketiga senyawa memiliki aktivitas antijamur terhadap jamur Candida albicans, Pityrosporum ovale, dan Aspergillus niger. Aktivitas antijamur terbaik adalah senyawa 26FuH terhadap jamur Pityrosporum ovale.Kata Kunci: aktivitas antijamur, curcumin, monokarbonil, Pityrosporum ovale, sintesis

Kitosan dalam bentuk potongan yang disebut oligomer kitosan, bersifat larut air sehingga memudahkan aplikasinya, dan meminimalkan gangguan sensoris akibat sifat kitosan yang hanya larut dalam asam lemah seperti asam asetat. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk memproduksi oligomer kitosan dengan katalisator enzim kitosanase yang diperoleh dari isolate bakteri Stenotrophomonas malthopilia KPU 2123 dan menguji bioaktivitas oligomer yang dihasilkannya terhadap kapang Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Nigrospora oryzaeB12, dan Aspergillus fumigatusC13 yang diisolasi dari produk perikanan. Produksi oligomer dilakukan dengan menggunakan enzim kitosanase sebesar 8 U/g kitosan dan direaksikan selama 1, 2, 3, dan 4 jam pada suhu ruang. Pengamatan dilakukan terhadap viskositas, rendemen, dan jenis oligomer kitosan yang terbentuk. Identifikasi oligomer dilakukan dengan Kromatografi Lapis Tipis (KLT). Pengujian bioaktivitas oligomer kitosan dilakukan terhadap 4 kapang konsentrasi 50, 100, dan 200 ppm, dengan kontrol tanpa penambahan oligomer. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa enzim kitosanase kasar dari Stenotrophomonas malthopilia KPU 2123 dapat digunakan untuk menghidrolisis kitosan menjadi oligomer kitosan, yang ditandai oleh menurunnya viskositas yang sangat signifikan pada larutan kitosan. Dengan menggunakan enzim kitosanase kasar 8 U/g kitosan, kitosan oligomer dapat diproduksi dengan waktu reaksi 2 jam, penghentian reaksi enzimatis dapat dilakukan dengan pendidihan selama 15 menit atau dengan penambahan NaOH sampai netral. Jenis oligomer yang terbentuk adalah dimer (2 unit) hingga heksamer (6 unit). Uji bioaktivitas antikapang menunjukkan bahwa setiap perlakuan memberikan perbedaan yang nyata pada penghambatan pertumbuhan kapang apabila dibandingkan dengan kontrol. Namun tidak ada perbedaan yang nyata dalam penghambatan pertumbuhan kapang yang diuji jika digunakan oligomer kitos an s ebesar 50 dan 100 ppm. Penghambatan yang terbaik adalah jika digunakan oligomer dengan konsentrasi 200 ppm.

RESUMO: O objetivo foi realizar a descrição anatômica do esqueleto de Melanosuchus niger, com o intuito de contribuir com informações evolutivas sobre a espécie. Utilizaram-se três espécimes adultos de M. niger, com comprimento médio de 2,40m, provenientes da coleção biológica do Lapas-UFU. Na cintura peitoral, a escápula é maior do que o coracóide. Já nos elementos da cintura pelvina, o púbis não participa da formação do acetábulo, o contato com o ilío, ocorre por ligamentos, e sua articulação com o ísquio, permite movimentos dorso-ventrais. Nos membros torácicos, o úmero figura como elemento do estilopódio, a ulna e rádio como elementos do zeugopódio. No carpo há o ulnar do carpo, fusão do radial+intermédio, fusão dos distais do carpo 3+4+5 e o pisiforme; possui cinco metacarpos, numerados lateromedialmente e a fórmula falângica 2:3:4:3:2. Nos membros pelvinos, o estilopódio é formado pelo fêmur e o zeugopódio pela tíbia e fíbula. No tarso há a fusão do intermédio+central, fibular do tarso, distal do tarso 3, distal do tarso 4; possui quatro metatarsos longos I, II, III e IV, sendo os metatarsos II e III maiores que os demais. O metatarso V é um osso bastante reduzido e o pé possui a fórmula falângica 2:3:4:4. No crânio, a abertura nasal é única, o palatino, vômer, pterigóide, pré-maxila e maxila formam a estrutura óssea do palato secundário; o osso parietal é o único elemento no teto craniano. No esqueleto pós- axial em pares de costelas distintas que se articulam com as vértebras cervicais, dorsais, lombares, sacrais e caudais. A gastrália é formada por sete fileiras de ossos finos localizados entre o púbis e a região caudal do esterno.

