Journal articles on the topic 'Leaders Leadership Employees Social skills'

Current research indicates that the complexities of organisations require a new focus on collegial leadership and the creation of a sense of community in which leadership is shared. Collegiality forms the backbone of shared leadership. Leadership, as a social skill, makes people respect and follow others and is identified by emotional intelligence (EI) factors such as attitude, confidence, respect for others, and trustworthiness. EI is not a replacement for on the job skills and intelligent task-related logical thinking, but it adds to the variety of skills that enable and empower leaders to develop their employees through the enhancement of their social skills. A survey was conducted among 474 employees with the purpose of the exploratory study being to determine employees perceptions of their leaders social skills. Six social skills formed the basis of this investigation; namely, leadership characteristics, communication, conflict management, relationships, empathy, and trust. Both Pearson r and Spearman ? indicate that the two variables; namely, the job satisfaction of workers and the social skills of leaders rated by the respondents, are significant and therefore directly related. The findings of this exploratory study confirm that the more satisfied a worker is, the higher a leaders social skills are likely to be. Conversely, the more dissatisfied an employee is, the lower a leaders social skills are likely to be. However, this data must be interpreted in terms of the social skills of leaders as being one of the major factors affecting the job satisfaction of workers.

Research on leadership over the past two decades suggests that the emotional intelligence of leaders matters twice as much as that of cognitive abilities, such as IQ or technical expertise. Emotionally intelligent leaders experience a greater sense of well-being, improved relationships, happier employees and lower employee turnover, better team work, greater job satisfaction and a greater degree of success. Four hundred and seventy four employees participated in this study. The quantitative research method was used to examine the employees perceptions of their leaders emotionally intelligent personal and social skills on their job satisfaction. Findings in this study strongly suggest that collegial leaders demonstrate high levels of EI and collegiality in the working environment. These collegial leaders are equipped with personal and social skills which they use to contribute to the happiness and job satisfaction of their workers. Integral to the success and development of the collegial process is that employees feel that they are being nurtured in an open, warm and sincere environment. Clearly, a leader who demonstrates appropriate levels of emotionally intelligent personal and social skills will not only create a collegial working environment but will also thrive in one. The evidence emanating from this exploratory study confirms that there is a symbiotic relationship between emotional intelligence and collegial leadership. The emotionally intelligent collegial leader is a concept that extends far beyond a slogan and must become an integral part of organizational effectiveness and reform. It is inconceivable to speak about collegial leadership in the absence of emotional intelligence.

Purpose – Employees want to be supported to do their best work, but not every leader is comfortable or motivated to serve an employee’s “soft, emotional” needs. One key to help leaders become servant leaders is connecting serving others to their own values (even if “serving others” is not a value). Two assessments provided the framework for understanding this link between servant leadership attributes and the leader’s values. A case study demonstrates this link within a healthcare system where these tools helped develop servant leadership skills to support employee performance. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach – The authors used a servant leadership competency assessment and values assessment with leaders in a healthcare organization. By citing several leadership experts, and explaining how values relate to servant leadership behaviors, the authors offer a way to help leaders understand that anyone can improve their success with servant leadership. Findings – By offering two case studies of anonymous yet actual participants in the study the authors show how leaders gained insights they needed to change their habits in working with others. Research limitations/implications – The research results are from two distinct assessments. Researchers are encouraged to test the proposed propositions further with other similar assessments. Practical implications – The paper includes implications for the development of a leader’s servant leadership behaviors, which in turn supports employee engagement and organizational success. Social implications – In today’s age of mass technology, it has become a unique proposition to relate to others on the basis of serving their needs by relating to their values one-on-one. This paper inherently promotes in-person conversation with “soft” skills such as, listening, empathy, appreciation, and kindness. Originality/value – This paper fulfills an identified need to study how servant leadership behaviors can be improved by using a second tool focused on values.

This study examines employee perspectives of leader behavior to better understand how these perspectives influence and shape employee work experiences. Creating empowering work environments in today’s workplace is an ongoing challenge for leaders and managers. Research has shown that leaders who work to build interpersonal relationships with workplace subordinates are using emotional intelligence (EI) to lead individuals to work more effectively, and thereby increase overall job satisfaction. We employed a qualitative descriptive design using in-depth interviews to elicit and explore managers’ perceptions of their leader’s behaviors and their own sense of empowerment in the workplace. We present the findings within two major categories: perception of leader’s behavior and feelings of empowerment. This study adds to the body of evidence that demonstrates how the use of leadership skills that focus on the EI construct is necessary to build relationships and empower employees, thus creating conditions for creativity in the workplace.

Employees are important assets of an organization. Therefore, the employee engagement in teamwork is extremely vital for long-term organizational development. Good managers need excellent leadership skills. However, as the COVID-19 pandemic rapidly spreads around the world, many countries implemented strategies to avoid infection, such as working from home, isolation of infected people from others, and 14 days of self-quarantine. These strategies impact the trust, communal relationships, and social exchange relationships among organizational employees. However, communal and social exchange relationships are necessary for organizational leadership, and they are considered as the basis of social networks. The trust, communal relationships, social exchange relationships, and leadership in an organization are an interesting issue, particularly in the COVID-19 time, since the role of leaders is very crucial for maintaining organizational sustainability. The main objective of this study is to investigate the impact of COVID-19 on leadership in organizations based on trust, communal relationships, and social exchange relationships. The study employed correlation analysis to explore the interrelationships between variables. The 220 samples collected consisted of basic, middle, and high managers of organizations. The findings show that COVID-19 impacted organizational leadership. COVID-19 (F1) and (F2) factors integrated with each variable: (1) trust, (2) communal relationships, and (3) social exchange relationships created a stronger relationship between trust and leadership, communal relationships and leadership, and also social exchange relationship and leadership in organizations. On the contrary, Covid-19 (F3) factors integrated with each variable: (1) trust, (2) communal relationships, and (3) social exchange relationships decreased a relationship between trust and leadership, communal relationships and leadership, and also social exchange relationships and leadership in organizations. These results can help CEOs in organizations to perceive what factors have a positive impact or a negative impact on leadership in organizations in order to improve their leadership skills, even post COVID-19. The managerial implications are that (1) leaders need good communication skills to share true information with empathy and optimism and (2) leaders need to be thoughtful and capable to handle change in uncertain situations ethically.

This research is qualitative in nature that draws findings from various literatures in relation to global business leadership and cross-cultural management. This is an initial effort to identify the essence of leadership skills for global business leaders to face current and future challenges.
 In global business including technological innovation, and demographic change, companies must seek effective leadership for diverse organizational management. Leadership in global environmental conditions that seeks to involve cultural awareness, global mindset, effective interpersonal skills, and leader-employee relations and the need to develop leadership skills. There are eleven important skills identified for global business leaders that are effective in developing diverse locations.
 These skills are useful for growing employee potential, improving overall organizational performance, taking social responsibility, and cross-cultural human relations. So global business leaders need to continually update effective knowledge, skills and abilities in developing cross-cultural work and management environments, to be able to compete in the global market. Global business management and human resource development will be very useful by exploring empirically the essence of leader skills. In the future this strategy will be very beneficial for global business leadership practices.
 

