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Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'LBW- Low Birth Weight'

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Published: 5 June 2025

Last updated: 1 August 2025

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1

Viengsakhone, Louangpradith, Yoshitoku Yoshida, Harun-Or-Rashid Md, and Junichi Sakamoto. "Factors Affecting Low Birth Weight at Four Central Hospitals in Vientiane, Lao PDR." Nagoya University School of Medicine, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2237/12909.

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2

Cassam, Yasmin. "The effect of falciparum malaria prevalence on the effectiveness of intermittent preventive treatment with Sulfadoxine-Pyrimethamine during pregnancy in reducing low birth weight in southern Mozambique." Diss., University of Pretoria, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/2263/29732.

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Malaria infection is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in tropical countries, and particularly in Mozambique. Recently substantial resources have been used to reduce the burden of malaria in Mozambique. These include the distribution of insecticide treated bed-nets, indoor residual insecticide spraying, access to artemisinin-based combination treatment (ACT), and intermittent preventive treatment of pregnant women with sulfadoxine-pyrimetamine (SP-IPTp). The most important benefit of SP-IPTp in malaria endemic areas has been the increase in birth weight, thus increasing the probability

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3

Boonstoppel, Sarah Lizabeth. "Low birth weight and the criminal career." College Park, Md. : University of Maryland, 2005. http://hdl.handle.net/1903/2853.

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Thesis (M.A.) -- University of Maryland, College Park, 2005.<br>Thesis research directed by: Dept. of Criminology and Criminal Justice. Title from t.p. of PDF. Includes bibliographical references. Published by UMI Dissertation Services, Ann Arbor, Mich. Also available in paper.

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4

Nagai, Shuko. "Effects of earlier initiated continuous Kangaroo Mother Care (KMC) for stable low-birth-weight (LBW) infants in a resource-limited setting." 京都大学 (Kyoto University), 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/2433/157857.

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5

Haycock, Anna Cornelia. "Psychological functioning in children with low birth weight." Thesis, University of Limpopo, 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/10386/2573.

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Thesis (PhD. (Clinical Psychology)) --University of Limpopo, 2008<br>Low-birth-weight/premature children seem to be vulnerable to psychiatric, neuropsychological and other deficiencies. Limited research is available in the South African context about these ever-increasing phenomena. The aim of this study was to investigate the magnitude and characteristics of internalising (Separation Anxiety, Overanxious and Major Depressive Disorders) and externalising symptoms (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity, Oppositional Defiant and Conduct Disorders) among low-birth-weight children in comparison with n

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6

Carlsson, Sofia. "Weight history, low birth weight, alcohol consumption and type 2 diabetes /." Stockholm, 2003. http://diss.kib.ki.se/2003/91-7349-471-2/.

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7

Beardsall, Kathryn. "Hyperglycaemia in the very low birth weight neonate." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2009. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.611400.

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8

McCauley, Sydney Russelle. "Glucose Metabolism in Low Birth Weight Neonatal Pigs." Diss., Virginia Tech, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/99450.

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The neonatal period in mammals is characterized by high growth rates and is dominated by skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Low birth weight (LBWT) neonates experience restricted growth and development of skeletal muscle, leading to metabolic perturbations later in life. The overall hypothesis of this dissertation was that in utero disturbances in glucose metabolism and increased energy requirements predisposes LBWT neonatal pigs to metabolic disturbances after birth. We sought to increase growth of skeletal muscle and improve glucose production through increasing dietary energy and to determine

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9

Wang, Liang, Tiejian Wu, Xuefeng Liu, et al. "Pesticide Exposure During Pregnancy and Low Birth Weight." Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 2012. https://dc.etsu.edu/etsu-works/1367.

