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1
Syed-Khaja, Aarief, Christopher Kaestle, and Joerg Franke. "Feasibility Studies on Selective Laser Melting of Copper Powders for the Development of High-temperature Circuit Carriers." International Symposium on Microelectronics 2016, no. 1 (October 1, 2016): 000517–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/isom-2016-poster1.
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Abstract Additive manufacturing (AM) has the potential to lead significant changes in the present state-of-the-art production processes. This provides tool-free and direct manufacturing of complex geometries simultaneously integrating various functions into components. Though AM techniques are widely used in various sectors, the application into electronics production has been not yet explored. In electronics production, substrate development has high relevance due to their multi-functionality in giving the mechanical support and electrically connecting electronic components. This contribution introduces an innovative approach in the development of high-temperature substrates through additive layered manufacturing. The technique used in the investigations was selective laser melting (SLM) of copper based powder materials mainly bronze alloy and pure copper, for the generation of conductive patterns on ceramic surfaces. The process parameters for the SLM technique and the influential factors in the generation of conductive structures are discussed in detail.
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Gyenes, A., M. Benke, N. Teglas, E. Nagy, and Z. Gacsi. "Investigation of Multicomponent Lead-Free Solders." Archives of Metallurgy and Materials 62, no. 2 (June 1, 2017): 1071–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/amm-2017-0156.
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Abstract According to the directives (RoHS and WEEE) adopted by the European Union, lead has been banned from the manufacturing processes because of its health and environmental hazards. Therefore, the development of lead-free solders is one of the most important research areas of the electronic industry. This paper investigates multicomponent Sn-Ag-Cu based lead-free solders with different compositions. The properties of the six-component Innolot (SAC+BiSbNi) and two low-Ag containing alloys were compared with the widespread used SAC307 solder. Microstructure investigations and X-ray diffraction measurements were performed to analyze and identify the formed phases, furthermore, tensile tests and microhardness measurements were executed to determine the mechanical properties of the examined solders.
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Tulkoff, Cheryl, and Greg Caswell. "Manufacturability & Reliability Challenges with Leadless Near Chip Scale (LNCSP) Packages in Pb-Free Processes." International Symposium on Microelectronics 2011, no. 1 (January 1, 2011): 000341–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/isom-2011-tp4-paper4.
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Leadless, near chip scale packages (LNCSP) like the quad flat pack no lead (QFN) are the fastest growing package types in the electronics industry today. Early LNCSPs were fairly straightforward components with small overall dimensions, a single outer row of leads and small lead counts. However, there is currently a proliferation of advanced LNCSP package styles that have started to approach BGA packages in terms of both size and number of connections. Some of the newer packages have 3 or more rows, pitches as fine as .35mm, lead counts exceeding 200, and dimensions exceeding 12 mm × 12 mm. While the advantages of these packages are well documented, concerns arise with both reliability and manufacturability in Pb-free environments. So, acceptance of these packages in long-life, severe-environment, high-reliability applications is somewhat limited. One of the most common drivers for reliability failures is the inappropriate adoption of new technologies like LNCSP. Since robust manufacturing and qualifications standards always lag behind implementation, users must carefully select and validate these components for suitability in their use environments and customer applications. Soldering, flexure, and cleanliness issues have driven many failures seen in production and in the field. All of these areas must be addressed early in the selection and validation processes. In this paper, we will review and discuss LNCSP related reliability concerns and challenges, and propose Physics-of- Failure (PoF) based approaches to allow the successful introduction and failure analysis of LNCSP components in electronics products.
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Datta, Madhav. "Manufacturing processes for fabrication of flip-chip micro-bumps used in microelectronic packaging: An overview." Journal of Micromanufacturing 3, no. 1 (December 17, 2019): 69–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2516598419880124.
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Electronic packaging is the methodology for connecting and interfacing the chip technology with a system and the physical world. The objective of packaging is to ensure that the devices and interconnections are packaged efficiently and reliably. Chip–package interconnection technologies currently used in the semiconductor industry include wire bonding, tape automated bonding and flip-chip solder bump connection. Among these interconnection techniques, the flip-chip bumping technology is commonly used in advanced electronic packages since this interconnection is an area array configuration so that the entire surface of the chip can be covered with bumps for the highest possible input/output (I/O) counts. The present article reviews the manufacturing processes for the fabrication of flip-chip bumps for chip–package interconnection. Various solder bumping technologies used in high-volume production include evaporation, solder paste screening and electroplating. Evaporation process produces highly reliable bumps, but it is extremely expensive and is limited to lead or lead-rich solders. Solder paste screening is cost-effective, but issues related to excessive void formation limits the process to low-end products. On the other hand, electrochemical fabrication of flip-chip bumps is an extremely selective and efficient process, which is extendible to finer pitch, larger wafers and a variety of solder compositions, including lead-free alloys. Electrochemically fabricated copper pillar bumps offer fine pitch capabilities with excellent electromigration performance. Due to these virtues, the copper pillar bumping technology is emerging as a lead-free bumping technology option for high-performance electronic packaging.
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Shaddock, David, Cathleen Hoel, Nancy Stoffel, Mark Poliks, and Mohammed Alhendi. "Additively Manufactured Extreme Temperature Electronics Packaging." International Symposium on Microelectronics 2021, no. 1 (October 1, 2021): 000189–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/1085-8024-2021.1.000189.
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Abstract There is growing interest in extreme temperature electronics to support the mission needs to sense, actuate, and communicate at temperatures beyond the normal range of operations in commercial and military applications. Reliable packaging in the temperature range of more than 300°C has been demonstrated using ceramic multi-chip modules using conventional hybrid circuit technology. This approach typically requires high NRE costs and lead time. Additive manufacturing processes of metals, ceramics, conductors, and dielectrics provides a digital transformation of hybrid circuit manufacturing technology that reduces time and cost for packaging with the added benefits of novel 3D structures and embedded features. This report presents the results of testing to characterize important electrical and mechanical properties of additively manufactured packaging materials (substrates, conductor, dielectrics) and die interconnect methods needed for 300 to 750 °C electronic packaging designs.
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Hart, Dan, John Ganjei, and Nilesh Kapadia. "Enabling MSL-1 Capability for QFN and Other Design Leadframe Packages." International Symposium on Microelectronics 2010, no. 1 (January 1, 2010): 000137–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/isom-2010-ta4-paper6.
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As the conversion of the electronics industry to lead free soldering materials continues some unexpected negative side effects of higher lead free reflow temperatures have occurred. Defects such as delamination or “popcorning” in surface mount components have increased significantly since lead free soldering has become mainstream. Popcorning is a defect that manifests itself as a fracture between the epoxy based encapsulant and the metal, usually copper alloy, leadframe components used to form a surface mount component. This fracture occurs when moisture in the package volatilizes during reflow processes and forces its way through the encapsulation material and leadframe interface. Peak reflow temperatures for leaded solder typically run around 215° – 225° C but due to the higher melting point of lead free solders, they require peak reflow temperatures of 240° to 260° C range. This 30° increase in reflow temperatures can have a significant effect on the electronic devices and any resident moisture in the component The keys to popcorning, or delamination, defect reduction is twofold. The first objective is to enhance the bond between the encapsulant and the copper leadframe materials to form a stronger bond that can resist the vapor pressures induced during reflow. The other objective is to provide a superior bond between the leadframe and encapsulant thus minimizing moisture ingress. New chemical treatment processes have been developed that pre-treat the copper surfaces of the leadframe and significantly enhance the bond between the encapsulant material and the metal leadframe. The chemical treatment process results in micro-roughening of the copper surfaces and at the same time depositing a thermally robust film that enhances the chemical bond between the epoxy encapsulant material and the copper. This paper examines the possible issues and the real life successes when comparing standard component manufacturing methods to those that incorporate the aforementioned chemical adhesion promotion process. Components are assembled using both processes and final performance is tested using MLS-1 conditioning protocols, acoustic microscopy analysis (SAM), and final yield improvement.
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Gharaibeh, Ali, Ilona Felhősi, Zsófia Keresztes, Gábor Harsányi, Balázs Illés, and Bálint Medgyes. "Electrochemical Corrosion of SAC Alloys: A Review." Metals 10, no. 10 (September 23, 2020): 1276. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met10101276.
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Tin–silver–copper (SAC) solder alloys are the most promising candidates to replace Sn–Pb solder alloys. However, their application is still facing several challenges; one example is the electrochemical corrosion behaviour, which imposes a risk to electronics reliability. Numerous investigations have been carried out to evaluate the corrosion performance of SAC lead-free alloys, regarding the effect of the corrosive environment, the different manufacturing technologies, the effect of fluxes, the metallic contents within the SAC alloys themselves, and the different alloying elements. In these studies, widely used electrochemical techniques are applied as accelerated corrosion tests, such as linear sweep voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. However, there is lack of studies that try to summarise the various corrosion results in terms of lead-free solder alloys including low-Ag and composite solders. This study aims to review these studies by showing the most important highlights regarding the corrosion processes and the possible future developments.