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the effect of servant leadership on followers’ subjective career success and the mediating role of career skills. The moderating effect of followers’ proactive personality is also investigated. Design/methodology/approach This paper collected two-wave matched data from 283 employees of an IT company. The authors use hierarchical regression and bootstrapping to test the hypotheses. Findings Servant leadership has a positive effect on career satisfaction and perceived employability through career skills. In addition, proactive personality moderates the association between servant leadership and career skills, such that the relationship is stronger when proactive personality is high. Proactive personality also moderates the indirect effect of servant leadership on career satisfaction and perceived employability. Practical implications The findings suggest that organizations should select and train leaders to practice servant leadership to enhance employee subjective career success. Originality/value This is the first study to investigate the mechanism and boundary conditions of the association between servant leadership and employee subjective career success.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the concept of service learning and the use of volunteer organizations as a means for members to learn and hone leadership skills that can be transferred to their full-time corporate positions. Design/methodology/approach A qualitative study incorporating a phenomenological design was utilized to interview 30 past presidents of two volunteer organizations in Florida, Junior League and the Masonic Fraternity. The goal was to explore the participants’ thoughts and experiences related to transferable leadership skill development. Findings Emerging themes confirmed that accepting leadership roles within volunteer organizations is conducive to learning, testing, and evaluating new methods of leadership and skill enhancement. These skill sets can then be transferred and applied to different corporate settings. Practical implications Organizational leaders should consider the value-added benefits of encouraging employees to become involved in volunteer organizations and accepting leadership roles. This not only promotes good corporate social responsibility, but provides the employee with leadership skill development, which may ultimately benefit the firm. Originality/value Participants belonging to two separate volunteer organizations presented viewpoints regarding the value of volunteer organizations in developing and honing transferable leadership skills. Previous research has not addressed direct skill transference from leadership experiences in volunteer organizations and therefore, this research is unique in its contribution to the literature.

This paper is dealing with a very sensitive aspect of today’s environment within an entity: the Leadership and the new challenges of the new trends, ideas, and realities regarding the human factor, both from both the viewpoint of the management and the employees. The aim of the research is to analyze the role of the Leadership within corporate activities, different from what is known today by the syntagma “politically correctness”. An analysis of the literature in this domain based upon empirical observations through our own practice experiences leads to the verdict that, in this case, the corporate Leadership must be fair, as balanced as possible, empathic and pursuing the main goal(s) of the entity or organization, i.e., using skills and abilities to capacitate all employees, regardless of their gender, religion, beliefs, looks to reach the goal(s) in the benefit of corporation/organization, but also in the benefit of the employees and the environment. The methodological tools of the study are analytical and comparative methods, methods of logical generalization and scientific abstraction. Based on the analysis, it was concluded that the new approaches in theory of the firm are based on the qualities of the CEOs, how must be the behavior of the leaders, the importance of X and Y Economic models and, even, the impact of social and psychological aspects on Economics. In fact, it’s about the humanization of the entire management and the well-functioning of the entity is necessary to be based on human factors, but in a such manner, by training, by motivation, in order to capacitate all staff, all employees, no matters differences, to obtain the goals established and to gain benefits both for employees, management and for the firm/corporation in its relationships with the internal environment, but also with the natural and business environments. The results obtained can be useful for the owners of the enterprise and HR managers in terms of understanding the importance of leadership qualities in the successful functioning of the company and the formation of an understanding of the advisability of attracting a leader to work in various positions within the organization. Keywords: leadership, entity, emotional intelligence, social skills, politically correctness, modus vivendi.

Leadership in organizational behavior can be impact of humanity in Goverrment Sector., tourism, service sector. Communication style in the organization is very important and also key forces in providing employees with job satisfaction, humanity and communication skills. When employees do not get satisfaction from their jobs, morale drops an absences and lateness increases. Any person just follow instruction from a leader behavior and subordinates even the step, instruction good job, take action for respontibilities from communication transaction by interpersonal. Even the staff followers support for leaders is enhanced when their decisions affirm a distinct social identity that is shared with followers. Participants showed less support for a leader who favored in group members who were relatively sympathetic to an out group position than for one who favored in group members who opposed an out group position. A social constructionist view is highlighted. I clarify some of the assumptions of this approach, contrasting them with those of a more leader-centered perspective. In an effort to increase the testability of this approach, In outline a general model, paving the way for generating individual and group-level hypotheses, and discuss implications for practice and for future leadership research

Using social learning theory, the job demands-resources model and idiosyncrasy credit theory, the present study casts additional light on the explanatory mechanisms underlying the effects of service leadership on service performance. We examine employee work engagement as an important mediator of this relationship and explore the moderating role of leader task-based professional and managerial skills on the indirect relationship between service leadership and service performance via work engagement. Drawing upon 903 leader–follower dyads nested in 187 teams, with data collected from two sources, we find that after controlling for transformational leadership, follower work engagement mediates the relationship between service leadership and follower service performance. Furthermore, the results support the moderating role of leader task-based professional skills, but not of managerial skills. Specifically, the indirect effect of service leadership on service performance via work engagement is stronger when leaders display high levels of task-based professional skills. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Purpose The purpose of the article is to demonstrate the value that human resource (HR) can provide in the effectiveness of leaders and managers. Design/methodology/approach Two complementary Towers Watson studies – the 2014 Global Workforce Study (GWS) of over 32,000 employees, and the 2014 Global Talent Management & Rewards Study (TM&R) of 1,637 organizations – formed the research basis for the article. The TM&R study was fielded from April to June 2014 in 31 markets around the world and includes responses from 1,637 participating organizations in a range of industries. The GWS covers some 32,000 employees from a population of full-time employees working in large- and mid-sized organizations across a range of industries in 26 markets around the world. It was fielded online during April and May 2014. Findings A key role of HR is ensuring that the organization has the right people performing well in leadership roles at all levels. This means HR must focus attention in five key areas: job architecture, incumbent assessment, performance definition, recognition for success and building leadership capacity. It is also up to HR to dispel the notion that “soft skills” should be subordinate to “hard skills”, which are often seen as more important. In fact, soft skills are usually more difficult to master and, in our opinion, are more important – they are what leaders need to maximize performance from others. Research limitations/implications Different observers assign a variety of roles to the HR function. These range from compliance enforcer and data administrator to strategic partner and culture creator. The author believes that HR’s most important role may well be ensuring that the organization has an ample supply of leadership and management capability at every level of the enterprise. It is leaders, who envision the future and help people generate the motivation to go there, and managers, who see to it that systems, assets and processes serve their purposes efficiently, who enable the enterprise to make the most of each employee’s contribution. Practical implications In a world where technology evolution, demographic shifts and social change are rewriting the rules of the workplace, the author can expect that the role of the HR function will also continue to change. What should not change, however, is the contribution that HR makes toward building and preserving the organization’s leadership and management capacity. In this article, the author makes the case that, despite the many shifts taking place in the business terrain, HR should remain focused on this fundamental goal, acting as ally, trusted advisor and coach. Originality/value The value of this article is to provide strategic and practical advice on how HR can influence manager and leader effectiveness.