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Background: Limited epidemiologic studies have investigated the effects of pesticide exposure during pregnancy on low birth weight in offspring in rural China.Methods: A survey of a total of 503 women was conducted in Ling county of Shandong Province of China following delivery from 1 November 2009 to 8 February 2010.Results: After adjustment for confounding and compared with no pesticide exposure, multiple logistic regression showed a non-significant increased likelihood of low birth weight for both children of mothers exposed to pesticides when not pregnant (OR = 1.80, 95% CI: 0.62, 5.22) an

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10

Haycock, Anna Cornelia. "Attention-deficit / hyperactivity disorder and low birth weight." Thesis, University of Limpopo, 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/10386/2045.

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11

Shehan-Bakewell, Colleen 1963. "The relationship of birth weight and maternal education to developmental outcomes of low birth weight infants." Thesis, The University of Arizona, 1994. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/278404.

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The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between specific infant and maternal characteristics with the developmental outcome of low birth weight infants. Birth weight was statistically significant in relation to the Mental Developmental Index (p =.001) and the Psychomotor Developmental Index for chronologic age (p =.023). Birth weight predicted 25% of the variance in infant cognitive development and 24% in infant motor development. There was no statistically significant positive correlation between maternal education and infant cognitive developmental outcome. There was

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12

Kawasaki, Hidenori. "Epidemiology of Birth Defects in Very Low Birth Weight Infants in Japan." Kyoto University, 2020. http://hdl.handle.net/2433/259711.

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13

Hui, Man-chun. "The effect of parental occupation on low birth weight." Click to view the E-thesis via HKUTO, 2004. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/B31971829.

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14

Lindqvist, Susanne. "Vision and brain in adolescents with low birth weight." Doctoral thesis, Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet, Institutt for laboratoriemedisin, barne- og kvinnesykdommer, 2009. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:no:ntnu:diva-6612.

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Premature birth and pregnancy to term, but with intrauterine growth restriction (often manifesting as birth small for gestational age, SGA, at term), both represent suboptimal environments for the developing infant brain and eyes. Very low birth weight (VLBW, The aims of this study, which is part of large interdisciplinary follow up study also including cognitive, psychiatric, paediatric and motor evaluation, as well as cerebral MRI, was threefold: to examine differences in visual functions between adolescents with VLBW, or SGA at term, compared to an age matched control group to explore how d

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15

Hui, Man-chun, and 許文晉. "The effect of parental occupation on low birth weight." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2004. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B31971829.

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16

Nwagwu, Margaret Okechi. "Physiological factors contributing to low birth weight in pigs." Thesis, University of Aberdeen, 2002. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.248580.

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Low birth weight has detrimental consequences for postnatal well being and survival. Therefore greater understanding of the factors that govern birth weight are important. There are many extrinsic and intrinsic factors that ensure the adequate growth of an offspring; these include maternal nutrition, maternal health, placental size, surface area and placental transport capacity. This study has used the runt pig fetus as a naturally occurring model of low weight; to better understand intrinsic factors that may contribute to low birth weight. The lightest fetuses and a normal size fetus from Lar

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17

Sharp, Marie Elizabeth. "Insight into the "Latina Epidemiologic Paradox" risk factors for low birth weight (LBW) in U.S. - born and foreign-born Latina mothers in California /." Diss., Restricted to subscribing institutions, 2008. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1679298181&sid=1&Fmt=2&clientId=1564&RQT=309&VName=PQD.

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18

Agbeniyi, Olusola Charles. "Periodontal disease during pregnancy and low birth weight of newborns at Chris Hani district of Eastern Cape." Diss., University of Pretoria, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/2263/28774.

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Objective: This study sought to determine the association between periodontal disease in pregnancy and the delivery of low birth weight newborns in a rural population of South African women. Methods: This case-control study involved 348 new mothers. All subjects were recruited post-delivery from three public hospitals in the rural Eastern Cape of South Africa. The cases (n=119) were mothers who delivered through normal delivery and whose babies at the time of delivery weighed <2.5 kg. Age-matched controls (n=229) were mothers who delivered ≥2.5 kg babies. Potential risk factors for periodontal

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19

Nwako, Azubuike Benjamin. "Prevelance and determinants of low birth weight in Maseru Lesotho." University of the Western Cape, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/11394/5889.