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Wickham, Martin, Kate Clayton, Ana Robador, Chris Hunt, Robin Pittson, Laura Statton, Tina Brown, Fiona Lambert, and Tracy Wotherspoon. "Development of a High Temperature Interconnect Solution as an Alternative to High Lead or Gold Content Solders." Additional Conferences (Device Packaging, HiTEC, HiTEN, and CICMT) 2016, HiTEC (January 1, 2016): 000196–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/2016-hitec-196.
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AbstractA collaborative research programme between project partners Microsemi, the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) and Gwent Electronic Materials (GEM), has successfully developed innovative materials specifically designed to offer an alternative for high Pb or Au content materials to increase the operating temperature of electronic assemblies. Currently, for electronic assemblies to operate at high temperature, they must use a high lead solder or a very expensive gold based solder to withstand these temperatures. The ELCOSINT project has developed an inexpensive lead-free alternative for joining high temperature electronics suitable for operating at temperatures above 250°C utilising standard surface mount assembly processes. This paper summarises the work undertaken by the authors to develop and better understand this new family of electrical interconnection materials. The project brought together a materials supplier (GEM – Gwent Electronic Materials), an end-user (MSL - Microsemi) and an technology research organisation (NPL – National Physical Laboratory) to jointly develop, test and implement in production, the solution based on silver-loaded silicone materials. This paper focuses on the testing and materials evaluation undertaken at NPL to determine the long term performance of these alternative materials including high temperature ageing up to 300°C, thermal cycling and damp heat testing. Details of the shear strength and electrical performance of interconnects between the substrates and components during the test regimes are given. The manufacturing process is outlined including details of the test vehicles utilised. The processing temperature for the conductive adhesive is 250°C which offers additional advantages in potential improvements in component and substrate reliability compared to soldered solutions which would typically be processed at temperatures above 300°C.
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Mitovski, Aleksandra, Dragana Zivkovic, Ljubisa Balanovic, Nada Strbac, and Zivan Zivkovic. "Life cycle assessment (LCA) of lead-free solders from the environmental protection aspect." Chemical Industry 63, no. 3 (2009): 163–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/hemind0903163m.
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Life-cycle assessment (LCA) presents a relatively new approach, which allows comprehensive environmental consequences analysis of a product system over its entire life. This analysis is increasingly being used in the industry, as a tool for investigation of the influence of the product system on the environment, and serves as a protection and prevention tool in ecological management. This method is used to predict possible influences of a certain material to the environment through different development stages of the material. In LCA, the product systems are evaluated on a functionally equivalent basis, which, in this case, was 1000 cubic centimeters of an alloy. Two of the LCA phases, life-cycle inventory (LCA) and life-cycle impact assessment (LCIA), are needed to calculate the environmental impacts. Methodology of LCIA applied in this analysis aligns every input and output influence into 16 different categories, divided in two subcategories. The life-cycle assessment reaserch review of the leadfree solders Sn-Cu, SAC (Sn-Ag-Cu), BSA (Bi-Sb-Ag) and SABC (Sn-Ag-Bi-Cu) respectively, is given in this paper, from the environmental protection aspect starting from production, through application process and finally, reclamation at the end-of-life, i.e. recycling. There are several opportunities for reducing the overall environmental and human health impacts of solder used in electronics manufacturing based on the results of the LCA, such as: using secondary metals reclaimed through post-industrial recycling; power consumption reducing by replacing older, less efficient reflow assembly equipment, or by optimizing the current equipment to perform at the elevated temperatures required for lead-free soldering, etc. The LCA analysis was done comparatively in relation to widely used Sn-Pb solder material. Additionally, the impact factors of material consumption, energy use, water and air reserves, human health and ecotoxicity have been ALSO considered including the potentials for dissolution and recycling processes.
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Lau, Chun Sean, C. Y. Khor, D. Soares, J. C. Teixeira, and M. Z. Abdullah. "Thermo-mechanical challenges of reflowed lead-free solder joints in surface mount components: a review." Soldering & Surface Mount Technology 28, no. 2 (April 4, 2016): 41–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ssmt-10-2015-0032.
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Purpose The purpose of the present study was to review the thermo-mechanical challenges of reflowed lead-free solder joints in surface mount components (SMCs). The topics of the review include challenges in modelling of the reflow soldering process, optimization and the future challenges in the reflow soldering process. Besides, the numerical approach of lead-free solder reliability is also discussed. Design/methodology/approach Lead-free reflow soldering is one of the most significant processes in the development of surface mount technology, especially toward the miniaturization of the advanced SMCs package. The challenges lead to more complex thermal responses when the PCB assembly passes through the reflow oven. The virtual modelling tools facilitate the modelling and simulation of the lead-free reflow process, which provide more data and clear visualization on the particular process. Findings With the growing trend of computer power and software capability, the multidisciplinary simulation, such as the temperature and thermal stress of lead-free SMCs, under the influenced of a specific process atmosphere can be provided. A simulation modelling technique for the thermal response and flow field prediction of a reflow process is cost-effective and has greatly helped the engineer to eliminate guesswork. Besides, simulated-based optimization methods of the reflow process have gained popularity because of them being economical and have reduced time-consumption, and these provide more information compared to the experimental hardware. The advantages and disadvantages of the simulation modelling in the reflow soldering process are also briefly discussed. Practical implications This literature review provides the engineers and researchers with a profound understanding of the thermo-mechanical challenges of reflowed lead-free solder joints in SMCs and the challenges of simulation modelling in the reflow process. Originality/value The unique challenges in solder joint reliability, and direction of future research in reflow process were identified to clarify the solutions to solve lead-free reliability issues in the electronics manufacturing industry.
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Esfandyari, Alireza, Aarief Syed-Khaja, Tallal Javied, and Jörg Franke. "Energy Efficiency Investigation on High-Pressure Convection Reflow Soldering in Electronics Production." Applied Mechanics and Materials 655 (October 2014): 95–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.655.95.
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One of the key factors in efficient and defect-free electronics manufacturing is the soldering of electronic components to the printed circuit boards. The deciding factor in the reliability and lifetime of the product is the quality of the soldered interconnections. The setting up of the reflow soldering profile plays a crucial role in the electrical functionality and robustness of the product. Especially the miniaturization of the assemblies and the development of new materials make it inevitable for the definition of new processes, optimization and implementation. In this paper, the combination of over-pressure and convection reflow soldering to minimize the defect rate and the related energy analysis for energy efficiency will be discussed and presented. A statistical analysis with variations in solder time, cost, energy, quality trade-off in the over-pressure reflow soldering process for classical printed circuit boards (PCBs) has been demonstrated.
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Gong, J., C. Liu, P. P. Conway, and Vadim V. Silberschmidt. "Analysis of Stress Distribution in SnAgCu Solder Joint." Applied Mechanics and Materials 5-6 (October 2006): 359–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.5-6.359.
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SnAgCu solder is a promising lead-free material for interconnections in electronic packages. However, its melting temperature (490°K) is considerably higher than that of the traditional SnPb solder (456°K). At the same time, SnAgCu has much better creep resistance at high temperature. These properties may cause large residual stresses during manufacturing processes due to the mismatch of thermal properties of electronic components that can influence the reliability of solder joints in electronic packages. This paper studies the residual stresses in solder joints in a flip chip package under different cooling conditions and their influence on the subsequent cyclic test by means of a finite element approach. The results show that the initial temperature of 453°K is high enough to induce residual stresses due to manufacturing procedures. Simulations, based on traditional creep-fatigue models, demonstrate that the residual stresses affect the mechanical behaviour of solder joints in several initial thermal cycles but have little effect on their reliability.
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Brenneis, Matthias, Mesut Ibis, Alexander Duschka, and Peter Groche. "Towards Mass Production of Smart Products by Forming Technologies." Advanced Materials Research 907 (April 2014): 113–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.907.113.
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In all areas of technology, the demand for high-quality, competitive and more valuable products is rising steadily. One approach to increase the value of manufactured products is the integration of electronic components in load carrying structures. These new products, which combine electrical and mechanical components synergistically, are called smart products. They consist of a passive structure and integrated electronics or smart materials. In addition to their mechanical properties they are also able to sense, to actuate or to transmit energy or data. The resulting product architecture requires both a mechanical and an electronic design in order to save subsequent assembly costs. Since further components are required to evaluate and control as well as to supply energy, all of those components need to be connected and integrated into the smart product. However, the main prerequisite for the marketability is the possibility of low-cost manufacturing and a robust mass production. Nowadays processes for the manufacturing of smart products do not fulfill the requirements for a sustainable mass production in a satisfying way as long as metallic structures are used. The authors deploy the forming technologies roll forming and sheet metal hydroforming to form sheets with applied flat electronics. Since the components are applied prior to the forming process, small and difficult to access installation spaces can be used effectively in the product architecture. The incremental bulk forming process rotary swaging is employed to integrate piezoceramics during the forming procedure without any additional joining elements. Challenges resulting from the chosen integrative manufacturing approach are the prevention of new kinds of failure modes and additional requirements for defined residual stress states. These challenges lead to extended process design requirements, which will be discussed in the paper in detail.