As world communication, technology, and trade become increasingly integrated through globalization, multinational corporations seek employees with global leadership skills. However, the demand for these skills currently outweighs the supply. Given the rarity of globally ready leaders, global competency development should be emphasized in business education programs. Global leadership competence requires moving beyond the cognitive domain of learning to create socially responsible and culturally connected global leaders. This requires greater attention to understanding the impact of specific learning methods, the dynamics between them, and their effect on intended outcomes. A new conceptual model, the Global Leadership Development Ecosystem, was introduced in this study to test the impact of learning methods in developing global leadership competencies. It was based on four theories of learning including cognitive, social, experiential, and humanist. This study quantitatively tested the model using PASW statistics software, and hierarchical regression showed the individual effect of each development method and their combined effect on graduate student scores on the Global Mindset Inventory assessment. The analysis revealed that each methodology played a distinct and important role in developing different competencies of global leadership. This model provides a useful framework for global leadership development in higher education business programs.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore the way leadership influences an organization to become humane through its features and behaviors; as well as the organizational circumstances in which humane leadership can be nurtured. The first empirical case study, in the fields of Human Resource Development (HRD) and hospitality management, to explore the way employees from different national cultures (as measured by their individualistic/collectivistic values), in a US-based hotel, perceive their workplace to be a humane organization (HO), as defined by Chalofsky (2008), was the one made by Dimitrov (2009, 2010). More specifically, the example set by leadership in the studied hospitality organization is the focus of the present descriptive manuscript. The importance of HRD concepts such as the HO for the academic study and practical development of leadership in organizations is significant, through the effects leadership has on employee satisfaction and engagement at the workplace. Design/methodology/approach – The exploratory research mentioned above used a single embedded case study with 17 participants, selected via purposeful convenience sampling, who represented management, supervisory and professional line-level employees from a culturally diverse full-service hotel in a major metropolitan area. The instrument of Singelis et al. (1995) for horizontal and vertical individualism (I) and collectivism (C), as well as the instrument of Triandis and Singelis (1998) for I and C, was applied to every respondent to determine their cultural belonging. One-on-one interviews, written reflections and documentary analysis, as well as observations of the social and physical aspects of the participants’ workplace, were conducted. Findings – Five leadership sub-themes were observed to the general theme “Setting the Example” of the study’s findings: company values for leadership styles and employee treatment; the legacy of one charismatic leader (the previous general manager); leader–follower communication; how the workplace feels intrinsically; and how the work environment becomes negative. The study led to the formation of two new characteristics of the HO (Dimitrov, 2009), of which one could be recommended as the main focus of leadership in an HO: being cognizant and understanding of individuals as human beings, not just as employees. The traits and behaviors of some modern leadership theories such as authentic leadership, transformational leadership and charismatic leadership were combined under the concept – humane leadership. Research limitations/implications – The research of more culturally diverse organizations in different counties, brand cultures and economic sectors, under various research methodologies, and in the context of classical and recent leadership theories, was recommended to establish further weather I and C employees’ expectations of their leadership would make a difference for the sustenance of an HO. Practical implications – Furthermore, organizations and HRD practitioners are encouraged to invest more time, efforts and resources into leadership development programs that create such humane leadership skills and prepare quality leaders who are well-perceived and trusted by their culturally diverse workforce. Originality/value – The importance of HRD concepts such as the HO for the academic study and practical development of leadership in organizations is significant, through the effects leadership has on employee satisfaction and engagement at the workplace. Humane leaders can be nurtured in a humane organizational culture.

From the perspective of a hierarchically ordered company, the expectations of company leaders concerning their employees' necessary competencies play a greater role than vice versa. This paper light on the expectations of leaders and sub-leaders of micro-, small and medium-sized enterprises concerning the competencies of employees in neighbouring parts of Hungary and Slovakia.The authors' collected 28 scientific papers on the issue of communication competencies in order to map out 21 "common denominators" derived from the combined competence lists. A survey was conducted with 222 respondents to measure the subjective importance assigned to these traits and to observe the respondents' attitudes towards the effectiveness of communication training programmes they had participated in. On the Hungarian side, speech competence proved to be the most crucial competence for business leaders, followed by attention/reflection and interpersonal communication skills. In Slovakia, persuasion was reported to be the most crucial trait, the second most important is the application of confirmation and feedback, and the third is speech competence. In terms of the participants' past communication training experiences, the competences of group communication, assertiveness and leadership skills were reported to have been the main areas of focus. The findings indicate that overall satisfaction with communication training programmes depends on neither the amount of participants' leadership experience nor the companies' field(s) of activity, nor the nationality (i.e. the venue) of the companies. The overall satisfaction rate is 2.53 on a four-grade scale among those who ever attended communication training programmes.

Emotional Intelligence is play a vital role to decide leadership excellence. So this paper to study the impact of emotional intelligence on leadership excellence of executive employee in public sector organization.Hence the objective of this research is to identify the impact of emotional intelligence on leadership excellence of executive employee in Public Sector Organization in Ampara districtof Sri Lanka.emotional intelligence includes the verbal and non-verbal appraisal and expression of emotion, the regulation of emotion in the self and others, and the utilization of emotional content in problem solving. Cook (2006)[1]. Emotional intelligence is one of the essential skill for leaders to manage their subordinate. Accordingly although there is some research done under “Emotional intelligence on leadership excellence of the executive employee in the public organization in Ampara district so this study full filed the gap. Based on the analysis, Self-awareness, Self-management, Social-awareness and Relationship management are the positively affect to the Leadership excellence. So, executive employees should consider about the Emotions of their subordinators when they completing their targets. leaders should pay the attention for recognize the situation, hove to impact their feelings for the performance & recognized their own feelings. Leaders should consider and see their own emotions when they work with others by listening carefully, understand the person by asking questions, identifying non-verbal expressions and solving problems without helming someone’s. Leadersshould consider their subordinators emotions when they find a common idea, government should give to moderate freedom to executive employees in public organization to take the decision with competing the private sector organizations.

As millennial workers enter and dominate the global workforce by 2025, understanding their leadership styles is vital to bring about higher level of performance and productivity in the workplace. The Millennials, the next generation of leaders, are entering the workforce and assuming leadership positions in a relatively short period. More often, they found themselves leading employees that are older than themselves and yet their leadership traits and styles are not fully understood. The study explores factors affecting leadership styles of millennial managers and how they are manifested and applied in managing and resolving conflict involving older subordinates. Using a qualitative approach, it employs interviews, participant observation, and prolonged engagement with four millennial managers from the National Food Authority in the Philippines as they lead, manage, and interact with their older staff. Data collected were triangulated by document analysis and interview of the millennial managers’ subordinates themselves. The results of the study show that the participants’ leadership competencies are in the early stages of development. The participants consider building good impression and rapport highlighting the importance of soft skills in leadership, strong sense of respect, reverse mentoring, delegation of tasks, and the ability to handle expectations and performance as factors in managing older employees. This study draws the attention to examining the leadership attributes and potentials of Filipino millennial managers in the context of Philippine workplace culture using insights from Public Administration, Social Sciences, and Psychology.

PurposeEntrepreneurial leadership has been developed from the existing leadership and entrepreneurship literature as a new leadership theory to meet the dynamic changes in the 21st century. Accordingly, the main purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of entrepreneurial leadership on employee creativity and the mediating influence of psychological empowerment and psychological safety, with the lens of social learning theory.Design/methodology/approachData were collected from the manufacturing sector of Pakistan with a sample size of 280 dyads of managers and employees. A two-step analytical strategy was adopted through which the measurement model was validated by using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling to estimate the structural model to fit the data. The bootstrapping method was applied for testing the mediation analysis.FindingsThe current study found that entrepreneurial leadership positively related to employee creativity. Moreover, it was found that psychological empowerment and psychological safety mediated the relationships between entrepreneurial leadership and employee creativity.Research limitations/implicationsThe findings of the current study provide guidance to managers and businessmen on how to develop the creative skills of employees by adopting entrepreneurial leadership behaviors. Besides, this study enriches the literature by exploring the performance mechanism of entrepreneurial leadership to develop employee creativity.Originality/valueThe current study is considered the first to examine the role of entrepreneurial leaders in stimulating employee creativity through psychological safety and psychological empowerment. As such, it enriches the creativity literature by exploring the employee creativity mechanism through entrepreneurial leadership and validating the importance of psychological factors in the development of creativity compared to previous studies, which have focused primarily on the concept or scale development of entrepreneurial leadership. Furthermore, it provides several theoretical and managerial implications along with future opportunities.

