Relevant bibliographies by topics / Lawrence River Power Company

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Academic literature on the topic 'Lawrence River Power Company'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 14 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Lawrence River Power Company"

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Tidwell, Vincent C., and Victoria Pebbles. "The Water-Energy-Environment Nexus in the Great Lakes Region: The Case for Integrated Resource Planning." Energy and Environment Research 5, no. 2 (December 6, 2015): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/eer.v5n2p1.

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<p>Water is a critical element of electric power production in the U.S., particularly in the Great Lakes Basin region. Thermoelectric power generation accounts for the majority of all water withdrawals in the Basin, in large part due to the comparatively heavy concentrations of coal and nuclear power generation that utilize open-loop cooling. This paper explores how different energy generation portfolios could affect the water resources of the Great Lakes Basin. The suite of power generation scenarios analyzed reflects a range of potential outcomes resulting from the implementation of key national and regional energy and environmental policies for the electric power industry. These policies include U.S. EPA’s pending power plant cooling water intake standards, state renewable energy portfolio standards, possible climate change legislation, and the 2005 Great Lakes regional water resource agreement (Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River Basin Water Resources Compact of 2005; Public Law 110–342). Five scenarios were analyzed, resulting in different levels and intensities of total water use (withdrawal and consumption) in hydrologically-sensitive watersheds. These results confirm the close relationship between water and energy in the Great Lakes, and point to the need to take into account water resource impacts in designing future energy and environmental policies.</p>
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Cox, Heather M., Brendan G. DeMelle, Glenn R. Harris, Christopher P. Lee, and Laura K. Montondo. "Drowning Voices and Drowning Shoreline: A Riverside View of the Social and Ecological Impacts of the St. Lawrence Seaway and Power Project." Rural History 10, no. 2 (October 1999): 235–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0956793300001801.

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The St. Lawrence Seaway and Power Project was a massive restructuring of the St. Lawrence River bordering Canada and the United States. The river had always been used for human transportation, and a shipping canal for commercial vehicles was constructed and enhanced throughout the nineteenth century. However, the river grew increasingly incapable of handling an international fleet composed of larger boats during the twentieth century. Proposals to undertake major renovations for shipping were debated at the highest levels of policy for several decades. Finally, the St. Lawrence River was substantially altered during the 1950s. These changes created a Seaway able to accommodate vessels with deeper drafts and permitted the development of hydro-electric generating facilities through the construction of dikes and dams. All of this activity involved numerous agencies in the governments of the United States, Canada, the Iroquois Confederacy, New York, Ontario, other states and provinces, as well as commercial and industrial entities in the private sector.
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Cai, Hua Long, Bing Gu, and Zhi Yu Wu. "Planning of Network Communication System of Yalong River Basin Hydropower Development Co., LTD." Applied Mechanics and Materials 568-570 (June 2014): 1394–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.568-570.1394.

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The planning of network communications of Yalong river basin hydropower development company aims to adapt to the company's strategy and making decision, meet the requirements of project construction, electric power production and administrative management. Based on the principle of advanced nature, economy, reliability, security, scalability, and standardization, the concept of basin area and framework of network communication are put forward on the regional development and project category of Yalong River Company . The content of communication planning is to solve the network communication problems of the company headquarters, between the company headquarters and secondary units focus on office, between corporate headquarters and production, between basin area and each power plant under construction projects.
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Ion, J., Y. de Lafontaine, P. Dumont, and L. Lapierre. "Contaminant levels in St. Lawrence River yellow perch (Perca flavescens): spatial variation and implications for monitoring." Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 54, no. 12 (December 1, 1997): 2930–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/f97-198.

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Yellow perch (Perca flavescens) (n = 50) were collected from five geographic sectors between 1991 and 1992 to assess the spatial variability in trace metal and PCB (10 congeners) levels along the St. Lawrence River. Spatial differences among the five sectors were analyzed using two-way ANOVA and were significant only for PCBs. Both Hg and total congener concentrations were significantly and positively correlated with fish age, but not with mass or length. The relative proportions of the PCB congeners did not vary among sites. The bioaccumulation factor (BAF) of 3700 for total congeners compared favourably with previously reported results. Since 1975, Hg and PCB levels in St. Lawrence River yellow perch have decreased by factors of 2-3 and 30, respectively. Power analyses revealed that future monitoring studies may require large sample sizes to successfully detect the small spatial differences found for many contaminants. For example, to detect, at a power level of 90%, a 33% difference in Hg levels in yellow perch (i.e., the maximum difference found in this study) among the five sectors, 80 fish per sector would be required.
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St-Onge, Nicole. "The Persistence of Travel and Trade: St. Lawrence River Valley French Engagés and the American Fur Company, 1818-1840." Michigan Historical Review 34, no. 2 (2008): 17–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mhr.2008.0034.