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Kaestle, Christopher, Aarief Syed-Khaja, and Joerg Franke. "Investigations on the Additive Manufacturing and Heavy Wire Bonding Capability of Selective Laser-Melted Circuit Carriers." Journal of Microelectronics and Electronic Packaging 14, no. 2 (April 1, 2017): 63–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/imaps.453827.
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Abstract Additive manufacturing (AM) provides tool-free and direct manufacturing of complex geometries simultaneously integrating various functions into components. Though AM techniques are widely used in various sectors, the application into electronics production has not yet been explored. In electronics production, substrate development has high relevance due to their multifunctionality through electrically connecting components and providing mechanical support. This contribution introduces an innovative approach based on selective laser melting (SLM) in the development of high-temperature substrates through additive layered manufacturing. Furthermore, possibilities and challenges that come along with the process combination of SLM and heavy wire bonding are investigated. Wire bonding capability is analyzed on untreated as well as on postprocessed surfaces. The influence and effectiveness of various steps of postprocessing such as cleaning, sand blasting, and grinding are analyzed. Thus, interdependencies between both manufacturing process as well as postprocessing can be revealed. The effect of surface roughness and hardness of the assembly partner are investigated as well. The primary characteristics besides the bond parameters that influence the wire bonding capability are focused in this article. The process stability and the interconnection quality are evaluated by optical nondestructive laser microscopic analysis. Destructive pull and shear tests and metallographic cross sections are performed to evaluate the adhesion characteristics. By a profound understanding of all interdependencies between the two processes, a flexible manufacturing technology for power devices can be established.
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Yang, F., and I. Kao. "Interior Stress for Axisymmetric Abrasive Indentation in the Free Abrasive Machining Process: Slicing Silicon Wafers With Modern Wiresaw." Journal of Electronic Packaging 121, no. 3 (September 1, 1999): 191–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2792683.
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In wiresaw manufacturing processes, such as those in slicing silicon wafers for electronics fabrication, abrasive slurry is carried by high-speed wire (5 to 15 m/s), which exerts normal load to the surface via hydrodynamic effects and bow of taut wire. As a result, the abrasives carried by slurry are constrained to indent onto and roll over the surface of substrate. In this paper, the axisymmetric indentation problem in the free abrasive machining (FAM) is studied by modeling a rigid abrasive of different shapes pushing onto an elastic half space. Based on the harmonic property of dilatation, the closed-form solution of stress distribution inside the cutting material for three different indentation processes in common FAM process are presented: cylindrical and conical abrasives as well as uniform pressure distribution. Along the symmetrical axis, von-Mises stress is two times larger than that of local maximum shear stress for all three indentation conditions. The von-Mises stress is infinity at the contact point for sharp pointed indentation, a location of crack initiation and nucleation. For indentation by abrasive of flat surface, which also can be provided by the localized effects due to the hydrodynamic pressure acting on the surface, both the von-Mises and local maximum shear stress reach maximum underneath the contact zone.
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Cordeiro, Milton, and Jessica E. Koehne. "(Digital Presentation) Printed Wearable Electrochemical Sensor for Monitoring Human Performance Markers during Human Spaceflight." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-01, no. 57 (July 7, 2022): 2362. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-01572362mtgabs.
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Additive manufacturing technologies are being explored by NASA for the in-space manufacturing of sensors and electronics. Additive manufacturing directly addresses the logistic challenge for long-duration human spaceflight missions while also offering a high degree of customization and tailorability. To ensure the health and safety of crew members during long duration missions, it can be advantageous to develop human health diagnostic tools that can be manufactured during those missions. Here we report the development of a wearable and fully printed electrochemical sensor for the detection of human performance markers in sweat.1 The sensor’s fabrication is complimentary with in-space manufacturing for an on-demand and hands-free fabrication and is comprised of commercial and custom carbon, gold and silver inks on a polyimide substrate to make a flexible, 3-electrode electrochemical sensor, shown in Figure 1. Sensor readout is performed using standard electrochemical procedures via a miniaturized, custom potentiostat. The initial prototyped printed electrochemical sensors demonstrate good electrochemical performance and high mechanical stability while also displaying low batch to batch variability. Our goal is to create a highly adaptable and versatile approach that utilizes fabrication processes consistent with in-space manufacturing, thus enabling the manufacture of point-of-care devices during flight. Reference Brasier, N. & Eckstein, J. Sweat as a Source of Next-Generation Digital Biomarkers. Digit. Biomarkers 3, 155–165 (2019). Figure 1
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Pappas, Daphne, Sebastian Guist, and Dhia Ben Salem. "Plasma Surface Engineering: An Enabling Technology Designed to Clean and Protect Printed Circuit Boards." International Symposium on Microelectronics 2020, no. 1 (September 1, 2020): 000197–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/2380-4505-2020.1.000197.
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Abstract Long term reliability and performance of printed circuit boards (PCBs) are strongly affected by the presence of surface contaminants from the manufacturing and assembly processes. Flux and solder residue, dust particles, oils and greases are often found on the assembled boards and can inhibit the successful application of conformal coatings that are used to protect the electronic components. Surface contaminants can cause coating delamination, dendritic growth, electromigration, corrosion and result in compromised coatings. In the first part of this paper, the fundamental mechanism of plasma-induced removal of organic contaminants from PCBs will be presented. While vacuum based plasmas are considered the traditional solvent-free technology for surface cleaning, a new approach involving air plasma operating under atmospheric pressure conditions is gaining interest due to its adaptability for industrial inline processing. The low concentration of oxygen that is available in the plasma gas is effective in vaporizing organic contaminants leaving behind a clean surface. Additionally, atmospheric plasma processes focusing on the development of functional nanocoatings on PCBs have been investigated. These plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) processes involve the delivery and vaporization of small volumes of solvent-free precursors that react with the plasma to form thin coatings on polymer substrates. Depending on the chemical structure of the precursor used, adhesion promoting, water repellant or electrical barrier coatings of 30–100nm thickness can be deposited. These protective functional coatings do not require any curing or special handling and no chemical waste is generated. The latest developments in atmospheric pressure PECVD for electronics protection will be presented in the second part of the paper. Besides the improvement of device performance and reliability, the application of PECVD has the potential to replace chemical substances such as primers known to have harmful impact on human health and the environment.
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Vasantha Geethan, K. Arun, and S. Jose. "Evaluation of stresses in flame resistant materials." Material Science Research India 7, no. 1 (June 25, 2010): 179–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.13005/msri/070122.
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Reliability prediction is fundamental to system design. It involves the quantitative assessment of systems reliability prior to development. For many years the reliability of an electronic system was based, to a great extent, upon the junction temperatures of the semiconductor devices. Substantial efforts were made in the fabrication methods, mounting methods, and cooling techniques of the electronic devices to reduce these hot spot temperatures below 100 °C. This has produced a significant improvement in the reliability and effective operating life of the equipment. However, the electronic failure rates are still too high. Additional reductions in the failure rates must be achieved to further improve the reliability of our electronic equipment. Some of the failure mechanisms that can cause malfunctions in electronic systems are examined in this paper Experience has shown that most of these failures are produced by a mismatch in the thermal coefficients of expansion (TCE) of the different types of materials typically used in electronic assemblies. The mismatch often generates high forces and stresses, which produce fractures and cracks in the electronic components and assemblies. An examination of a large number of avionics failures has shown that most of them are mechanical in nature. They typically involve fractures in solder joints, electrical lead wires, plated through holes (PTH), electrical cables, connectors, adhesive bonded joints, and hermetic seals. These failures are often produced by various combinations of thermal, vibration, shock, humidity, and salt environments, combined with poor manufacturing processes and poor design practices. These failures must be reduced in order to achieve a substantial improvement in the system reliability. The paper aims at presenting the numerical evaluation by finite element analysis of the common class of PCBs under the mechanical stress. This work contributes to the study of vulnerability in packaged electronics by comparing the numerical result with finite element analysis.
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Shi, Zhong Liang, and Jerzy A. Szpunar. "The Introduction of Thin Open-Cell Metal Foams and their Wider Engineering Applications." Materials Science Forum 933 (October 2018): 112–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.933.112.
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Metal foams, having a great of specific surface areas and three-dimensional open cell structures, can be used for electromagnetic shielding and thermal management in electronics, battery electrodes in new energy, catalyst carriers in chemical engineering and lightweight structure in aerospace. The key performance indicators of these open cell metal foams are how to effectively control their pore structures such as pore diameter distribution and porosity and how to make it thinner that can meet different requirements for the component preparation. Summarized about three manufacturing processes are usually used to build metal foams. The first is well-known as physical process. The second is chemical or electrochemical method. The third is a combined process between physical and chemical processes. No matter what kind of process is selected to manufacture open cell metal foam, the specific surface area directly related to the microstructure of the foam is an important parameter in a material selection and design for its application.This paper will introduce a special powder composite plus manufacture process that is developed by Jiangsu Green Materials Hi-Tech. Co. Ltd. The leading manufacture process is a new one that is combined by powder metallurgy, casting, deformation and physical-chemical synthesis. It is environmentally friendly and recyclable from raw material selection, manufacturing process to thermal-mechanical treatment. This paper will also focus on the introduction of the microstructure characterization of open-cell metal foams such as copper, nickel, iron, silver and their alloying foams that we manufactured and give some examples to demonstrate their potential applications in the field of new energy, such as being an electrode for lithium-ion battery, membranes for fuel cell and super-capacitor, in the field of electronic engineering such as thermal management and electromagnetic shielding, in the field of chemical engineering such as separation and catalysts. These examples show their lead roles of these open-cell metal foams and different applications by our developed process.