Purpose – This paper aims to describe how Birla creates a strong pipeline of people who are ready to lead the organization in the future. Design/methodology/approach – It explains the origins of the group’s global-manufacturing leadership program (GMLP), the form it takes and the results it has achieved. Findings – It reveals that the program aims to shape the manufacturing leaders of tomorrow through exposing them to world-class technologies and processes, state-of-the-art research and continuous learning and development opportunities. Practical implications – It reveals that of the five GMLP candidates recruited in 2011, three have become independent unit heads, one in China and two in India. Social implications – It outlines the company belief that retaining and developing the skills of its existing workforce is at least as important as importing new talent when faced with increasing competition and growing pressure to cut costs in its main markets. Originality/value – It demonstrates that the program is designed to ensure that each participant is able to understand and anticipate customer needs, influence colleagues without too openly expressing authority and develop and communicate the company’s long-term vision.

The phenomenon of gender leadership is a controversial object in contemporary leadership studies. These days, the possibilities of traditional leadership have been limited by the ongoing dynamic, global changes, which have influenced the emergence of female leadership as an independent phenomenon and its separation from the male leadership. Presently, possibilities exist to form new insights about gender leadership. Scholars have begun an intense scientific discussion on the advantages and disadvantages of male and female leadership. The goal of this paper is to disclose the social and emotional leadership competencies of different gender employees. The employed research methods are as follows: an analysis and synthesis of scientific literature with the aim of revealing the peculiarities of gender leadership and defining leadership as a set of social and emotional competencies; quantitative research conducted using a questionnaire-based survey with the aim of empirically determining the manifestation of social and emotional leadership competencies in terms of gender leadership. The theoretical analysis allows us to identify the fundamental trends of gender leadership research. The empirical basis of this article comprises the results of empirical research carried out in 2018. The paper includes an abstract of the theoretical research of gender leadership and the social and emotional leadership competencies based on the research methodology and the results received. According to the results of the empirical research, it is possible to find matching assessments of social and emotional leadership competencies in men and women; certain significant differences exist as well. These results revealed which of the advantages possessed by female leaders tend to lie in their soft management skills: interaction, trust, as well as relationships and skills in working with people.

Purpose This paper aims to highlight the importance of organizational culture on the leader’s style and the effect of the chosen leadership style on the team’s performance. It surveys a strata of leaders from the Middle East in the current turbulent environment. Design/methodology/approach A research paper based on a quantitative data collection in the service sector from a large number of stratified sampled firms and respondents. Findings The cross-sectional data from 40 service companies reveal some interesting results highlighting the interrelationships between these three variables. The findings suggest that managers need to build on this concept finding in providing further training and development of employees’ skills in addition to an organizational culture of acceptance, adaptation and diversity. Research limitations/implications Electing to use a specific set of criteria in sampling might have resulted in eliminating a meaningful different direction in the results. Moreover, the size of the survey tool limited the number of variables to test with the study. Practical implications A number of implications are worthy of mention. First, devising reward programmes that are fairly attractive to both genders independently of each other should be a managerial priority, along with the creation and development of strong organizational cultures. Social implications Finally, a coupled performance and organizational culture of efficiency at the workplace, if not paralleled with a proper leadership style that fosters positive results, will only result in partial improvements in the big organizational picture, resulting in the persistence of the old prejudice and discrimination along the gender and age lines. Originality/value The study examines a suggested model in a new environment that is known to be deeply rooted in old-fashioned paternalistic managerial behaviour, and where change, if occurring, is extremely slow to introduce.

Purpose To effectively develop leaders, human resources and career development professionals need an effective method of determining leadership skill levels. For example, sending a novice leader to training meant for experts would likely be ineffective and frustrating for both the instructor and individual. Promoting a novice leader to a position requiring expert leadership skills could be disastrous. The purpose of this study was to determine if the Dreyfus (2004) model of skills acquisition could be applied to general leadership. Design/methodology/approach A total of 124 surveys were collected from five employers. Participants self-assessed their leadership skill level from novice to expert using Dreyfus level descriptions in 18 leadership self-efficacy dimensions identified by Anderson, Krajewski, Goffin and Jackson (2008). For comparison, leadership self-efficacy (LSE) was also measured with a self-assessment of proficiency in 88 specific leadership and management behaviors also identified in the Anderson et al. (2008) study. Findings Pearson correlation coefficient computations between total LSE and average Dreyfus level dimensions reported a strong positive correlation [r (124) = 0.644, p < 0.001] between total leadership self-efficacy and the average participant Dreyfus level self-assessments in each of the 18 leadership self-efficacy dimensions. Of the 18 LSE dimensions participants assessed their skill levels, 4 were found to be significant predictors of LSE [F (4,119) = 67.6887, p < 0.001] with an R2 = 0.482. Predicted leadership self-efficacy is equal to 187.14 + 16.327 (Project Credibility) + 8.046 (Mentor) + 6.971 (Build) + 9.342 (Solve). Research limitations/implications The majority of the individuals in the sample in this research study were from one employer, a local college (n = 88). The entire sample was from one small, somewhat isolated community. The majority of this sample was female (n = 81, 65 per cent) and white (n = 118, 95.2 per cent). A larger and more diverse sample may provide differing results. It also possible that other factors affected overall LSE, but using that score as a comparison, a clear correlation was shown between LSE and Dreyfus levels. Practical implications Based on the results of this study an individual who self-categorizes his or her leadership skill as novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient or expert is likely correct. Should the findings of this study prove generalizable, an individual’s perceived leadership skill level could be closely approximated with a simple, four-item instrument. Originality/value The concept of leadership levels has appeared in many studies and popular press publications. However, quantifying leadership skill levels or determining an individual’s leadership level has not been often addressed. This study attempts to apply a skills acquisition model and apply it to general leadership. The results appear to show that leadership levels can be quantified and accurately self-determined. This study also attempted to validate a leadership self-efficacy model.

ABSTRACTThis research aims to analyze and study the principal's leadership style in improving teacher performance at SD Negeri Kintelan 2 Yogyakarta. This research is qualitative descriptive research. Data collection methods used are observation and interviews. The result of this research is that the principal at SD Negeri Kintelan 2 Yogyakarta has a very good and collective leadership style. The principal at SD Negeri Kintelan 2 has a democratic leadership style, can embrace educators and employees in improving teacher performance, learning quality, and good learning quality quickly, and understands constantly evaluating and correcting deficiencies at SD Negeri Kintelan 2 Yogyakarta with appropriate strategies and methods. fit. To be a good leader, there must be factors that influence the attitude of a leader, including; factors of knowledge or leadership skills, environment, behavior or personality, and social. To become a leader who has good qualities, a school principal must have leadership skills, harmonious ties and cooperation, and a good environment.Keywords: Leadership Style, Principal, Teacher Performance

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to discuss the strategies to promote a culture of professional learning within an Australian academic library. As the COVID-19 experience has shown new and evolving roles require skills, knowledge and abilities that current library employees may not have trained for. One framework which supports continuous professional development and employee motivation is the concept of a learning organisation, where staff across all levels of the library acknowledge the value of continuous learning and autonomously engage in activities to keep their skills up to date and relevant.Design/methodology/approachThe article is a case study of a three-year period of interventions and outcomes in an Australian academic library.FindingsThe strategies discussed provide insights for library managers and leaders about how organisational change can be incrementally embedded through clarity of purpose, aligned leadership, transparent processes, self-determination and social learning.Research limitations/implicationsThe case study examines a single institution.Originality/valueThe paper provides practical strategies and examples from the case study of one university library which has successful embedded workplace learning as a regular and accepted part of staff routines.