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Magister Public Health - MPH (Public Health)<br>INTRODUCTION: Low birth weight (LBW), affecting about 30 million newborns annually, is the commonest cause of severe morbidity and mortality amongst neonates globally, and is implicated in a high proportion of stillbirths. Neonatal deaths of LBW babies are mainly due to infection, prematurity and respiratory distress. Many factors affect LBW including maternal factors such as age, pregnancy associated factors such as illness in pregnancy, socio-economic factors such as housing type and foetal factors such as multiple gestations. In 2009, a n

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20

Ryan, Julia. "Adolescent pregnancy and low birth weight in the Peruvian Amazon." Thesis, McGill University, 2009. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=67006.

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Objective: To compare low birth weight (LBW) (< 2,500g) between infants born to adolescent and adult mothers in Iquitos, Peru. Methods: A random sample of 4,467 birth records was collected. Multivariate analyses were performed to compare both the proportion of LBW and mean birth weight of newborns of adolescents (10-14 yrs, 15-19 yrs) and adults (≥ 20 yrs) and then for primiparous mothers only. Results: For all mothers, all adolescents had significantly greater odds of having a LBW infant than adults. For primiparous mothers, the same was true only for 10-14 year-olds. There

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21

Marlow, N. "Death and later disability in children of low birth weight." Thesis, University of Oxford, 1985. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.354846.

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22

Pirie, M. K. "Periodontal disease and preterm, low birth weight - a biological link." Thesis, Queen's University Belfast, 2010. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.517054.

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23

Jacobs, Salomi. "Referencing echocardiographic measurements for premature and low-birth weight infants." Thesis, Bloemfontein : Central University of Technology, Free State, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/11462/212.

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Thesis (M. Tech. (Clinical Technology)) -- Central University of technology, Free State, 2012<br>Introduction: Reference ranges for cardiac measurement are available for adults, children and term infants but the same cannot be said for preterm or small for gestational age (SGA) infants surviving as a result of modern intensive care units. No published data of reference ranges for preterm infants exists for the South African population. Infants with congenital heart disease are twice as likely to be small for their gestational age and these reference ranges may affect clinical management dec

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24

Kalanga, Noel. "Optimizing Care for Low Birth Weight Infants in Rural Malawi." Thesis, Harvard University, 2015. http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:17613732.

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The aim of our study was to explore and understand the factors that affect growth of low birth weight (LBW) infants in a rural district of Neno in Malawi in order to optimize their care. We surveyed 64 households of LBW infants born between April and June 2014. We collected quantitative data on socio-demographics and food security, and performed nutrition and development assessments of the LBW infants at six months of age. We also conducted qualitative in-depth interviews with a subset of 10 mothers of the LBW infants and with 3 nurses at postnatal clinics. We then merged the quantitative and

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25

Swanson, Marcia W. "Intrauterine infection and neurodevelopmental disability in low birth weight infants /." Thesis, Connect to this title online; UW restricted, 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/1773/10934.

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26

Provencio-Vasquez, Elias. "Creating Paths: Living with a very low birth weight infant." Diss., The University of Arizona, 1992. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/186106.

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Advances in neonatal nursing and medical interventions have made it possible for the very low birth weight (VLBW) infant to survive. However, it is now time to recognize the intangible costs, emotional stress, marital stress, grief, pain, sorrow, and the disruption of the role transition to parenthood. To facilitate progress in the area of neonatal nursing, systematic efforts were undertaken to examine and describe parental adaptation to the VLBW infant and potential risk for parenting problems after hospital discharge. The purpose of this study was to describe parents' method of adaptation to

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27

Kuruvilla, Denison John. "Evaluation of erythropoiesis in anemic low birth weight preterm infants." Diss., University of Iowa, 2015. https://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/1981.