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Aileni, R. M., and L. Chiriac. "ROLE OF THE E-LEARNING COURSES FOR CAPACITY BUILDING IN THE FIELD OF ADVANCED MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT." TEXTEH Proceedings 2021 (September 22, 2021): 314–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.35530/tt.2021.43.
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This work presents several aspects concerning the e-learning courses about composite materials developed for capacity building in the field of advanced materials for new or upgraded research centers in Morocco and Jordan. The proposed course for capacity building in the field of advanced materials development is represented by 3D advanced composites obtained through textile technologies and additive manufacturing processes. This course presented using e-learning technologies received increased interest from students attending the learning sessions in the framework of the Fostex Erasmus+ project because can be applied to obtain composites for a large area of industries such as automotive, construction, medicine, electronics/electrotechnical and aerospace. The textile composites are materials made from 2/more constituent materials with different chemical, physical and electrical properties. When combined, these materials generate a material (composite) with different characteristics than the initial individual components. The design and development of the composite can lead to new materials with superior characteristics: more robust, lighter, flexible, and less expensive in comparison with traditional materials such as metal, ceramics.
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Zetterer, Th, J. Herzberg, J. Baehr, and K. Waxman. "When Failure is not an Option – Packaging Materials and Technologies for the Reliable Protection of Medical Electronics." International Symposium on Microelectronics 2018, no. 1 (October 1, 2018): 000512–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/2380-4505-2018.1.000512.
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Abstract Enabling high-level electrical performance and smooth optical signal transmission is a key requirement for microelectronics packaging materials. This becomes even more relevant for biomedical applications, in which protection requirements must be met alongside standard performance and signal transmission benchmarks. The major challenge: medical packaging must to provide absolute reliability. Microelectronic components face potentially damaging working environment hazards such as high humidity, extreme temperatures, corrosive chemicals, and bodily fluid – especially in the application cases of implantable, ingestible, and wearable devices. Hermeticity is an important factor in the performance of medical packaging. Non-hermetic packaging, sometimes known as “quasi-hermetic” uses organic materials, such as silicone or plastic over-moldings, that are not designed to withstand extreme conditions and break down over time. Material break down in these types of packages can lead to limited protection by allowing permeation of water and other gases through the polymer structure. Non-hermetic packages typically reach critical permeation levels after a very short period of time. For microelectronic components, even the smallest, hardly detectable traces of hydrogen and water vapor inside a package can compromise the performance and reliability of the encapsulated chips and circuits and potentially lead to interconnect failure, one of the most common reliability failure modes in microelectronic applications. The only way to overcome the challenge of achieving absolute reliability is by using hermetic packaging technologies with inorganic materials, such as glass, ceramics and metal. Unique manufacturing processes of these hermetic components create vacuum-tight seals that prevent moisture and harmful gases from penetrating into the package. Hermetically sealed packages deliver uncompromised reliability, offering long-term protection of sensitive electronics in medical devices – even after thousands of surgical procedures and steam sterilization cycles. This technical presentation will introduce the different reliability levels of packaging materials and provide an in-depth comparison of the respective advantages, disadvantages, and typical application areas of various hermetic packaging technologies. The latest insights into materials and technologies available for high-reliability packaging of medical electronics will be presented.
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Tava´rez, A., and J. E. Gonza´lez. "Modeling the Thermal Behavior of Solder Paste Inside Reflow Ovens." Journal of Electronic Packaging 125, no. 3 (September 1, 2003): 335–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.1569955.
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The development of a mathematical model of the soldering process of actual pastes as used in surface mount technology (SMT) lines is described in this paper. The coupled heat transfer processes between the solder paste and the flux including changes in solder paste properties are considered in the model. Specifically, the loss of solvents in the vehicle system, melting, solidification and further single phase cooling of the solder paste are contemplated in the model. Experiments were conducted with the objective of validating the predictions of the solder paste temperature profile and of the loss of weight due to flux extraction. Results are shown in this paper for typical eutectic paste 63%Sn-37%Pb and experimental data is in good agreement with the numerical predictions. Simulations using the lead-free solder paste systems 96.5%Sn-3.5%Ag and 42%Sn-58%Bi are also reported in this paper. The proposed model is suitable for incorporation into existing three dimensional heat transfer models of PCBs for simulations in ovens with similar characteristics as those used in actual manufacturing applications.
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Sapio, Valentina. "Open Design." Academic Research Community publication 3, no. 4 (June 1, 2019): 78. http://dx.doi.org/10.21625/archive.v3i4.541.
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The evolution of electronics, sustainable energy, digital and the web in the productive and entrepreneurial structure generated, in the second half of the twentieth century, the third industrial revolution. Defined by some scholars like Chris Anderson and economic newspapers like the "Financial Times": "A revolution in which the planner in general and the designer in particular have truly new technical, economic and above all formal language opportunities for the design of new elements". A phenomenon still in full swing, yet we are already talking about Industry 4.0, as synonymous with a fourth industrial revolution that presents a new feature, a new bidirectional relationship that re-examines two key players: producers and consumers. This complete connection has led to the creation of new products and services, which improve the level of efficiency of life by making it more productive.Cyber-physics, in fact, the current technological science that integrates software and networking with new techniques of abstraction, modeling, design and analysis to the dynamics of physical processes, joins traditional design processes, generating a new stream of production process. Defined by Denis Santachiara, designer and Professor at NABA in Milan «[...] a virtual representation of a manufacturing process in a software environment [...]».This new context presupposes the inclusion within the Internet network, "the network of networks", increasingly configured as a "Network Society", where to grasp the growing complexity of the digital revolution, the integration of new instruments that lead to the digital manufacturing. This determines an innovation in the language of designers, towards a new culture of the project, thanks to the resources developed by the new digital technologies. A new reality that turns into opportunities for young designers, in which transversal and multidisciplinary figures with a heterogeneous design background are needed, able to interact with the various facets of these means.
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Borman, Mark. "Common Knowledge, Interorganizational Networks and the Future for the Organization of Production." Journal of Information Technology 9, no. 3 (September 1994): 203–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026839629400900304.
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This paper seeks to investigate the potential for interorganizational networks (IONs) to facilitate a challenge to the current hegemony of integrated production. From a transaction cost perspective the choice between market and hierarchical modes of production depends upon their relative coordination costs. The argument developed here is that uncertainty has precipitated market failure and the consequent rise of large, integrated concerns. IONs, however, by facilitating the cost-effective diffusion of information can reduce the coordination costs associated with the market place and permit the deintegration of production. The greatest benefits are held to be realized where the development of common knowledge between connected trading partners permits the ‘free flow’ of information. Supporting empirical work consists of a comprehensive survey of the uptake of IONs in the Scottish electronics industry and the development of case studies in a variety of companies highlighting the specific processes at work. Tentative conclusions indicate that while IONs do represent an opportunity for the emergence of new, more collaborative modes of production such an outcome is by no means assured. ‘changes consist primarily in a relative decline in the importance of Fordist mass production and an enormous expansion of manufacturing activities based on less rigid and more highly adaptable (i.e., flexible) technological and institutional structures’ (Scott, 1988, p. 171).
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Chiang, Shih-Yuan, Chiu-Chi Wei, Te-Hsuan Chiang, and Wei-Lin Chen. "How does electronics industry face the lead-free manufacturing – the key indicators of lead-free manufacturing." Journal of Information and Optimization Sciences 31, no. 1 (January 2010): 159–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02522667.2010.10699951.
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Boettcher, Lars, Lars Boettcher, S. Karaszkiewicz, D. Manessis, and A. Ostmann. "Embedded Power Modules – A new approach using Power Core and High Power PCB." Additional Conferences (Device Packaging, HiTEC, HiTEN, and CICMT) 2015, DPC (January 1, 2015): 000906–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/2015dpc-tp42.