This issue focuses on Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) and its influence on performance of employees in various organizational settings. The first three articles reinforce the fact that OCB is critical to organizations and do influence a number of output variables, thus increasing overall organizational effectiveness. The fourth article explores systematically foreign exchange in the Indian IT Sector. OCB over the last four decades has received a lot of attention and has contributed considerably to the literature of Psychology and Management. Individuals who make up organizations exhibit a range of behaviours from just maintaining affiliation to involving in extra role behaviour by going the extra mile for one’s own and the organization’s benefit. These discretionary behaviours not defined nor rewarded by organizations that go beyond job descriptions are termed OCB. These behaviours are positive for organizational sustainability and benefits both employees and managers. Sonam’s article on a mining company found positive relationship between leadership and OCB. Personality of employees and leadership was found to influence OCB. She recommends the use of personality tests in employee selection to increase the likelihood to exhibit OCB which will help improve organizational effectiveness. For leader to be effective there must be an adequate and reasonably well balanced development in areas such as thoroughness, fairness, communication and so on. Aditi, Sanjeela and Jain’s study focus on social expectations, desire for personal growth, values system, professional attitude, teaching methodology and skill’s effect on OCB of teachers in higher education. They found significant relationship between age and professional attitude, teaching methodology & skills, experience and value system, teaching methodology & skills, educational qualification and social expectation, desire for professional growth, value system and professional attitude. They suggest teachers to go beyond the syllabus, better work–life balance, faculty empowerment and a better remuneration as strategies for increased engagement and OCB.

Since 2003 the number of small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) has increased exponentially in Iraqi Kurdistan. To facilitate further growth the owners and chief executive officers of these enterprises have sought to improve their leadership skills. This study examined the effect of transactional and transformational leadership styles on organizational commitment and performance in Iraqi Kurdistan SMEs, and the mediating effect of organizational commitment in these relationships. We distributed 530 questionnaires and collected 400 valid responses (75% response rate) from 115 SME owners/chief executive officers and 285 employees. The results demonstrate there were positive effects of both types of leadership style on organizational performance. Further, the significant mediating effect of organizational commitment in both relationships shows the importance of this variable for leader effectiveness among entrepreneurs in Iraqi Kurdistan, and foreign entrepreneurs engaging in new businesses in the region.

Purpose The purpose of this study is to explore how an authentic leader’s internal (self-regulation, self-awareness and internalised moral perspective) and external competencies (relational transparency and balance processing) influence nepotism, favouritism and cronyism (NFC). Design/methodology/approach The study used a quantitative research approach and respondents were sampled from private and public banks across the ten regions of Ghana using survey questionnaires. Overall, 127 branch managers and 997 subordinates were sampled. The collected data were analysed using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, and multiple regression was used to explore the influence the of authentic leadership (AL) competences on NFC. Findings On leader’s internal competences, the results revealed that self-awareness had a significant decreasing influence on nepotism in terms of operations, while internalised moral perspective had a significant increasing influence on favouritism in the context of position. Self-regulation did not have any significant influence on NFC. Regarding the leader’s external competences, relational transparency had a significant positive influence on favouritism and nepotism, while balance processing had a significant negative influence on favouritism and nepotism in the context of position and operations, respectively. Research limitations/implications The results suggest that AL competences have a mixed influence on NFC in the context of this study. However, the findings are limited to Ghana and cannot be generalised to countries that do not share a similar culture with Ghana such as countries in Europe, North and South America, Asia and even certain countries in Africa. Practical implications The authors advise family businesses to use free and fair measures to appoint or promote employees who have the required skills to manage the office rather than appointing family members to positions without merit. Training on AL and NFC should be conducted for managers to enable them to understand the potential negative effects of NFC on the employees and the organisation at large. Social implications Laws must be passed to guard against appointments or recruitments of employees in the public sector organisations based on NFC to minimise these unethical behaviours. Originality/value This is the first study which empirically explores AL competences influence on the leaders’ behaviour in the context of NFC.

The paper presents comparative research on the representation of subjects within the study programs of three higher military educational institutions (Military Academy, University of Defense in Belgrade, University of Defense in Brno, Czech Republic, Royal Military School in Belgium), in order to strengthen their leadership competencies. The conducted comparative research was intended to contribute to predicting the future development of education of professional members of the armed forces, as part of the defense system in the field of leadership, especially because the comparison includes educational systems of countries with different social, economic, historical and social milieu. The aim of the paper in a broader sense was to try and decipher the dimensions of leadership of professional members of the defense system; in a narrower sense the aim was to determine the possibilities of developing leadership competencies through the system of military education provided through the study programs of the Military Universities in Serbia, Belgium and the Czech Republic. The main subject of this research is the leadership competencies of professional military personnel. We have defined the concept of leadership as one of the functions of management, which primarily refers to the influence of leaders on other employees, in order to achieve organizational and group goals. The notion of the necessary leadership competencies is defined as a function of knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to perform complex functions and roles of officers, which can be classified as systemic and interpersonal competencies. The problem of leadership in the defense system is complex due to the very nature and characteristics of the system itself. Precisely because of the significance of the topic, as well as the fact that this issue remains current and new, it is scientifically and professionally justified to dedicate attention to researching the problem of developing leadership competencies in the military educational system. Furthermore, given the fact that change has become a way of life inherent to every modern organization, the military ones included, new leadership competencies, necessary to perform complex functions and roles of defense system officers are required of the employees and therefore it is necessary to implement the concept of lifelong, permanent and continued education in order to meet the demands of the job set before professional military personnel.

Objective - This study aims to further explore how leadership training processes are perceived by various generations in an organization. In looking at this phenomenon we use the perspective of the Me generation who are currently attending a wide range of leadership training organized by their own organization as well as outside of the organization. It is expected that this understanding will provide an outline of how the process of leadership training can effectively change behaviour, improve competence, and advance individual's careers in the future. Methodology/Technique - This study uses a qualitative methodology and a case study with exploratory approach is chosen as the researchers have limited knowledge on the research area. In addition, a case study is a more in-depth study. The procedures of data analysis consist of three actions based on research by Miles and Huberman (1994) that occur instantly: data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion drawing. The findings of this study are a development of skills and expertise which is currently proposed for the security of one's career within an organization. Findings - With career security, the ability to work is increased and people are not limited to working in the same job. Employees have the opportunity to improve their skills and adapt to their working abilities in a changing environment. This will also improve the company's image, not only from the loyalty of their employees, but also in terms of the achievement of their goal, development of skills, motivation, productivity, and performance. Novelty - The empirical implications of this study are in line with the trait theory and contingency model. This proposes that a leader must have various attributes to be effective. Effective leadership is characterised by a number of traits such as cognitive abilities, social abilities, and integrated disposition tendencies. Type of Paper: Review. Keywords: Leadership Training Process; Gen-Me Perspectives; Case Study; Exploratory Approach; Career Security; Trait Theory; Contingency Model. JEL Classification: M50, M53, M59.

Purpose Leadership development practices develop future leaders for the organizations which are evidence for the proper utilization of organizational resources. The purpose of this paper is to integrate succession planning into the job demands–resources (JD–R) model to predict individual performance. Design/methodology/approach In total, 239 participants were drawn from commercial banks located in a large city of Pakistan through a structured questionnaire. The proposed model was tested through structural equation modeling. Findings The results from 239 participants suggest that succession planning has a direct and indirect effect on engagement and employee performance through the JD–R model. Furthermore, job resources and engagement mediate the association between succession planning and employee performance. Research limitations/implications The present study employed a cross-sectional approach, and all constructs were answered on a self-report questionnaire. Thus, the findings should be validated through a longitudinal design by employing a more objective construct. Practical implications The banks should adopt proactive succession system to improve individual and organizational performance. Succession planning helps the banks to reduce recruitment cost and promote internal hiring. This study supports the managerial decisions making by mobilizing skilled and talented employees in the sudden resignation of a bank employee. Social implications Succession planning seems an important development factor that directly improves employees’ well-being through the JD–R model. Originality/value The present study demonstrates the integration of the JD–R model into succession planning.