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Simard, Anouk, Annie Paquet, Charles Jutras, Yves Robitaille, Pierre Blier, Rehaume Courtois, and Andre Martel. "North American range extension of the invasive Asian clam in a St. Lawrence River power station thermal plume." Aquatic Invasions 7, no. 1 (2012): 81–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.3391/ai.2012.7.1.009.

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Jackson, John N. "The construction and operation of the First, Second, and Third Welland canals." Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 18, no. 3 (June 1, 1991): 472–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/l91-058.

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The Welland canals are features of great Canadian renown in terms of engineering, as transportation arteries, and through their contributions to industrial development and urban achievement. Their instigator was William Hamilton Merritt, a St. Catharines businessman. Functionally, they must be perceived as an inland extension of the St. Lawrence system of waterways. These contributions began when the First Welland Canal opened in 1829, and extend continuously up to the present. The First Welland Canal, fed from the Grand River, was constructed through the canalization of rivers north of the Niagara Escarpment, by locks across this relief barrier, and a man-made cut to the south. The canal then took advantage of the Welland and Niagara rivers to reach Lake Erie. Hardly a feature of this achievement was as anticipated and, in 1833, the route was changed by a cut direct to Lake Erie at Port Colborne. The Second Canal, opened in 1845, followed essentially the same route, but with stone locks and a new channel constructed slightly to the west of its predecessor. The Third Canal was wider and deeper. It offered fewer locks and, though retaining Port Dalhousie as its northern outlet on Lake Ontario, its alignment was now a cut east of St. Catharines and Thorold across the Ontario Plain. The Second Canal remained in use at the two ends for the smaller-sized vessels to serve St. Catharines and Thorold, and its water supply continued to power industry until hydroelectricity was obtained from the power projects on the Niagara River at Niagara Falls. Key words: Welland Canal, St. Lawrence–Great Lakes water system, William Hamilton Merritt, transportation, Grand River, Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, water power, industrial location, urban growth.
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Valenti, Michael. "Partners in Power." Mechanical Engineering 120, no. 08 (August 1, 1998): 76–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.1998-aug-8.

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This article focuses on investors who back major power projects throughout in Africa. They are also working jointly with local businesses and governments to improve infrastructures and raise living standards. An African expansion project for CMS Generation involves acquiring and expanding the Takoradi natural gas-fired power plant near Aboadze, Ghana. CMS formed the Takoradi Power Company with the Volta River Authority as a 50-percent partner. CMS Energy’s third major African venture will extend its power generation business into chemical processing. AMPCO has awarded a $300 million engineering, procurement, and construction turnkey contract to Raytheon Engineers & Constructors, Lexington, MA, to construct the methanol plant on Bioko Island. The plant will use a proven, three-stage design. In the first stage, natural gas feedstock and steam are sent to a reformer and are exposed to elevated temperatures and pressure in the presence of a catalyst, forming synthetic gas made of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
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Karalekas, Patrick, Gregory J. Kowalski, and Edward Lovelace. "Modeling Hydrokinetic Turbine Performance in the Mississippi River." Marine Technology Society Journal 47, no. 4 (July 1, 2013): 57–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.4031/mtsj.47.4.21.

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AbstractFree Flow Power has developed a renewable energy technology that can convert the kinetic energy flowing in a river to electricity without the use of dams. The company plans to install a specially made turbine directly into the flowing stream. This process, known as hydrokinetics, is an innovative approach that provides energy at a reliable and predictable rate as opposed to other intermittent renewable energy sources. There are currently two dozen hydrokinetic projects in the licensing process along the Mississippi River, which will account for 4,000 MW of power-generating capacity. Hydrokinetics could develop into a $1 billion a year industry.This article describes the modeling tool developed for Free Flow Power’s hydrokinetic sites along the Mississippi River. The performance models compare river velocity, power generation, reliability, maintenance costs, and finance options to establish a likely performance profile for a proposed site.These models calculate the expected returns for Mississippi River projects and can be used to perform a sensitivity analysis on all of the major variables for hydrokinetics. The unique aspect of this performance model is the incorporation of a reliability calculator, which estimates the lost revenue resulting from component failures. It can be used to develop the maintenance strategy for the array and to evaluate the total cost of reliability for components. The modeling tool described provides Free Flow Power with the ability to compare different design scenarios and quickly gives an estimate of a site’s performance.
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LaHaye, Michel, Alain Branchaud, Marc Gendron, Richard Verdon, and Réjean Fortin. "Reproduction, early life history, and characteristics of the spawning grounds of the lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens) in Des Prairies and L'Assomption rivers, near Montréal, Quebec." Canadian Journal of Zoology 70, no. 9 (September 1, 1992): 1681–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z92-234.