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Power electronics packaging applications has strong demands regarding reliability and cost. The fields of developments reach from low power converter modules, over single or multichip MOSFET or IGBT packages, up to high power applications, like needed e.g. for solar inverters and automotive applications. This paper will give an overview about these applications and a description of each ones demand. The spectrum of conventional power electronics packaging reaches from SMD packages for power chips to large power modules. In most of these packages the power semiconductors are connected by bond wires, resulting in large resistances and parasitic inductance. Additionally bond wires result in a high stray inductance which limits the switching frequency. The embedding of chips using Printed Circuit Board (PCB) technology offers a solution for many of the problems in power packaging. This paper will show today's available power packages and power modules, realized in industrial production as well as in European research projects. All technologies which are used are based on PCB materials and processes. Chips are mounted to Cu foils, lead frames, high power PCBs or even ceramic substrates, embedded by vacuum lamination of laminate sheets and electrically connected by laser drilling and Cu plating. A new approach for embedded power modules will be presented in detail. In this project, different application fields are covered, ranging from 50 W over 500 W to 50kW power modules for different applications like single chip packages, over power control units for pedelec (Pedal Electric Cycle), to inverter modules for automotive applications. This approach will focus on a power core base structure for the embedded semiconductor, which is then connected to a high power PCB. The connection to the embedded die is realized by direct copper connection only. The technology principle will be described in detail. Frist manufactured demonstrators will be presented. The presented new approach for the realization of a power core structure offers new possibilities for the module manufacturing, avoiding soldering or Ag sintering of the power semiconductors and the handling of thick copper substrates during the embedding process.
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Voges, S., K. F. Becker, D. Schütze, B. Schröder, P. Fruehauf, M. Heimann, S. Nerreter, et al. "Highly Miniaturized Integrated Sensor Nodes for Industry 4.0." International Symposium on Microelectronics 2019, no. 1 (October 1, 2019): 000415–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/2380-4505-2019.1.000415.
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Paper Abstract The PCB 4.0 research project offers the opportunity to take the flexibility, energy efficiency, and resource efficiency of production processes to a whole new level through intelligent control and networking. The development of electronics and sensors, which is among the strengths of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in Germany in particular, plays a key role here. The integration of sensors into workpieces and systems must be as compact as possible for flexible and efficient data acquisition. Miniaturized radio sensor nodes offer this possibility, but their production and integration currently still pose major technical challenges. The objective of the research project PCB 4.0 is the creation of a technology platform for the design and manufacture of embedded miniaturized radio frequency (RF) sensor nodes and their integration into production processes. Four dedicated scenarios, that reflect different phases of the product life cycle, demonstrate the performance of the developed technologies - ranging from production to component use - detecting and processing the actual state in the production of industrial electronics in real time. A maintenance-free Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) sensor node was developed to report environmental data (e.g. temperature, acceleration) during lifecycle of an Industry 4.0 PCB. The embedded security chip from WIBU-Systems AG, called “CmASIC”, provides asymmetric, cryptographic algorithms and certificates to guarantee the highest level of authenticity during the PCB production process and over the entire product lifecycle. In addition, a highly miniaturized sensor node (11×10×1.6 mm3) was developed using PCB embedding technology. The node includes an integrated PCB helix antenna, embedded accumulator and a sensor with media access. The embedding technology was transferred to mass production on 610×457 mm2 manufacturing panel size. To optimize the design flow of sensor nodes, a PCB design tool was created using Altium® Designer interface. This tool's highly efficient interactive and automatic functionalities support all aspects of the PCB design process with embedded components. For device genuineness control, a centralized license management system was used, a tool for generating and deploying certificates to securely track device identities, supporting the industrial production chain. Sensor data and other status information (e.g. wear level, authenticity) are made available via two cloud solutions (Siemens MindSphere and a solution for small and medium-sized businesses by partner Sensorik Bayern GmbH (SBG)). Demonstrators were developed to support scenarios for future industrial demands. During test runs, the sensor nodes howed the potential to monitor and control the process flow and system lifetime directly at the component level. The paper describes the technological developments towards miniaturized sensor nodes as well as the integration of those miniaturized SiPs (System-in-Package) into a sensor network. Finally, the application of such sensor networks for smart manufacturing is demonstrated for selected use cases.
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Tasic, Bratislav, Jos J. Dohmen, E. Jan W. ter Maten, Theo G.J. Beelen, Wil H.A. Schilders, Alex de Vries, and Maikel van Beurden. "Robust DC and efficient time-domain fast fault simulation." COMPEL: The International Journal for Computation and Mathematics in Electrical and Electronic Engineering 33, no. 4 (July 1, 2014): 1161–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/compel-12-2012-0364.
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Purpose – Imperfections in manufacturing processes may cause unwanted connections (faults) that are added to the nominal, “golden”, design of an electronic circuit. By fault simulation one simulates all situations. Normally this leads to a large list of simulations in which for each defect a steady-state (direct current (DC)) solution is determined followed by a transient simulation. The purpose of this paper is to improve the robustness and the efficiency of these simulations. Design/methodology/approach – Determining the DC solution can be very hard. For this the authors present an adaptive time-domain source stepping procedure that can deal with controlled sources. The method can easily be combined with existing pseudo-transient procedures. The method is robust and efficient. In the subsequent transient simulation the solution of a fault is compared to a golden, fault-free, solution. A strategy is developed to efficiently simulate the faulty solutions until their moment of detection. Findings – The paper fully exploits the hierarchical structure of the circuit in the simulation process to bypass parts of the circuit that appear to be unaffected by the fault. Accurate prediction and efficient solution procedures lead to fast fault simulation. Originality/value – The fast fault simulation helps to store a database with detectable deviations for each fault. If such a detectable output “matches” a result of a product that has been returned because of malfunctioning it helps to identify the subcircuit that may contain the real fault. One aims to detect as much as possible candidate faults. Because of the many options the simulations must be very efficient.
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Wang, Dan, Timothy Hall, Maria Inman, E. Jennings Taylor, Rafael Bento Bento Serpa, Charles B. Parker, and Jeffrey T. Glass. "(Digital Presentation) Graphenated Carbon Nanotube Based MEMS Supercapacitors." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-01, no. 7 (July 7, 2022): 638. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-017638mtgabs.
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The inherent advantages of MEMS (micro-electromechanical system) technology, including small size and cost-effective fabrication, make it ideal for numerous applications in a wide range of industries ranging from defense, automotive, medical, to consumer industries. For applications that require self-powered MEMS electronics, an integrated energy storage device is required. Due to their small size, excellent cycle life and high-power density, miniature supercapacitors are an excellent choice for such an integrated energy storage device. The development of electrode materials and electrode fabrication processes for supercapacitors are thus critical for the practical applications of MEMS technology in electronics. In this presentation, Faraday Technology Inc. and Duke University will discuss a novel 3D graphenated carbon nanotube (g-CNT) network with pseudocapacitive coatings as the electrode materials for fabricating high energy density MEMS supercapacitors. The g-CNT has a high surface area three-dimensional framework of the CNTs coupled with the high edge density of graphene (Figure 1 A), which represents a potential maximum in both charge density and surface area, and thus provide the enhanced capacitance. An innovative electrophoretic deposition (EPD) manufacturing process, based on the use of pulsed electric fields, has been developed for controlled, reproducible, and scalable deposition of g-CNTs on interdigitated electrodes (Figure 1 B). In addition, pseudocapacitive coatings (such as MnO2) have been electrodeposited on the g-CNT coated electrode to further increasing supercapacitor energy density. Figure 1 C shows no redox peaks, which is important for using this structure as a supercapacitor application. The square shape of the cyclic voltammogram shows that ions experience free flow through the 3-D g-CNT structure. The Charge/Discharge curves (Figure 1 D) indicate the areal energy density of g-CNT/MnO2 coated electrodes (either 50 or 100 cyclic voltametric deposition cycles) are 45 and 93 times higher than g-CNT coated electrodes, respectively. In summary, a scalable manufacturing process for fabricating g-CNT network with pseudocapacitive coatings as electrodes has been demonstrated and shown great potential in producing high energy density MEMS supercapacitors for energy harvesting applications. Acknowledgements: The financial support of DOD DMEA STTR program through grant No. HQ0727-21-P-0029 is acknowledged and National Institutes of Health under award number 1R21EY031271 is acknowledged. The information, data, or work presented herein was funded in part by National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. 80NSSC19K1027, the views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof. Figure 1
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Fukuda, Y., P. Casey, and M. Pecht. "Evaluation of selected Japanese lead-free consumer electronics." IEEE Transactions on Electronics Packaging Manufacturing 26, no. 4 (October 2003): 305–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tepm.2003.820820.
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Nie, Lei, Michael Pecht, and Richard Ciocci. "Regulations and market trends in lead‐free and halogen‐free electronics." Circuit World 33, no. 2 (May 22, 2007): 4–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/03056120710750201.
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Roy, Sudipta. "Perspectives and Impact of Green Electrodeposition." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, no. 24 (October 9, 2022): 1002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-02241002mtgabs.