The main concepts and definitions of leadership and its styles differ in many ways. Thus; from one individual or position to the other. The word "leadership" is used in different circles of human endeavours, for example, in the political, business, academics, social and institutional spheres. In the early on, leadership was seen as a personal trait. The degree to which the individual exhibits leadership traits depends not only on his characteristics and personal abilities but also on the characteristics of the situation and environment in which he finds himself (Messick & Kramer, 2004). This study was conducted on the motivation that no country develops and succeeds better than the quality of the leaders who manage the educational system. This means that for a country to be successful, it depends largely on the quality of leadership that the school managers offer in the schools they manage in the development of skills and potential of the students for the country. The study employed a qualitative research method in the work. The data was collected from Adansi-South District in Ashanti Region in Ghana. Random purposive sampling procedures were adopted with a sample size of forty (40) respondents including heads of schools, teachers, and students. Data were collected through interviews, documentary reviews, and observations. They were analyzed through the use of content analysis technique and other renowned data software such as Excel, and SPSS 22 in the data computations. The findings and policy suggestions at the end of the research concluded that the autocratic leadership is useful if something has to be achieved in the short term and democratic leadership style is usually the most preferable in most situations. Participation leadership style is the most useful because it has a long term effect on employees in a more positive way. School heads who normally applied unreasonable laissez-faire and autocratic leadership styles failed in their schools’ goals, visions and missions implementations due to lack support and cooperation.

AbstractThe literature regarding the new organizational philosophies has constantly enriched and has approached the challenges related to the desire to increase the organizational sustainability. On this thematic background, in which is increasing the role of the decision makers who move the organizations from the place they are to where they should be, the issues such as the attitude, the organizational behavior, the positioning of the firm actor at the level of the leadership architecture becomes the priority topics. In the context in which specialists have more and more arguments to claim that a new techno-industrial paradigm has been advanced (one specific to the fourth industrial revolution) one can even speak of drivers that boost analysts from the academic environment but also from business and institutional decision makers to quantify the impact that progress can have on cognitive skills, aptitudes and abilities. A leader must hold the organization and guide its employees in a turbulent and uncertain environment. For this, it is necessary for them to develop a comprehensive vision on how technology affects the quality of life of their employees and how to reshape the economic, social, cultural environments at the macro level. The present paper aims to highlight the main challenges of leadership in relation to the fourth industrial revolution, but also what are the transformations through which it is necessary to undergo it for a good correlation of human capital with technological progress and moreover with those indicators that fall under the umbrella of quality of life. The focus is on new skills, creativity, innovation, so that new business models can be developed and applied in a constantly changing environment.

Purpose This research study uses authentic leadership (AL) model for leadership development. The purpose of this paper is to focus on the developmental perspective where the attention is on the processes. As the authenticity involves both owing one’s personal experiences and acting in accordance with one’s true self, the emphasis is on self-awareness and self-regulation. The influence of the person’s personal history and trigger events are considered as significant antecedents for generating AL. As the research was facilitated by the participation and collaboration of the number of individuals with the researcher for common purpose, i.e. developing AL, action research methodology is adopted. Design/methodology/approach The methodology used was based on the self-assessment exercises in the controlled environment. The programme used intensive counselling sessions, Neuro Linguistics programming (NLP), career autobiographies, mind maps, workshops and storytelling sessions as tools. Certified counsellors and trainers were out-sourced for conducting such sessions. With the information generated through various sources, detailed career autobiographies of students’ self-image were generated. These reports were then critically analysed on “Nvivo”, a software that supports qualitative and mixed research methods. Comprehensive data analysis was done to pull the information together and make sense of it. The development process model of AL began with how individuals interpret their accumulated life experiences with the “Who I am?” approach. NLP was used as a research instrument which involved question-based discussions, value elicitation exercise and “Anchoring and Mentor table”. The results that came after the exercises were reported by the students in a one-page autobiography. Findings The students learnt to live by their inner compass. They were finally able to relate themselves and their identity with their beliefs, thereby, understanding the term, “Who Am I”; the intentions closely related with the components of AL. Students realized that each one of them was unique. What lied beneath were exposed and the students were more at ease once they realized that they were able to balance these emotions and use them towards behaving congruently. The research concluded that doing such kind of exercises along with the main stream subjects is definitely going to help students emerge as a better person, employee and an authentic leader in the future. Practical implications The approach helped students become self-aware and self-confident and therefore enhanced their capacity to adapt positively to social set ups personally and professionally. The results suggest that such leadership development programmes along with the main stream subjects can foster AL giving students new abilities and embodied skills to deal with the practical challenges of life in a more effective manner. Originality/value This research study supports new emerging strategy of educating managers to become effective leaders and demonstrate that the development of AL can be fostered by such interventions during their journey of becoming leaders. Further, researches on whether AL can be developed through planned interventions can be certified through longitudinal studies in this area.


 The Status of Women in Leadership
 
 Tahani H. Alqahtani 
 PhD student, Management at Aberdeen University – Lecturer, College of Economics and Administrative Sciences at Imam Mohamed Ibn Saud University.
 
 Abstract
 Even though females have indeed entered jobs previously closed to them, many occupations remain as gender-gapped now as they were half a century ago. Gender-segregated employment patterns are so tenacious because, they are built into the very organizational fabric of work and the workplace. Descriptive stereotyping describes what men and women are like and prescriptive stereotyping defines defining what women and men should be like. This literature review provides a broad understanding of the gender differences in leadership and the gender gap in organization. This literature review founds that gender-segregated employment patterns are so tenacious because they are built into the very organizational fabric of work and the workplace.
 
 Introduction 
 The current literature concerning leadership from a variety of Eastern and Western countries highlights that, regardless of a recent global increase in the number of females entering the labour market, only a small number of professional women hold top management or leadership positions. In spite of the fact that the growth pattern of women in the labour force and their representation in leadership roles does differ across countries and regions, and although a number of women in leadership positions worldwide are making contributions both within and beyond their communities (Percupchick, 2011), the overarching observation can be made that a substantive gender gap exists in female’s representation in relation to leadership positions and decision-making across many sectors of society (Catalyst, 2016). Moreover, studies indicate that a large number of sometimes highly qualified women are choosing to step down from positions of authority and leave their careers (Rabas, 2013). This literature review provides a broad understanding of the gender differences in leadership and the gender gap in organization.
 