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Spawning, early life history, and physical characteristics of lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens) spawning grounds were compared between two rivers located in the Montréal region. The spawning grounds in Des Prairies River were enlarged in 1985, during the reconstruction of the Des Prairies power plant spillway. The L'Assomption River spawning ground has not been physically altered by human activities. In 1989, spawning occurred between May 14 and 27 in Des Prairies River (water temperature 11.6–15.4 °C) and between May 15 and 22 in L'Assomption River (water temperature 11–21.5 °C). On a given date, embryos were slightly more developed in L'Assomption River, where hatching began 3 days earlier than in Des Prairies River (26 vs. 29 May). The great similarity in the spawning and early development sequence suggests that spawners utilizing these two rivers cannot be differentiated on the basis of these biological characters. In 1990, larval emigration from the Des Prairies River spawning ground began on May 29, 11 days after peak spawning. The larvae drifted to the St. Lawrence River in June (peak on 16 June), at a mean length of approximately 20 mm. In both rivers the proportion of stations with eggs present tends to decrease as depth and current velocity increase. Egg deposition occurs on a wide variety of substrate types, ranging from fine- to medium-sized gravel to boulders. Although utilization varies with prevailing hydrological conditions, in 1990 the artificial spawning bed in Des Prairies River showed a high proportion of stations with eggs present.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Lawrence River Power Company"

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Woodard, Robert Seth. "The Appalachian Power Company Along the New River: The Defeat of the Blue Ridge Project in Historical Perspective." Thesis, Virginia Tech, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/33226.

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The Appalachian Power Company is an operating company of the American Electric Power Company, the largest electricity producing private electric system in the United States since 1953. The Appalachian Power Company held almost exclusive development rights along the New River since its 1911 charter. From then until the 1940s, it built a few small dams, a very large hydroelectric dam with the highest generating capacity of its time, and the largest steam plant in Virginia on the New River. Besides a few navigation issues, conflicting developments, and brief clashes with the federal government, seen in Chapter Two of this thesis, the Appalachian Power Companyâ s developments along the New River went largely unchallenged until the late-1960s. The Blue Ridge Project was the utilityâ s next large hydroelectric project on the New River. It was slated to impound the waters of the upper New River in Grayson County, Virginia, with two reservoirs extending into the riverâ s headwaters in the counties of Ashe and Alleghany in northwestern North Carolina. Though the initial project met no serious opposition, environmental lawyers and the State of North Carolina defeated a considerably enlarged version of the proposal after a legal battle lasting over a decade. Why was this double impoundment not successfully constructed? What had changed in the last decades to influence Appalachian Powerâ s previously unchallenged right to generate electricity along the New River? The purpose of this thesis is to answer these questions.
Master of Arts
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Books on the topic "Lawrence River Power Company"

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V, White Arthur. Long Sault Rapids, St. Lawrence River: An enquiry into the constitutional and other aspects of the project to develop power therefrom. [Ottawa]: Commission of Conseration, Committee on Waters and Water-Powers, 1997.

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Irwin, Clark T. The light from the river. Augusta, ME: Central Maine Power Company, 1999.

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3

Clancey, Pat. Madison River/Ennis Reservoir fisheries: 1997 annual report to Montana Power Company, Environmental Division, Butte. Ennis, MT: Montana Fish, Wildlife, & Parks, 1998.

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Madison River drainage fisheries: And, Madison River drainage westslope cutthroat trout conservation and restoration program. Ennis, Mont: Montana Fish, Wildlife, & Parks, n.d.