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Anemia of prematurity is characterized by a progressive decline in hemoglobin level during the first month of life. Unlike term newborns, preterm infants become anemic and often require red blood cell transfusions. Various factors contribute to the development of this anemia. These include short infant red blood cell (RBC) lifespan, decline in erythropoiesis rate after birth, and blood losses caused by repeated phlebotomies. The objectives of this work were to develop novel models to evaluate fetal and

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28

Bauer-Schaub, Kimberly J. "Effects of Pregnancy-Related Depression on Low Birth Weight Infants." ScholarWorks, 2019. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/7597.

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Maternal depression during pregnancy can have a negative impact on the developing child. Numerous studies have focused on postpartum depression and the influences on infant outcomes; however, there are limited data on pregnancy-related depression. The problem addressed in this study was the inadequacy and insufficiency of depression screening during the pregnancy period and access to quality-related health services for women. The purpose of this quantitative retrospective study was to test social cognitive theory on low birth weight and prenatal care adherence to pregnancy-related depression i

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29

Connors, Julia Yopp Jan Johnson. "Tiny babies the immense costs and quandaries of preterm birth and low birth weight /." Chapel Hill, N.C. : University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2008. http://dc.lib.unc.edu/u?/etd,1762.

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Thesis (M.A.)--University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2008.<br>Title from electronic title page (viewed Sep. 16, 2008). "... in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the School of Journalism and Mass Communication." Discipline: Journalism and Mass Communication; Department/School: Journalism and Mass Communication, School of.

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30

Morse, Shannon Leigh. "Exploring the Relationship Between Severity of Illness and Human Milk Volume in Very Low Birth Weight and Extremely Low Birth Weight Infants Over Six Weeks." Scholar Commons, 2016. http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/6329.

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Very low birth weight and extremely low birth weight neonates have tremendous risk of mortality. This is a grave concern; however, survival alone is not the goal of neonatal intensive care. Survival, along with a reduction or elimination of life long morbidity is the aim of neonatal intensive care. Human milk is known as the best nutrition for babies and a growing body of evidence supports that human milk is critical in helping these fragile neonates mitigate the overwhelming risks they face. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between neonatal severity of illn

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31

Cui, Limin, and 崔李敏. "The effect of induced abortion on the risk of low birth weight." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2012. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B50222739.

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Background: China accounts for a quarter of the total number of induced abortion worldwide. Induced abortion is considered as one of the risk factors for adverse pregnancy outcome in subsequent pregnancy. The effects of induced abortion on premature delivery were investigated in both China and western countries, and most of the studies showed that increased risk of preterm birth was associated with increasing number of induced abortion. However, the association between low birth weight (LBW) and multiple induced abortions is still controversial. Objectives: To explore the association between

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32

Feingold, Carol 1949. "Developmental outcomes in low birth weight infants: Influence of birth weight, maternal education and depression, and quality of home environment." Thesis, The University of Arizona, 1991. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/291769.

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The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship among selected environmental and perinatal variables and developmental outcomes in a group of low birth weight infants. A total of thirty infants and mothers were studied. Maternal education level (r =.36, p =.05), paternal education level (r =.44, p =.02), and five minute Apgar score (r =.42, p =.03) were significantly correlated to the quality of home environment; which predicted 28% of the variance in infant developmental status. The perinatal factors of birth weight (r = -.47, p =.01); mechanical ventilation (r =.40, p =.03);

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33

Sharapova, Saida R. "The Role of Stress in Racial Disparities of Preterm and Low Birth Weight Births in Georgia." Digital Archive @ GSU, 2012. http://digitalarchive.gsu.edu/iph_theses/247.