 Literature Review 
 Research has identified the reasons for the persistence of women having a less expressive presence in management and leadership positions (Acker, 1991; Kolb et al., 1998; Simpson, 2004; Williams, 2001; England, 2010; Kellerman and Rhodes, 2014; Gipson, et al., 2017). Among these, the existence of a male-normed corporate culture and organizational structure is posited as a formidable obstacle to female progress in the workplace. The literature abounds with evidence of the way organizational norms, values and structures, disadvantage females in their career advancement at the institutional level (Morrison, 2012; Keohane, 2014). Looking specifically at the field of academia, for Nguyen (2012), “Policies and process in higher education can act as barriers against women assuming leadership and management positions” (p. 127). Acker (1990) suggests the existence of an organizational attitude behind these gender contrasts as a result of organizational structure, rather than any differences held to exist in the characters of males and females. Goveas and Aslam (2011, p. 236) state that a further important factor with the potential to hinder female's opportunities for development consists of “the unavailability of structured human resource policies and strategies addressing women workers, [which] has proven to be a major obstacle to women’s progress and development”. Referring specifically to the field of educational management, for Sui Chu Ho (2015), “Gender inequalities in staff recruitment, appointment and promotion exist in educational institutions, such as universities” (p. 87). She goes on to note how this evidence and claim to support it are actually routinely dismissed, both by those in authority and the general public. 
 It is likely that hierarchal organizational structures create a setting in which women feel out of place due to gender variances (Morrison, 2012; Al-Shanfari, 2011; Keohane, 2014), resulting in many females stepping down or leaving from a post in a workplace at which their leadership abilities are being questioned. This conflict is further compounded by many jobs being designed around men’s objectives, and that many organizations are reluctant to support women within their workforce when potential career conflicts arise (Kellerman, and Rhode, 2012). Therefore, the ideal worker is male: “Images of men’s bodies and masculinity pervade organizational processes, marginalizing women and contributing to the maintenance of gendered segregation in organisations” (Acker 1990, p. 139). A key impact of organizational masculinity is the emotional labor expended by women in order to succeed. Connell (1987) states that gendered structures and practices operating within organizations result in very different career experiences and outcomes for women and men, and the most senior organizational positions are considered sites of hegemonic masculinity. Thus, organizational structure is not gender neutral and organizational culture reflects the wishes and needs of powerful men.
 In reviews of research into gender and leadership, limiting women’s progress in organizations is a well-documented phenomenon, including the persistence of gender stereotypes. Kanter (1977) identifies the ‘masculine ethic’ as part of the early image of leaders and managers. This masculine ethic elevates the traits assumed to be exclusive to men as requirements for effective management: a tough-minded approach to problems; analytical planning abilities; a capacity to set aside personal emotional considerations in the interests of task accomplishment; and cognitive superiority in problem-solving and decision-making (Kanter, 1977). Thus, even with regards to Kanter, (1977), although social construction presumes that these traits and characteristics supposedly belong to males only (or are at least more likely to be held by males), if practically all leaders and managers are men from the beginning, it should come as no surprise that when females attempt to enter leadership or management occupations the masculine ethic is invoked as an exclusionary principle
 Acker (1991) sees the ‘masculine ethic’ referred to earlier as the structural basis of organizations, in the sense that allegedly ‘masculine characteristics’ are built into the very fabric of organizations. As a result, the workplace itself is stacked against the equalization of opportunities for women. Acker (1991, p. 289) defines gendered organizations as occurring when “advantage and drawback, control and exploitation, emotion and action, identity and meaning, are patterned through and in terms of a distinction between female and male, feminine and masculine”. Thus, masculinity assumes control of the workplace environment or the business sphere in the subtlest of ways (Acker, 1991). Additionally, masculinity also appears to affect employees’ characters. The preferred employee presents her/himself as a masculine character in choice of clothes, language, and presentation (Acker, 1991). Furthermore, job opportunities and hierarchies are also filled in accordance with gender preferences, meaning that the positions should concur with what is deemed relevant and suitable for the gender that fills them (Kolb et al., 1998). In this way, gender implications have negatively influenced the progress of women in their working lives (Acker, 1991).
 Informal occupational segregation due to gender stereotypes as well as the gender biases commonly held by the wider society entail the trend of hiring women and men in different types of working areas and positions (Fitzsimmons, Callan, and Paulsen, 2014). Simpson (2004) argues that gender representation in social discourse and social perceptions of gender play a significant role in sustaining and promoting gendered employment. Consequently, these biased stereotypes, embedded in deep-rooted ideologies, automatically view job placement through the lens of gender (Simpson, 2004). Thus, work related to masculine organizations draws on the notion of a job requiring allegedly masculine qualities such as analytical skills, assertiveness and physical strength, in turn reinforcing more the idea of being ‘manliness’ being something distinct and unattainable for women. Unsurprisingly, as Britton and Logan (2008) note, these jobs, in turn, naturally attract more male applicants than females. At the same time, stereotypical assumptions that females pay more attention to detail, are more caring, and place value on physical attractiveness confine them to roles as teachers, nurses, administrators, and jobs in the beauty industry (Britton and Logan, 2008). Moreover, men are more likely to be selected for any ‘male-type’ position in a company even when women and men possess the same qualifications because of the implicit bias that, like for like, men perform better than women (Omar and Davidson, 2001). This leads individuals to believe that women do not have the necessary skills and so are unable to work effectively in male-type jobs. For example, because women are associated with activities that do not involve much in the way of physical strength (such as taking care of their children and families), they have traditionally been considered a second choice to men when it comes to jobs that involve working outdoors (Britton and Logan, 2008).
 England’s (2010) research has shown that in the twentieth century women have progressed at a sluggish pace in terms of workplace equality. Despite the fact that females have indeed entered jobs previously closed to them, many occupations remain as gender-gapped now as they were half a century ago. Moreover, she notes that at any level of the employment pyramid, females continue to lag behind males in terms of authority and pay, regardless of the closing gap between men and women in workplace seniority and educational attainment. Acker (1990) argues that such gender segregated employment patterns are so tenacious because, as noted, they are built into the very organizational fabric of work and the workplace. 
 Stereotyping means generalizing behavioural characteristics of groups of individuals and then applying the generalization to people who are members of the group (Heilman, 2012). Recently, researchers have investigated gender stereotyping by dividing the generalizations into two properties, descriptive and prescriptive. Heilman (2012) concentrated on the importance of each of those properties. Descriptive stereotyping describes what men and women are like and prescriptive stereotyping defines defining what women and men should be like. For instance, descriptive stereotyping of women creates negative expectations about a woman’s performance as a leader owing to there is a lack of fit between the characteristics assigned to traditionally male leadership roles and the societal roles assigned to females. Prescriptive stereotypes, or ascribing behaviors women ought to emulate, and the agentic characteristics of leadership create an incongruity with expected women behavior (Wynen et al., 2014). Furthermore, Heilman argues that irrespective of whether gender stereotyping is prescriptive or descriptive, the practice impedes the progress of females into leadership roles.
 One source for gender inequalities in the work force is gender stereotyping in the form of occupational segregation (Wynen et al., 2014). Occupational segregation occurs because there is a separation of women or men in certain occupations or employment sectors (Wynen et al., 2014). This gender separation is seen in occupations such as doctors , nursing, lawyers and teaching. Often, teachers or nurses are portrayed as women, while, lawyers and doctors are portrayed as men. According to scholars in social role theory, such as Franke, Crown, and Spake (1997) and Eagly (1987) gender stereotyping in certain occupations is deeply inherent in societal roles for female and male. Although both women and men have been shown to exhibit biases toward women in high management positions (Eagly and Carli, 2007; Ellemers, Rink, Derks, and Ryan, 2012; Ryan et al., 2011), Ellemers et al. (2012) pointed out that most individuals prefer to believe in a just world where gender differentiation is rare and success is based on merit; thus, in most instances, they will treat allegations of unequal treatment unfavourably. This result lead to fewer reports for fear of negative repercussions, and consequently inequity is often not noticed, challenged, or addressed (Ellemers et al., 2012). Moreover, Ibarra et al (2013) believe that when organizations advise females to seek leadership positions without addressing the subtle biases that exist in practices and policies, the companies undermine the psychological development that should take place to become a leader.
 Conclusion 
 In conclusion, this literature review has outlined how women face obstacles in different organizational context, limiting their ability to achieve empowerment by aspiring to and achieving leadership. Historically, certain factors have hindered women from being accepted as leaders, regardless of their achievements, which leads to an underestimation of their capabilities. This under-representation of qualified women in leadership roles is symbolic of the gender gap in the workplace.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

The aim was to identified workplace factors related to the well-being of employees in nursing. A cross-sectional study was conducted in nine from twelve Slovenian hospitals. Descriptive statistics and multivariate regression analysis were used. According to a qualitative study, semi-structured interviews were used. The content analysis gave six main categories: Leadership style; Leaders' personal qualities; Leaders' knowledge and skills; Stress; Patients; Organization; that is important for employees' well-being in nursing. It was revealed that 93 % of employees' well-being in nursing could be predicted with leadership style, leaders' knowledge and skills, leaders' personal qualities, frequency of workplace stress, stress management working experiences, and education level. The study confirmed the importance of leaders' skills and knowledge, leaders' personal qualities, and leadership styles for higher employees' well-being in nursing.