Abstract Various cavities studied in western Niger and South Cameroon show the existence of important karstic phenomena into metagabbros and gneisses. These large-sized caves resulted from generalized dissolution of silicate formations in spite of their low solubility. Karstification is produced by deep hydrous transfer along lithological discontinuities and fracture net works. The existence of such caves has major implications in geomorphology, under either Sahelian and Equatorial climate, and in hydrogeology and water supply, particularly in the Sahel area. Introduction. – Since a few decades, several karst-like morphologies are described in non-carbonated rocks (sandstones, quartzites, schistes, gneisses…) [Wray, 1997 ; Vicat and Willems, 1998 ; Willems, 2000]. The cave of Guéssédoundou in West Niger seems to be due to a large dissolution of metagabbros. The cave of Mfoula, South Cameroon, attests for the same process in gneisses. This forms proof that big holes may exist deeper in the substratum even of non-carbonated silicate rocks. Their size and number could mainly influence the landscape and the hydrogeology, especially in the Sahelian areas. Guéssédoundou, a cave into metagabbros in West Niger. – The site of Guéssédoundou is located 70 km south-west of Niamey (fig. 1). The cave is opened at the top of a small hill, inside in NNE-SSW elongated pit (fig. 2 ; pl. I A). The hole, 3 to 4 m deep and 20 m large, has vertical walls and contains numerous sub-metric angular blocks. A cave, a few meters deep, comes out the south wall. Bedrocks consist of metagabbros of the Makalondi greenstone belt, a belt of the Palaeoproterozoic Birimian Formations of the West Africa craton [Pouclet et al., 1990]. The rock has a common granular texture with plagioclases, partly converted in albite and clinozoisite, and pyroxenes pseudomorphosed in actinote and chlorite. It is rather fairly altered. Chemical composition is mafic and poorly alkaline (tabl. I). A weak E-W schistosity generated with the epizonal thermometamorphism. The site depression was created along a N010o shear zone where rocks suffered important fracturation and fluid transfers, as shown by its silification and ferruginisation. The absence of human activity traces and the disposition of the angular blocks attest that the pit is natural and was due to the collapse of the roof of a vast cavity whose current cave is only the residual prolongation. To the vertical walls of the depression and at the cave entry, pluridecimetric hemispheric hollows are observed (pl. I B). Smooth morphology and position of these hollows sheltered within the depression dismiss the assumptions of formation by mechanical erosion. In return, these features are typical shape of dissolution processes observed into limestone karstic caves. That kind of process must be invoked to explain the opening of the Guéssédoundou cave, in the total lack of desagregation materials. Dissolution of metagabbro occurred during hydrous transfer, which was probably guided by numerous fractures of the shear zone. Additional observations have been done in the Sirba Valley, where similar metabasite rocks constitute the substratum, with sudden sinking of doline-like depressions and evidence of deep cavities by core logging [Willems et al., 1993, 1996]. It is concluded that karstic phenomena may exist even in silica-aluminous rocks of crystalline terrains, such as the greenstones of a Precambrian craton. Mfoula a cave into gneisses in South Cameroon. – The cave of Mfoula is located 80 km north-east of Yaoundé (fig. 3). It is the second largest cave of Cameroon, more than 5,000 m3, with a large opening in the lower flank of a deep valley (pl. I C). The cavity is about 60 m long, 30 m large and 5 to 12 m high (fig. 4; pl. I D). It is hollowed in orthogneisses belonging to the Pan-African Yaoundé nappe. Rocks exhibit subhorizontal foliation in two superposed lithological facies: the lower part is made of amphibole- and garnet-bearing layered gneisses, and the upper part, of more massive granulitic gneisses. Average composition is silico-aluminous and moderately alkaline (tabl. I). The cave is made of different chambers separated by sub-cylindrical pillars. The ceiling of the main chamber, 6 m in diameter, is dome-shaped with a smooth surface (D, fig. 4). The walls have also a smooth aspect decorated with many hemispherical hollows. The floor is flat according to the rock foliation. They are very few rock debris and detrital fragments and no