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Office, General Accounting. Nuclear waste: Process to remove radioactive waste from Savannah River tanks fails to work : report to the Ranking Minority Member, Committee on Commerce, House of Representatives. Washington, D.C. (P.O. Box 37050, Washington, D.C. 20013): U.S. General Accounting Office, 1999.

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United States. Congress. House. Committee on Armed Services. Procurement and Military Nuclear Systems Subcommittee. P-Reactor operations at Savannah River: Hearing before the Procurement and Military Nuclear Systems Subcommittee of the Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, One Hundredth Congress, second session, September 28, 1988. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1988.

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United States. Congress. House. Committee on Armed Services. Procurement and Military Nuclear Systems Subcommittee. P-Reactor operations at Savannah River: Hearing before the Procurement and Military Nuclear Systems Subcommittee of the Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, One Hundredth Congress, second session, September 28, 1988. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1988.

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Subcommittee, United States Congress House Committee on Armed Services Procurement and Military Nuclear Systems. P-Reactor operations at Savannah River: Hearing before the Procurement and Military Nuclear Systems Subcommittee of the Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, One Hundredth Congress, second session, September 28, 1988. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1988.

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Assembly, Canada Legislature Legislative. Bill: An act to authorize Theophilus Cushing to construct a boom or booms extending from the main land to the Isle du Curé de Repentigny, on the north side of the River St. Lawrence. Toronto: J. Lovell, 2003.

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Subcommittee, United States Congress House Committee on Armed Services Procurement and Military Nuclear Systems. P-Reactor operations at Savannah River: Hearing before the Procurement and Military Nuclear Systems Subcommittee of the Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, One Hundredth Congress, second session, September 28, 1988. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1988.

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Book chapters on the topic "Lawrence River Power Company"

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"Eels at the Edge: Science, Status, and Conservation Concerns." In Eels at the Edge: Science, Status, and Conservation Concerns, edited by Alastair Mathers and Thomas J. Stewart. American Fisheries Society, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.47886/9781888569964.ch24.

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<em>Abstract.</em>—The American eel <em>Anguilla rostrata </em>is an important component of the aquatic ecosystem of Lake Ontario and the upper St. Lawrence River and historically has been one of the most valuable commercial species in Ontario waters of this system. Between 1984 and 1993, reported annual harvest ranged from 104 to 124 metric tons. Since 1993, eel harvests have declined precipitously in all areas above the Moses-Saunders Power Dam in spite of an increase in price per kg. During 2002, fishers held 85 eel licenses and harvested 12 metric tons (mt) of maturing yellow eel, mostly with hoop nets and trap nets. The numbers of eels migrating into this system in recent years suggests that if fishing effort remains constant, commercial harvests in areas above the dam will be under 3 mt per year between now and 2010. Provincial management programs have imposed license and season restrictions, reduced quotas, and more detailed catch reporting. Sustainable management practices throughout the range of this panmictic species will be required to restore the eel as an abundant species in Lake Ontario and the upper St. Lawrence River.
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Swyngedouw, Erik. "The Water Mandarins: The Contradictions of Urban Water Provision." In Social Power and the Urbanization of Water. Oxford University Press, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198233916.003.0018.

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Billions of litres of water flow through the centre of Guayaquil each day, as the Rivers Daule and Babahoyo converge to form the River Guayas. Given this fact, it is perplexing to find that 35% of the inhabitants of the city do not have access to adequate and reliable water supplies and the whole city suffers from chronic absolute water shortages. In this and the next chapter, we shall explore the contradictions of urban water provision, which result in a sizeable part of the urban population, invariably the poorer end of the social spectrum, not having access to piped potable water. This situation, in turn, makes them easy victims of water speculators, the private water sellers that distribute water in non-serviced areas by means of tankers. In Guayaquil, approximately 400 tankers service a population of half a million people, or approximately 35% of the total urban population. These water-merchants buy water at a highly subsidized price (70 sucres/m3),while they sell it for up to 6,500 sucres/m3 (November 1993), a price of up to 300 times higher than that paid by low-volume consumers who receive water from the water company. We will also explore the strategies and structure of the water company, infrastructure and investment planning, price mechanisms and control structures in the light of these exclusionary and disempowering mechanisms of the existing water system. In short, we shall explore the contradictory dynamics of the ‘Water Mandarins’. The complex networks of those that hold control over the water tap, water infrastructure, and water distribution will be excavated in order to unearth the relations of power that infuse and eventually organize the intermittent flow of water in Guayaquil. Of course, analysing the changing dynamics of water supply in Guayaquil is like trying to hit a moving target. The field research for this book was completed in 1998. Since then, the public water company has awarded a concession to International Water Services, a Dutch-based subsidiary of Bechtel and Edison Spa, to operate, administer, and expand Guayaquil’s water and sewage services and infrastructure (see below).
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Hall, Ryan. "Between Empires." In Beneath the Backbone of the World, 89–116. University of North Carolina Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.5149/northcarolina/9781469655154.003.0005.