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Green electrodeposition is a concept where electrodeposition is carried out sustainably; with safety, society, and environmental aspects playing a significant role in decision-making. ECS and electrochemists have seen large changes in the use of materials and chemicals over the last 50 years: for example, the slow phase out of mercury in labs and industry due to its toxicity [1]. On the other hand, the development of DSA and Boron-doped Diamond (BDD) electrodes have provided strategies for effluent control [2]. The Electrodeposition and Electroless Division (EDLP) members also would have faced challenges over the last 40 years. This could have involved replacing Cr(VI) electrolytes [3], Cd-based coatings, or developing cyanide-free processes [4]. In many cases EDLP has led the exploration of a new set of functional materials: an exemplar being “Get the Lead Out” Symposia Series focused on the development of Pb-free solders. Green Electrodeposition is a marriage of Green Chemical Principles and Electrodeposition. Green Chemical Principles [5], urges one to focus on the reduction of waste, atom economy, energy efficiency, benign solvents, etc. These guidelines are useful for the development of any process, including electrodeposition processes. To adopt these principles, one has to understand and consider the stability of chemical formulations [6], surface electrochemistry that enables electrodeposition [7] and energy and atom efficiency of the process [8]. Electrochemistry, in particular, is a low temperature, low pressure process using electrons to drive reactions which reduces waste. It should therefore follow, that electrochemistry has a significant advantage in offering “Green” processes if developed, implemented and monitored carefully. The talk will focus on how the concept started which simply focused on “prevention of generating” of waste. In particular it examined the notion of development of alternative formulations, the thermodynamics of stable electrolytes and associated issues. The application of this approach towards the development of gold deposition using non-cyanide baths for opto-electronic devices [9] will serve as an exemplar. Following this, the talk will focus effluent remediation of waste from printed circuit board manufacturing [10] and its extension to clean up of galvanic sludge from plating companies [11]. If time permits the use of engineering methodologies using current pulsing, novel agitation schemes and monitoring methods for energy efficiency and metal recycling and recovery will also be discussed. References: Castner-Kellner process as described in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castner%E2%80%93Kellner_process; Mercury poisoning – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_poisoning. Accessed 07/04/2022. Panniza, E. Brillas, C. Comninellis, J. Environ. Eng. Manage., 18(3), 139 (2008). Liang, L. Ni, Q. Liu, J. Zhang, Surf. Coatings Tech., 218, 23 (2013). Okinaka, M. Hoshino, Gold Bull, 31, 3 (1980); T. A. Green, Gold Bull. 40, 105 (2007). https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/greenchemistry/principles/12-principles-of-green-chemistry.html. Accessed 07/04/2022. Green, A. E. Russell, S. Roy, J. Electrochem. Soc, 145, 875(1998). Mattsson and J. M. Bockris, Trans. Faraday Soc., 55, 1586 (1959). E. G. Hansal and M. Halmdienst, “Energy and Material Considerations”, Pulse Plating, 1st Ed., pp. 184-188. Eds. W. Hansal and S. Roy, Leuze Verlag (2012). J. Liew, S. Roy, K. Scott, Green Chemistry 5, 376 (2003). Buckle and S. Roy, Separation and Purification Tech., 62, 86(2008); R. Buckle & S. Roy, 2006, ECS Transactions: Green Electrodeposition, 1, 13, pp. 53-58. T. Huyen, T. D. Dang, M. T. Tung, N. T. T. Huyen, T. A. Green and S. Roy, Hydrometallurgy,164, 295 (2016).
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Suganuma, Katsuaki. "The Development and Commercialization of Lead-Free Soldering." MRS Bulletin 26, no. 11 (November 2001): 880–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/mrs2001.228.
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Early in the 1990s in the United States, a series of legislative measures were proposed for banning the use of lead for many applications in industries involving electronic solders. Although electronic solders were ultimately exempted, this argument ignited worldwide concern, and research began on the development of lead-free solders. The U.S. project, organized by the National Center for Manufacturing Sciences (NCMS), was carried out from 1992 to 1996. Major electronics companies and auto manufacturers participated with several national institutes in this project.
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Lu, Qing Ru, Hui Huang, and De Bing Chen. "Analysis of the Research Status of Tin Whisker's Influence on Lead-Free Soldering." Advanced Materials Research 834-836 (October 2013): 876–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.834-836.876.
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Strengthening the study on whiskers influence on the reliability of lead-free soldering can improve welding technology and contribute to the overall development of the electronics industry. This paper provides an overview of the study on lead-free solder technology and development, summaries the materials, processes and other reliability issues and welding reliability problems of lead-free solder, finally gives an overview of the research status of whiskers formation mechanism and reliability.
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Pecht, M., Y. Fukuda, and S. Rajagopal. "The Impact of Lead-Free Legislation Exemptions on the Electronics Industry." IEEE Transactions on Electronics Packaging Manufacturing 27, no. 4 (October 2004): 221–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tepm.2004.843150.
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Pan, Jianbiao, Jyhwen Wang, and David M. Shaddock. "Lead-free Solder Joint Reliability – State of the Art and Perspectives." Journal of Microelectronics and Electronic Packaging 2, no. 1 (January 1, 2005): 72–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/1551-4897-2.1.72.
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There is an increasing demand for replacing tin-lead (Sn/Pb) solders with lead-free solders in the electronics industry due to health and environmental concerns. The European Union recently passed a law to ban the use of lead in electronic products. The ban will go into effect in July of 2006. The Japanese electronics industry has worked to eliminate lead from consumer electronic products for several years. Although currently there are no specific regulations banning lead in electronics devices in the United States, many companies and consortiums are working on lead-free solder initiatives including Intel, Motorola, Agilent Technologies, General Electric, Boeing, NEMI and many others to avoid a commercial disadvantage. The solder joints reliability not only depends on the solder joint alloys, but also on the component and PCB metallizations. Reflow profile also has significant impact on lead-free solder joint performance because it influences wetting and microstructure of the solder joint. A majority of researchers use temperature cycling for accelerated reliability testing since the solder joint failure mainly comes from thermal stress due to CTE mismatch. A solder joint failure could be caused by crack initiation and growth or by macroscopic solder facture. There are conflicting views of the reliability comparison between lead-free solders and tin-lead solders. This paper first reviews lead-free solder alloys, lead-free component lead finishes, and lead-free PCB surface finishes. The issue of tin whiskers is also discussed. Next, lead-free solder joint testing methods are presented; finite element modeling of lead-free solder joint reliability is reviewed; and experimental data comparing lead-free and tin-lead solder joint reliability are summarized. Finally the paper gives perspectives of transitions to totally lead-free manufacturing.
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Vincent, James H. "Improved Design Life and Environmentally Aware Manufacturing of Electronics Assemblies by Lead-Free Soldering." Materia Japan 38, no. 12 (1999): 972–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.2320/materia.38.972.
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Fukuda, Y., P. Casey, and M. Pecht. "Evaluation of selected japanese lead-free consumer electronics [Abstracts of Forthcoming Manuscripts]." IEEE Transactions on Electronics Packaging Manufacturing 26, no. 4 (October 2003): 265. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tepm.2003.823167.
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Park, Gyori, Hyun-Suk Kim, and Kyung Jin Lee. "Solvent-Free Processed Cathode Slurry with Carbon Nanotube Conductors for Li-Ion Batteries." Nanomaterials 13, no. 2 (January 12, 2023): 324. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano13020324.
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The increase in demand for energy storage devices, including portable electronic devices, electronic mobile devices, and energy storage systems, has led to substantial growth in the market for Li-ion batteries (LiB). However, the resulting environmental concerns from the waste of LiB and pollutants from the manufacturing process have attracted considerable attention. In particular, N-methylpyrrolidone, which is utilized during the manufacturing process for preparing cathode or anode slurries, is a toxic organic pollutant. Therefore, the dry-based process for electrodes is of special interest nowadays. Herein, we report the fabrication of a cathode by a mortar-based dry process using NCM811, a carbon conductor, and poly(tetrafluoroethylene)binder. The electrochemical performance of the cathode was compared in terms of the types of conductors: carbon nanotubes and carbon black. The electrodes with carbon nanotubes showed an ameliorated performance in terms of cycle testing, capacity retention, and mechanical properties.
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Said, Rita Mohd, Mohd Arif Anuar Mohd Salleh, Mohd Izrul Izwan Ramli, Norainiza Saud, Flora Somidin, Nurul Razliana Abdul Razak, and Anis Nadhirah Ismail. "Mixed Assembly of Lead-free Solder Joint: A Short Review." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2169, no. 1 (January 1, 2022): 012039. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2169/1/012039.
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Abstract The transition from lead (Pb) to Pb-free solder has arisen the need for the development of the reliability of mixed assemblies solder joint research. Mixed assemblies are defined as solder joints that joint together with different compositions or solder forms for example Ball Grid Array (BGA) and solder paste. During the transition period of solder materials, mixed assemblies are still used in electronic packaging. In addition, Pb-free manufacturing has been forced to release some of the product categories since legislation banning the use of lead solder in electronic assemblies. This phenomenon causes health and environmental concern of the Pb solder used in electronic assembly. Hence, some electronic assemblies will continue to use traditional eutectic Sn–Pb solder paste while others will use Pb-free solder paste. This situation indicates that the use of mixed assemblies in electronics manufacturing is still inevitable. This paper presents a projection of the reliability of mixed assembly’s Pb-free solder joint.