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SAIDA SHARAPOVA The role of stress in racial disparities of preterm and low birth weight births in Georgia (Under the direction of Richard Rothenberg, MD, MPH) Preterm birth (PTB) and low birth weight (LBW) are the leading causes of infant deaths in Georgia. Georgia PRAMS data (2004-2008) were analyzed for non-Hispanic White and non-Hispanic Black women with singleton births, using SAS 9.2 survey procedures. Thirteen stressful life events experienced in a year before delivery, socio-demographic, medical and behavioral risks were used as predictors of PTB and LBW. Significant racial disparity i

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34

Duppré, Perrine [Verfasser], and Sascha [Akademischer Betreuer] Meyer. "Zelluläre und humorale Gerinnungsparameter bei Very Low Birth Weight (VLBW) und Extremely Low Birth Weight (ELBW)- Neonaten mit intraventrikulären Hirnblutungen (IVH) / Perrine Duppré ; Betreuer: Sascha Meyer." Saarbrücken : Saarländische Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek, 2018. http://d-nb.info/1205314237/34.

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35

Oliver, Lawrence Tommy Victor. "Study on factors associated with low birth weight babies at Uitenhage Hospital." Thesis, University of the Western Cape, 2000. http://etd.uwc.ac.za/index.php?module=etd&amp.

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The incidence of Low Birth Weight (LBW) babies born in the Uitenhage Provincial Hospital would seem to be a cause of concern from a public health of view. The incidence of 21% recorded during 1999 is markedly higher than the 7% recorded in the United States of America in 1998 and the average of 17% noted for developing countries. Some health concerns related to LBW babies are Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, scholastic performances later in life, and several chronic diseases in adults associated with them having been born as LBW babies.

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36

Malo, E. (Elina). "The role of low birth weight and resistin in metabolic syndrome." Doctoral thesis, Oulun yliopisto, 2013. http://urn.fi/urn:isbn:9789526202686.

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Abstract Metabolic syndrome is a constellation of metabolic abnormalities including abdominal obesity, glucose intolerance, insulin resistance, hypertension and dyslipidemia. Metabolic syndrome increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes mellitus. A unifying pathophysiological mechanism behind these abnormalities has not been detected. The prevalence of cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes mellitus is increasing all over the world. It is important to identify the factors contributing to these diseases. The aim of this thesis was to study how the peptide hormone res

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37

O'Connor, Anna. "Ophthalmic outcome at 10-12 years of low birth weight children." Thesis, University of Nottingham, 2001. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.364424.

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38

Gross, Carol A. "Predicting fraction skills in adolescents born with extremely low birth weight." Case Western Reserve University School of Graduate Studies / OhioLINK, 2020. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=case1593524462168818.

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39

Levin, Candyce. "HIV transmission to transmission to premature very low birth weight infants." Master's thesis, Faculty of Health Sciences, 2021. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/32779.

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There is sparse literature about HIV transmission in preterm infants. Eighty-two HIV-exposed preterm infants received birth polymerase chain reactions (PCRs). Five (6.1%) were HIV positive with all 5 mothers receiving inadequate antiretrovirals. Of the PCRnegative infants, 9 died and 87% of the survivors received further PCR testing which remained negative. With correct care, intrapartum transmission of HIV can virtually be eliminated.

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40

Williamson, Kathryn E. "Social cognition and social outcomes in children born at very low birth weight." Development and Psychopathology, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/1993/23585.

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Social cognition is a broad construct that refers to the fundamental abilities to perceive, store, analyze, process, categorize, reason with, and behave towards other conspecifics (Pelphrey & Carter, 2008). Two important aspects of social cognition are the ability to perceive and interpret body movements (biological motion perception) and the ability to infer the mental states of others (theory of mind reasoning) (Allison, Puce & McCarthy, 2000). In my thesis, these and other aspects of social cognition are explored in a group known to be at high risk for poor social outcomes, namely childre

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41

Ulysse, Rachele D. "Identifying Data Needs to Support the Public Health Program of First Care." Digital Archive @ GSU, 2011. http://digitalarchive.gsu.edu/iph_theses/192.