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In 1821, the Hudson’s Bay Company and North West Company merged, robbing Native people like the Blackfoot of trade leverage by forcing them to trade with only one partner. At the same time, American and Canadian traders made inroads with Indigenous nations in the intermountain West, eroding Blackfoot advantages over their neighbors. Facing the loss of their strategic advantages, Blackfoot people responded by welcoming American traders from the American Fur Company to the upper Missouri River for the first time in 1830, thus securing themselves a privileged position and reasserting themselves as the region’s dominant power. Their borderlands position gave them leverage over non-Native traders and provided crucial mobility and flexibility that other Native people lacked.
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Cumbler, John T. "Fish, the People, and Theodore Lyman The Moderate Approach." In Reasonable Use. Oxford University Press, 2001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195138139.003.0009.

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On November 3, 1865, Theodore Lyman III handed his report for the River Fishery Commission to Massachusetts governor John Andrew. Then he headed north from Boston to Lawrence, where he met with newly elected New Hampshire governor Frederick Smyth and the fishery commissioners from other New England states. At that meeting, Governor Smyth, in Lyman’s words, “undertook the high horse and said they would shut down the water from Lake Winnepiseogee [the nineteenth century name for Lake Winnipesaukee] if we did not give the fishways.” Smyth was no one to take lightly. As the son of a New Hampshire farmer, he knew the importance offish to the rural diet, and as a founding member of the Republican Party, he was a politician of some significance. Smyth was also under pressure from rural farmers in the Connecticut and Merrimack River Valleys who had depended upon spring fish runs and now faced depleted rivers. Regarding the New Hampshire governor, Lyman wrote in his diary: “The threats of New Hampshire were some of my business as commissioner.” These threats were Lyman’s business in more than just his role as fish commissioner. The waters of Lake Winnipesaukee fed into the Winnipesaukee River, one of the main sources of the Merrimack River, which provided the power for the mills at Lowell and Lawrence. Without that water, those mills could not function. Lyman enjoyed healthy returns on his holdings in those mills. He not only held stock in these companies and in mills in Holyoke, he was also on several of their boards of directors. As he stated when he later ran for Congress, “I have been connected, and my father before me with the manufacturing interest.” As a major stockholder, Lyman had reason to be concerned about the waterpower of the mills along the Merrimack. Yet when he met with the governor and fish commissioners, he thought of himself not as the representative of the manufacturing interests but as a scientist and public servant. It was a role for which he had been preparing for a long time.
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"Eels at the Edge: Science, Status, and Conservation Concerns." In Eels at the Edge: Science, Status, and Conservation Concerns, edited by Kevin J. McGrath, Richard Verdon, Denis Desrochers, Carole Fleury, Scott Ault, and John Skalski. American Fisheries Society, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.47886/9781888569964.ch20.

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<em>Abstract.—</em>Additional upstream eel <em>Anguilla rostrata </em>passage is planned at the Moses- Saunders Power Dam, Massena, New York, and has recently been implemented at the Beauharnois Power Dam, Montreal, Quebec, on the St. Lawrence River. Mark– recapture studies were conducted to determine the distance upstream of the dams that eel ladder exits should be located to minimize turbine entrainment. In 2001, 9,822 finclipped eels were released in equal proportions at 0 m, 90 m, and 1,600 m upstream on the west side of the Beauharnois Power Dam. Return rates to the tailwater were 4.5%, 5.0%, and 3.2%, respectively. In 2002, 16,697 fin-clipped eels were released at the same distances on the east side of the dam. Return rates were 12.0%, 4.2% and 1.1%, respectively. In 2001, 4,400 PIT-tagged eels were released at six locations upstream of the Moses-Saunders Power Dam. Eels released further than 270 m upstream of the dam exhibited a return rate of less than 7%, while those released closer than 270 m had a substantially higher return rate, approximately 50%. Even though the dams are very similar in size and hydraulic capacity, return rates of eels released close to the two dams were substantially different, approximately 50% for the Moses-Saunders Power Dam versus 4.5% (west side) and 12.0% (east side) for the Beauharnois Power Dam. These studies indicate that the siting of an eel ladder exit to minimize entrainment is specific to each dam.
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Baptista, António Martinho, and António Pedro Batarda Fernandes. "Rock Art and the Côa Valley Archaeological Park: A Case Study in the Preservation of Portugal’s Prehistoric Rupestral Heritage." In Palaeolithic Cave Art at Creswell Crags in European Context. Oxford University Press, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199299171.003.0019.