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Lee, Liu Mei, and Ahmad Azmin Mohamad. "Interfacial Reaction of Sn-Ag-Cu Lead-Free Solder Alloy on Cu: A Review." Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 2013 (2013): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/123697.
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This paper reviews the function and importance of Sn-Ag-Cu solder alloys in electronics industry and the interfacial reaction of Sn-Ag-Cu/Cu solder joint at various solder forms and solder reflow conditions. The Sn-Ag-Cu solder alloys are examined in bulk and in thin film. It then examines the effect of soldering conditions to the formation of intermetallic compounds such as Cu substrate selection, structural phases, morphology evolution, the growth kinetics, temperature and time is also discussed. Sn-Ag-Cu lead-free solder alloys are the most promising candidate for the replacement of Sn-Pb solders in modern microelectronic technology. Sn-Ag-Cu solders could possibly be considered and adapted in miniaturization technologies. Therefore, this paper should be of great interest to a large selection of electronics interconnect materials, reliability, processes, and assembly community.
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Patra, Arghya, and Paul V. Braun. "(Industrial Electrochemistry and Electrochemical Engineering Division H. H. Dow Memorial Student Achievement Award) Electrochemically Grown Highly Textured Thick Ceramic Oxide Films for Energy Storage: A New Manufacturing Paradigm for Cathode Materials." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, no. 26 (October 9, 2022): 1025. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-02261025mtgabs.
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Electrochemical synthesis of materials has contributed to significant breakthroughs in materials processing by replacing high temperature, cost and energy intensive pyrometallurgical processes. Noteworthy examples include aluminum extraction by Hall–Heroult process, electrowinning of copper, titanium extraction through the Kroll process, electrolytic production of steel, and electrochemical synthesis of cement. Increasing the energy and power density of alkali ion intercalated transition metal oxide cathodes which power electric cars and portable electronics, has been a growing topic of global techno-economic interest. Our work demonstrates a direct electrodeposition of thick ternary ceramic oxide films as an alternate scalable manufacturing technique for fabrication of binder-and-additive free cathode materials for secondary battery. Employing an intermediate temperature (200-400°C) molten hydroxide-based electrodeposition method, a general electrochemical growth strategy for multiple Li and Na ion cathode chemistries is demonstrated for the first time including NaCoO2, NaMnO2, LiCoO2, Li2MnO3, LiMnO2, LiMn2O4, (A. Patra, P.V. Braun et. al, PNAS, 2021) in a thick (> 50 µm) thick film form factor. In-plane and through-plane texture can be electrochemically architectured in LiCoO2 and NaCoO2 films across multiple textures: <003>||ND (Li/Na ion blocking sites parallel to the normal direction), <101>||ND, <104>||ND, <110>||ND (fast lithium ion conducting sites parallel to the normal direction). An accurate control of crystallization dynamics leads to highly anisotropic, grain boundary engineered structure with low tortuosity and fastest electron and Li ion conducting pathways (<110>||ND) oriented normal to the current collector. The highly textured (<110>||ND), dense (>95%) electroplated cathodes can perform even at ultrahigh thickness of ~ 200 µm (areal capacity of ~13.6 mAh/cm2) in comparison to 40-60 µm for conventional slurry cast cathodes (areal capacity of ~3-4 mAh/cm2 with a porosity of ~10-20%), a fivefold increase in areal capacity and volumetric energy density (A. Patra, P.V. Braun et. al, to be submitted). In order to enable a high voltage (> 4.5 V vs. Li) cathode design, a functionally graded architecture is also demonstrated with a core capable of providing high-capacity and rate capability (LCO <110>||ND); and multiple capping layers (LCO <003>||ND and Li2MnO3) to suppress harmful side reactions occurring at voltages beyond the normal operation range (beyond 4.2 V vs. Li). Our work paves the way towards an electrosynthesis platform for functional oxides with the ability to generate micron scale ordering with controllable in-and-through-plane orientation in thick ceramic oxide films important for electrochemical energy storage.
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Grigoletto, Eliane Maria, and Araí Augusta Bernardez Pécora. "Lead environmental issues and new solder alloys in electro-electronics equipment." Labor e Engenho 7, no. 4 (December 1, 2013): 68–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.20396/lobore.v7i4.169.
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The use of Surface Mounted Technology (SMT) and the miniaturization of the electronics equipment are demanding new lead-free materials in the soldering process, due to its high toxicity to human being and environmental concerns. Global competitiveness has been driving industries to technological development as challenges to the manufactures and there is an effort to use alternative materials for the soldering electronic components to find an environment-friendly process. This paper presents a literature review involving soldering processes and describes the lead toxicity from related residue. The main solder alloy that is nowadays used to substitute tin-lead and European Directives are also presented.
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Maurel, Alexis, Ana Cristina Martinez, Sylvie Grugeon, Stephane Panier, Loic Dupont, Michel Armand, Roberto Russo, et al. "(Battery Division Postdoctoral Associate Research Award Sponsored by MTI Corporation and the Jiang Family Foundation) 3D Printing of Batteries: Fiction or Reality?" ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, no. 3 (October 9, 2022): 214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-023214mtgabs.
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Motivated by the request to build shape-conformable flexible, wearable and customizable batteries while maximizing the energy storage and electrochemical performances, additive manufacturing (AM) appears as a revolutionary discipline. Battery components such as electrodes, separator, electrolyte, current collectors and casing can be tailored with any shape, allowing the direct incorporation of batteries and all electronics within the final three-dimensional object. AM also paves the way toward the implementation of complex 3D electrode architectures that could enhance significantly the power battery performances. Transitioning from conventional 2D to complex 3D lithium-ion battery (LIB) architectures will increase the electrochemically active surface area, enhance the Li+ diffusion paths, thus leading to improved specific capacity and power performance [1]. Our recent modeling studies [2] involving the simulation of a classical Ragone plot illustrated that a gyroid 3D battery architecture has +158% performance at a high current density of 6C, in comparison to planar geometry. In this presentation, an overview of current trends in energy storage 3D printing will be discussed [3-11]. A summary of our recent works on lithium-ion battery 3D printing via Thermoplastic Material Extrusion / Fused Deposition Modeling will be presented [12-16]. The development of printable composite filaments (Graphite-, LiFePO4-, Li2TP-, PEO/LiTFSI-, SiO2-, Ag/Cu-based) corresponding to each part of a LIB (electrodes, electrolyte, separator, current collectors), and the importance of introducing a plasticizer (polyethylene glycol dimethyl ether average Mn 500 for polylactic acid) as an additive to enhance the printability will be addressed. Printing of the complete LIB in a single step using multi-material printing options, and the implementation of a solvent-free protocol [14] will also be discussed. Second part of this presentation will be dedicated to AM of batteries by means of Vat Photopolymerization (VPP) processes, including stereolithography, digital light processing and two-photon polymerization (offering a greater resolution down to 0.1μm), to print high resolution battery components [10]. Composite resins formulation approaches based on the introduction of solid battery particles or precursor salts will be introduced [17, 18]. Finally, an overview of our ongoing project dedicated to AM of sodium-ion batteries from resources available on the Moon and Mars will be presented. Due to its relative abundance in the Lunar regolith, the development of a composite photocurable resin loaded with TiO2 negative electrode material and conductive additives, to feed a VPP printer, will be discussed [18]. [1] Long et al., Three-dimensional battery architectures, Chemical Reviews 104(10) (2004) 4463-4492. [2] Maurel et al., Considering lithium-ion battery 3D-printing via thermoplastic material extrusion and polymer powder bed fusion, Additive Manufacturing (2020) 101651. [3] Maurel et al., Overview on Lithium-Ion Battery 3D-Printing By Means of Material Extrusion, ECS Transactions 98(13) (2020) 3-21. [4] Ragones et al., Towards smart free form-factor 3D printable batteries, Sustainable Energy & Fuels 2(7) (2018) 1542-1549. [5] Reyes et al., Three-Dimensional Printing of a Complete Lithium Ion Battery with Fused Filament Fabrication, ACS Applied Energy Materials 1(10) (2018) 5268-5279. [6] Yee et al., Hydrogel-Based Additive Manufacturing of Lithium Cobalt Oxide, Advanced Materials Technologies 6(2) (2021). [7] Saccone et al., Understanding and mitigating mechanical degradation in lithium–sulfur batteries: additive manufacturing of Li2S composites and nanomechanical particle compressions, Journal of Materials Research (2021). [8] Tagliaferri et al., Direct ink writing of energy materials, Materials Advances 2(2) (2021) 25. [9] Sun et al., 3D Printing of Interdigitated Li-Ion Microbattery Architectures, Advanced Materials 25(33) (2013) 4539-4543. [10] Maurel et al., Toward High Resolution 3D Printing of Shape-Conformable Batteries via Vat Photopolymerization: Review and Perspective, IEEE Access 9 (2021) 140654-140666. [11] Seol et al., All-Printed In-Plane Supercapacitors by Sequential Additive Manufacturing Process, Acs Applied Energy Materials 3(5) (2020) 4965-4973. [12] Maurel et al., Highly Loaded Graphite-Polylactic Acid Composite-Based Filaments for Lithium-Ion Battery Three-Dimensional Printing, Chemistry of Materials 30(21) (2018) 7484-7493. [13] Maurel et al., Three-Dimensional Printing of a LiFePO4/Graphite Battery Cell via Fused Deposition Modeling, Scientific Reports 9(1) (2019) 18031. [14] Maurel et al., Environmentally Friendly Lithium-Terephthalate/Polylactic Acid Composite Filament Formulation for Lithium-Ion Battery 3D-Printing via Fused Deposition Modeling, ECS Journal of Solid State Science and Technology 10(3) (2021) 037004. [15] Maurel et al., Poly(Ethylene Oxide)-LiTFSI Solid Polymer Electrolyte Filaments for Fused Deposition Modeling Three-Dimensional Printing, Journal of the Electrochemical Society 167(7) (2020). [16] Maurel et al., Ag-Coated Cu/Polylactic Acid Composite Filament for Lithium and Sodium-Ion Battery Current Collector Three-Dimensional Printing via Thermoplastic Material Extrusion, Frontiers in Energy Research 9(70) (2021). [17] Martinez et al., Additive Manufacturing of LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 battery electrode material via vat photopolymerization precursor approach, (submitted). [18] Maurel et al., Vat Photopolymerization Additive Manufacturing of Sodium-Ion Battery TiO2 Negative Electrodes from Lunar In-Situ Resources, (submitted).