traces of mechanical erosion and transport. The general inner morphology is amazingly similar to that of a limestone cave. The only way to generate such a cavity is to dissolve the rock by water transfer. To test the effect of the dissolution process, we analysed a clayey residual sampled in an horizontal fracture of the floor (tabl. I). Alteration begins by plagioclases in producing clay minerals and in disagregating the rock. However, there is no more clay and sand material. That means all the silicate minerals must have been eliminated. Dissolution of silicates is a known process in sandstone and quartzite caves. It may work as well in gneisses. To fasten the chemical action, we may consider an additional microbial chemolitotrophe activity. The activity of bacteria colonies is known in various rocks and depths, mainly in the aquifer [Sinclair and Ghiorse, 1989 ; Stevens and McKinley, 1995]. The formation of the Mfoula cave is summarized as follow (fig. 5). Meteoric water is drained down along sub-vertical fractures and then along horizontal discontinuities of the foliation, particularly in case of lithological variations. Chemical and biological dissolution is working. Lateral transfers linked to the aquifer oscillations caused widening of the caves. Dissolved products are transported by the vertical drains. Regressive erosion of the valley, linked to the epeirogenic upwelling due to the volcano-tectonic activity of the Cameroon Line, makes the cavities come into sight at the valley flanks. Discussion and conclusion. – The two examples of the Guéssédoundou and Mfoula caves evidence the reality of the karsts in non-carbonated silicated rocks. The karst term is used to design ≫ any features of the classical karst morphology (caves, dolines, lapies…) where dissolution plays the main genetical action ≫ [Willems, 2000]. Our observations indicate that (i) the karst genesis may have occurred into any kind of rocks, and (ii) the cave formation is not directly dependent of the present climate. These facts have major consequences to hydrogeological investigations, especially for water supply in Sahelian and sub-desertic countries. Some measurements of water transfer speed across either sedimentary pelitic strata of the Continental terminal or igneous rocks of the substratum in West Niger [Estèves and Lenoir, 1996 ; Ousmane et al., 1984] proved that supplying of aquifers in these silico-aluminous rocks may be as fast as in a karstic limestone. That means the West Niger substratum is highly invaded by a karstic net and may hidden a lot of discontinuous aquifers. The existence of this karst system can be easily shown by morphological observations, the same that are done in karstic limestone regions (abnormally suspended dry valleys, collapses, dolines…). Clearly, this must be the guide for any search of water, even in desertic areas where limestones are absent.

The Forum was the center of Roman life. It witnessed a barrage of building, destruction and reuse from the seventh century BCE onwards. By around 80 BCE, patrons chose to renovate the Senate House and Comitium with a fresh paving of tufa blocks. Masons leveled many ruined altars and memorials beneath the flooring. Yet paving also provided a means of saving some of Rome’s past. They isolated the Lapis Niger with black blocks, to keep the city’s sinking history in their present. Paving therefore became a technology of memory for recording past events and people. Yet how effective was the Lapis Niger as a memorial? Many modern scholars have romanced the site’s cultural continuity. However, in fifty years and after two Lapis Nigers, the Comitium had borne a disparity of monuments and functions. Rome’s historians could not agree on what lay beneath. Verrius Flaccus reports that the Lapis Niger ‘according to others’ might mark the site of Romulus’s apotheosis, his burial, the burial of his foster father Faustulus, or even his soldier, Hostius Hostilius (50.177). Nevertheless, modern archaeologists have found no tombs. Instead of trying to comprehend these legends, most scholars use them selectively to isolate a dictator, deity or date. We must instead understand why so many views of the Lapis Niger emerged in antiquity. Otherwise, like ancient antiquarians, we will re- identify sites without end. Recreating how these material and mental landscapes interacted and spawned new pasts tells us more about the Lapis Niger than any new attribution.
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