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Although Nelson Rebanda—the archaeologist working for the electricity company (EDP) that was building a dam in the Côa river—probably discovered the first Côa Valley engraved surface with Palaeolithic motifs (the now well-known Rock 1 of Canada do Inferno) in November 1991, the find was only revealed to the public in November 1994 (Jorge 1995; Rebanda 1995). Subsequently, the first reports on ‘important archaeological finds in the Côa Valley’ started to appear in the newspapers. The Canada do Inferno engravings were located upstream and very near to the construction site of the Côa dam. The construction work advanced at a good pace and the completion of the dam would irremediably destroy the engravings. The public revelation of the find instantly triggered a huge controversy since the first specialists to visit the site immediately classified the engravings as being of Palaeolithic style. As a result of the media attention on the Côa and right after the broadcast of the first TV reports, a pilgrimage to the Côa Valley rock-art surfaces began. Reacting to the first news on an affair that was starting to be known as ‘the Côa scandal’, IPPAR (the state body that, at the time, was in charge of managing archaeology in Portugal) created, at the end of November 1994, a committee to follow the archaeological rescue work being done in the Côa. Nevertheless, and considering the serious problem created by the construction of the dam (and the construction work continued), it rapidly became evident that IPPAR was gradually losing control over the situation as it shifted to the public domain. In December 1994, IPPAR asked UNESCO for an expert opinion to challenge the efforts of EDP (the Portuguese Power Company responsible for the construction of the dam and at the time totally state owned) to demonstrate that the Côa findings were not of Palaeolithic chronology. Throughout 1995, this would be a crucial issue since some defended the position that, if the engravings were not Palaeolithic, their patrimonial value would not be very important and, therefore, the dam could be built!
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Beinart, William, and Lotte Hughes. "Environmental Aspects of the Atlantic Slave Trade and Caribbean Plantations." In Environment and Empire. Oxford University Press, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199260317.003.0007.

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The Atlantic world became Britain’s main early imperial arena in the seventeenth century. Subsequent to Ireland, North America and the Caribbean were the most important zones of British settler colonialism. At the northern limits of settlement, around the Atlantic coast, the St Lawrence River, the Great Lakes and on the shores of the Hudson Bay, cod fisheries and fur-trading networks were established in competition with the French. This intrusion, while it had profound effects on the indigenous population, was comparatively constrained. Secondly, British settlements were founded in colonial New England from 1620. Expanding agrarian communities, based largely on family farms, displaced Native Americans, while the ports thrived on trade and fisheries. In the hotter zones to the south, both in the Caribbean and on the mainland, slave plantations growing tropical products became central to British expansion. Following in Spanish footsteps, coastal Virginia was occupied in 1607 and various Caribbean islands were captured from the 1620s: Barbados in 1627, and Jamaica in 1655. The Atlantic plantation system was shaped in part by environment and disease. But these forces cannot be explored in isolation from European capital and consumption, or the balance of political power between societies in Europe, Africa, and America. An increase in European consumer demand for relatively few agricultural commodities—sugar, tobacco, cotton, and to a lesser extent ginger, coffee, indigo, arrowroot, nutmeg, and lime—drove plantation production and the slave trade. The possibility of providing these largely non-essential additions for British consumption arose from a ‘constellation’ of factors ‘welded in the seventeenth century’ and surviving until the mid-nineteenth century, aided by trade protectionism. This chapter analyses some of these factors and addresses the problem of how much weight can be given to environmental explanations. Plantations concentrated capital and large numbers of people in profoundly hierarchical institutions that occupied relatively little space in the newly emerging Atlantic order. In contrast to the extractive enterprise of the fur trade, this was a frontier of agricultural production, which required little involvement from indigenous people. On some islands, such as Barbados, Spanish intrusions had already decimated the Native American population before the British arrived; there was little resistance.
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