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Abstract Identifying Data Needs to Support the Public Health Program of First Care Background: First Care (FC) is a Georgia (GA) public health (PH) program funded by Title V Block Grant, whose main purpose is to provide collaborative skilled PH services for infants with LBW and VLBW (low and very low birth weight) as well as those considered at high risk for illness and disabilities. Purpose: 1. Describe current health outcomes of GA infants less than one years of age. * Current baselines of IMR (infant mortality rate), preterm, very low birth weight (VLBW) and low birth weight (LBW) births

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42

Butte, Mona Julia Rosa [Verfasser], and Sascha [Akademischer Betreuer] Meyer. "Enterale Ernährungsstrategien und nekrotisierende Enterokolitis (NEC) bei Very low birth weight (VLBW)- und Extremely low birth weigth (ELBW)-Kindern / Mona Julia Rosa Butte. Betreuer: Sascha Meyer." Saarbrücken : Saarländische Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek, 2016. http://d-nb.info/1097263398/34.

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43

Langdown, Maria Louise. "Early life programming of cardiac metabolism and intracellular signalling molecules." Thesis, Queen Mary, University of London, 2001. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.271265.

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Oosse, Monique Marie. "Demographic, socioeconomic, and biomedical effects on birth outcomes /." Digital version accessible at:, 1998. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/utexas/main.

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45

McGinnity, Francis Gerard. "Opthalmological follow-up of children of very low and normal birth weight." Thesis, Queen's University Belfast, 1990. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.335317.

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46

Tshotetsi, Lumbani. "Risk factors for low birth weight for teenage mothers in Tshwane District." Diss., University of Pretoria, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/2263/63035.

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Introduction: The magnitude of low birth weight was estimated to be 13% globally in 2013 by UNICEF. Some studies have alluded that adolescence is associated with low birth weight. This study was done to assess whether teenage mothers had the same risk factors for low birth weight as the adult mothers in Tshwane District. Method: A case control study of retrospective data was done comparing low birth weight babies of teenage mothers and low birth weight babies of adult mothers for January to December of 2014. Normal birth weight babies were selected as controls from the same age groups w

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47

McNelis, Kera M. D. "Body Composition of Very Low Birth Weight Infants Fed Donor Breast Milk." University of Cincinnati / OhioLINK, 2018. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ucin1535464232285332.

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48

Sawangdee, Chansy Dalavong Yothin. "Determinants of low birth weight among Lao Loum infants in Lao PDR /." Abstract, 2004. http://mulinet3.li.mahidol.ac.th/thesis/2547/cd368/4638498.pdf.

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49

Boghossian, Nansi Samir. "Survival and morbidities among very low birth weight infants with chromosomal anomalies." Diss., University of Iowa, 2011. https://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/1125.

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Trisomy 21 (T21), trisomy 18 (T18) and trisomy 13 (T13) represent the most common autosomal trisomies detected in live-born infants. Previous studies have addressed interventions, morbidities and survival in term or near-term infants with T21, T18 or T13, or were limited by a small number of patients. However, the combination of one of these chromosomal anomalies and very low birth weight (VLBW) presents greater challenges. Data from the NICHD Neonatal Research Network (NRN) and from the Vermont Oxford Network (VON) databases were used to examine the frequency, interventions, risk of mortality

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50

Nesara, Paul. "Determinants of Low Birth Weight in a Population-Based Sample of Zimbabwe." ScholarWorks, 2018. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/5577.

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Low birth weight (LBW) is a major public health concern globally. Despite its negative social and economic impact on the family and community at large, it has remained relatively unexplored at population level in Zimbabwe. The purpose of the study was to establish determinants of LBW using data from the 2015 Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey. The socioecological model was the conceptual framework for the study. A secondary analysis was conducted on 4,227 mother-infant dyads. Independent variables were duration of pregnancy, number of births within the past 5-year period, exposure to mass

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