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Wable, Girish S., Quyen Chu, Purushothaman Damodaran, and Krishnaswami Srihari. "A systematic procedure for the selection of a lead‐free solder paste in an electronics manufacturing environment." Soldering & Surface Mount Technology 17, no. 2 (June 2005): 32–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09540910510597483.
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Noamna, Somkeit, Theerapong Thongphun, and Chalermpon Kongjit. "TRANSFORMER PRODUCTION IMPROVEMENT BY LEAN AND MTM-2 TECHNIQUE." ASEAN Engineering Journal 12, no. 2 (June 1, 2022): 29–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.11113/aej.v12.16712.
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The situation of the covid-19 epidemic is a driving force of the global market’s demand increase of electronic devices and parts. Entire electronic component manufacturers, especially the transformer manufacturing industry, which is a device that supplies power to many electronic devices, encounters problems in producing products that are unable to keep up with the quickly increasing demand. This research aims to increase the productivity of small transformers by lean approach. The paper depicts processes relevant to improving production processes, reducing waste, and finding unnecessary processes. The method begins with two actions. First, study the current situation in transformer manufacturing of a case study. Second, study the customer order to delivery process using the Value Stream Mapping (VSM) and analyze entire processes of transformer manufacturing to identify standard time by unit work. The main technique is for measuring working time by timing the forward motion with the time measurement method version 2 (MTM-2). The Cause and Effect diagram was displayed with improving guidelines on two operations. First the concept of lean manufacturing was used in principal role, second the ECRS technique (Eliminate, Combine, Rearrange and Simplify) was applied to reduce "waste" as well as to optimize and reduce the manufacturing process of the transformer. The results lead to an increase in the final product per hour from 45 pieces per hour to 75 pieces per hour which increases up to 30% per hour. In addition, the productivity improvements increased the productivity of 3.46 workers per hour to 6.82 per hour (increase of 97.11%) and production time was reduced from 1,109 seconds to 229 seconds (73.04% of productivity).
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Grabey, Steven, Samson Shahbazi, Sarah Groman, and Catherine Munoz. "Performance Assessment of a Low Temperature Polymer Conductor for Lead-Free Soldering Processes." International Symposium on Microelectronics 2014, no. 1 (October 1, 2014): 000251–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/isom-tp33.
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An increased interest in low temperature polymer thick film products has become apparent due to the rise of the printed electronics market. The specifications for these products are becoming more demanding with expectations that the low temperature products should perform at a level that is typically reserved for their high temperature counterparts; including solderability with lead free solders, high reliability and strong adhesion. Traditionally, it has only been possible to use leaded solders for soldering to polymer based thick film conductors. Over the last 15 years environmental concerns and legislation have pushed the industry towards a lead free approach. The shift to lead free solders, while beneficial, provides new challenges during processing. The high temperatures required for a lead-free soldering process yield a naturally harsher environment for polymer thick film pastes. In the past these conditions have proven too harsh for the pastes to survive. The polymer thick film discussed in this document aims to address some of these concerns for a highly reliable and easy to process polymer thick film paste. Due to the poor leaching characteristics of polymer thick films, at elevated temperatures, the predecessors of this paste typically soldered at low temperatures with leaded solders. The goal of this paper is to present a low temperature paste that is compatible with a variety of substrates and readily accepts lead-free solder. This paper will discuss a newly formulated low temperature curing (150°C – 200°C) RoHS and REACH compliant paste that shows excellent solderability with SAC305 solder. The paste was evaluated using a dip soldering method at 235°C–250°C on a variety of substrates. The data presented includes solder acceptance, adhesion data, thermal analysis and SEM analysis.
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Jordan, Manfred. "Lead-free tin alloys—laboratory curiosities or capable processes?" Metal Finishing 101, no. 1 (January 2003): 8–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0026-0576(03)80004-1.
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Li, Zhuang, Di Wu, and Wei Lv. "Low Environmental Impact Machining Processes of Free Cutting Austenitic Stainless Steels without Lead Addition." Advanced Materials Research 512-515 (May 2012): 1923–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.512-515.1923.
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Environmental protection is a growing concern for many industries today. This paper shows manufacturing environmental performance improvement for free cutting steel products. Inclusions have the characteristics of sulfur and bismuth in free cutting austenitic stainless steels without lead addition. Machinable additives lead to improved chip breakage, and thus reduced tool wear. The machinability of free cutting austenitic stainless steels without lead addition is much better than that of conventional austenitic stainless steel. Bismuth can replace lead because lead is a harmful factor for environment and machine operators' health. The reduction of environmentally harmful substances such as lead was performed. A feasible combination of free-cutting additives should yield a stainless steel product with acceptable machining and mechanical properties.
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Landon, James, Lindsay Boehme, Alan Rassoolkhani, Collin Dunn, Jeffrey Rentschler, Elliott Rushing, and Cameron Lippert. "Design of Electrochemical Cells for Targeted Metals Removal Using Carbon Electrodes." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, no. 27 (October 9, 2022): 1048. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-02271048mtgabs.
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Selective separations are needed in a wide variety of industrial and commercial applications where discharge to publicly owned treatment works (POTW) requires certain metals concentrations to be sufficiently low to protect public health and the surrounding environment. Metals such as lead (Pb), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), and cadmium (Cd) represent a non-exhaustive list of compounds requiring removal for discharge regulations. Typically, coagulants such as iron and aluminum combined with precipitation chemistry or ion exchange processes are used to meet these regulations.1 However, these methods are not particularly selective and can produce sizable sludge waste that must be disposed of properly. Size-selective membranes are one alternative approach, but the pretreatment requirements for these membranes further complicates the water treatment process. Capacitive deionization (CDI) is an emerging water treatment option as well with notable advances in recent years, but it currently lacks the selectivity needed for many industrial streams.2 Therefore, alternative methods are being sought to realize these separations. The use of electrochemical processes offers a number of benefits such as a defined interface for interaction with the metal of interest, the ability to modulate the interface easily and quickly through changes in localized voltage, use of the electrical current to monitor system conditions, and the in situ generation of chemical species that can aid in the separation. Of particular interest in a wide variety of industrial applications is the removal or Cu from water being discharged to the POTW. Cu is found in waste streams emanating from electroplating, electronics, semiconductor, and battery manufacturing operations. While coagulation approaches mentioned above can often be used to meet effluent regulations, metal recovery through an electrochemical process can be highly effective and efficient, reaching current efficiencies in excess of 95% in many applications. The ability to plate Cu at a cathode under highly localized conditions affords the removal of Cu down to levels <100 ppb. Electrowinning has been used for over a century in the creation of purified metals such as Cu, so the concept is not entirely new, but the design of electrode materials and overall cell construction capable of removing Cu to such low concentrations in streams that have conductivities <1 mS/cm opens up new avenues for water treatment in industrial and commercial waste. In this talk, electrochemical cell design and operation as well as feed water conditions will be reviewed towards the development of selective metal removal technologies. Copper removal will be highlighted as an example, but the concept will also be applied to other metals of interest, demonstrating the more ubiquitous nature of the approach. References: Azimi, A. Azari, M. Rezakazemi and M. Ansarpour, Removal of Heavy Metals from Industrial Wastewaters: A Review, ChemBioEng Reviews, 4, 37-59 (2017). Gao, A. Omosebi, J. Landon, and K. Liu, Energy Environ. Sci., 8 (3), 897-909 (2015). Boehme, C. Lippert, and J. Landon. “Faradaic Porosity Cell.” U.S. Patent 16/520,340 & PCT/US2019/043129, filed July 23, 2019. Figure 1