We examined subordinates' attitudes and behaviors in response to moral and authoritarian components of direct leaders' and higher-level leaders' paternalistic leadership style. We developed 8 hypotheses and tested them with data collected from staff at 15 general hospitals located in Mainland China. The final nested sample consisted of 2,365 general employees, 270 direct leaders, and 15 higher-level leaders. The results were as follows: (a) direct leaders' moral leadership had a positive impact on employees' affective trust in their direct leaders, and direct leaders' authoritarian leadership had a negative impact on employees' affective trust in their direct leaders, (b) both moral leadership and authoritarian leadership of direct leaders had positive impacts on employees' personal initiative, and (c) higher-level leaders' moral leadership had a positive moderating effect on only the relationship between direct leaders' moral leadership and employees' personal initiative. The findings shed light on the effect of multilevel paternalistic leadership on subordinates' attitude and behavior, and will inspire managers to coordinate multilevel paternalistic leadership to achieve more positive outcomes.

The study reported in this article examines the relationship between management leadership and employee job satisfaction. Based on 30 participants, self-report survey questionnaires are used for data collection. Results show that a significant, moderate, and positive correlation (ρ = .73, p = .000) exists between employees' ratings of their managers' leadership skills and employees' job satisfaction. A significant relationship (ρ = .39, p = .030) exists between employees' ratings of importance of leadership strategies at civilian personnel advisory centers and job satisfaction of general schedule employees. Employees' job satisfaction is observed to be significantly positively correlated with the employees' rating of management leadership. The work highlights the importance of adequate training in soft skills as well as hard skills leaders.

This study investigated the relationship between transformational leadership practices and norms and employees' performance at Sohar University in the Sultanate of Oman. This research is based on the fact that traditional methods of leadership handicap the development of modern leadership practices in Sohar University in particular and in Oman in general. This study may contribute to some significant solutions to the extant literature especially in that transformational leadership practices could be of great value if they are supported by modern techniques and high training skills for employees. The present paper adopts qualitative research method. Questionnaire was used as a research instrument of collecting data. The 5-Point Likert Scale was adopted to help researchers analyze the data. The study concludes that Transformational leadership skills are very essential for high-ranking leaders to acquire in Sohar University in the Sultanate of Oman. The study also finds that transformational leadership skills are very essential for high-ranking leaders to acquire in Sohar University in the Sultanate of Oman. Having conducted statistical analysis, this study draws some conclusions and suggests some recommendations for transformational leadership and its use in developing administrative creativity and improving job performance among Sohar University employees. This can be summarized as follows. First, transformational leadership skills are very essential for high-ranking leaders to acquire in Sohar University in the Sultanate of Oman. second, transformational leaders with outstanding leadership skills are found astonishingly effective in managing and leading those working under them. Third, employees are found to be greatly affected by their leaders in respect with academic and managerial activities and finally the study found that Universities in the Sultanate of Oman do not pay special attention to transformational leadership skills, which this negatively affects the quality and credibility of teaching.

Purpose The association between ethical leadership and employees’ ethical behaviors is well-established. But can ethical leadership go beyond this and drive employees’ corporate social responsibility (CSR) engagement? The purpose of this study is to examine the association between ethical leadership and employees’ perception of their engagement in CSR activities while exploring the mediating role of person–organization fit. Design/methodology/approach Using a quantitative research design, data were collected via self-administered questionnaires from 142 employees of multi-national companies in Malaysia. This study used partial-least squares structural equation modeling to test and validate the research model and hypotheses posited. Findings The results reveal that ethical leadership has a positive impact on employees’ CSR engagement, mediated through person–organization fit. Moreover, analyses were carried out to assess the predictive performance of the proposed model. Our results confirmed the predictive capability of the proposed model. Research limitations/implications This study has provided a better understanding of employees’ CSR engagement, which is a crucial factor for effectiveness of CSR implementation in any organization. Finding evidence on the positive role of ethical leadership in driving employees’ CSR engagement extends both the leadership and CSR literature and offers new avenues for future research studies. Practical implications This study has shown that ethical leadership can stimulate employees’ CSR engagement through creating a better person–organization fit. This understanding can help managers in finding ways for more effective involvement of employees in a company’s CSR activities and creating a better working environment. Social implications Organizations can find better ways to involve employees in CSR activities through having ethical leaders who lead by example and champion social causes. Although ethical leadership will benefit society, it will also help employees experience a better fit between their values and those of the organization. Originality/value Despite extensive research on CSR, its drivers and outcomes, there is still limited knowledge on the role of leaders in driving employees’ CSR engagement. Findings from an emerging economy (i.e. Malaysia) will offer fresh insights into the growing CSR and leadership literature.

We explored the effect of transformational leadership and trust in leaders on knowledge collecting and knowledge donating, the 2 components of knowledge sharing, with data from 368 employees at 63 Chinese firms. The results showed that trust in leaders mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and knowledge sharing. In addition, transformational leadership had a greater effect than did trust in leaders on knowledge donating, and aspects of trust in leaders had a greater effect than did transformational leadership on knowledge collecting. The findings provide theoretical insights and practical initiatives for knowledge management.

This research explores how ethical behavior of leaders influence employee engagement by enhancing the moral intensity of the employees. It also explores the impact that transparency of policies that a leader applies and decisions that he takes can have on the organizational citizenship of the employees. Two conceptual models are used to explore the constructs in light of social learning and social exchange theory. Data from 205 faculty members, working in higher education sector of Islamabad and Rawalpindi, was collected through structured questionnaires. Results revealed a considerable positive relation exists among ethical leadership and the organizational citizenship behavior of employees in an organization when mediated by moral intensity. Subsequently, significance is analyzed in ethical leadership and moral intensity when transparency moderated the relationship. The study contributes to the understanding of how perception of faculty members regarding their leaders’ ethical behavior can have an effect on the implementation of policies. It also explains the role of transparency of the ethical conduct in enhancing faculty’s performance and leading to the benefit of higher education institutions.

Employee motivation is a topic that has been studied for nearly a century. Beginning with the Hawthorne Studies in the 1920s and continuing to the current day, researchers have explored the elusive phenomenon of employee motivation. Furthermore, researchers have attempted to understand how leaders can effectively lead their employees in a way that motivates them to reach their full potential. While employee motivation has been, and continues to be, the focus of much research among the social and behavioral sciences on an international scale, leaders today are in need of practical tools that can help them motivate employees more effectively. This paper provides a survey of some of the key research on employee motivation and highlights the important role that leaders play in motivating their employees to achieve high performance. Also included are some practical tools that leaders can implement to increase employee motivation.

Recently, research on the leadership potential of employees has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. However, further exploration is required to better understand the upward influence of employee’s leadership potential on their leaders. This study examined the mechanisms behind the impact of employee’s leadership potential on leadership ostracism behavior. Moreover, the mediating role of leader’s envy and the moderating role of employee’s political skills in the relationship between employee’s leadership potential and leadership ostracism behavior were investigated. The results of an empirical analysis of 221 employee–leader pairs, studied over multiple periods, are as follows: employee’s leadership potential had a significant positive impact on leader’s envy and leadership ostracism behavior; leader’s envy had a significant positive impact on leadership ostracism behavior; and leader’s envy mediated the relationship between leadership potential and leadership ostracism behavior. In addition, employee’s political skills negatively moderated the indirect effect of leadership potential on leadership ostracism behavior through leader’s envy. The leadership potential of employees with more political skills appeared to have less influence on organizational ostracism via leader’s envy. This study explored the “dark-side” of employee’s leadership potential by understanding its impact on their leaders; the findings have theoretical and practical significance for companies.

We drew on the literature addressing servant leadership and job crafting, self-determination theory, and the job demands–resources model, and hypothesized that employees who are supported by servant leadership would craft their own jobs to stay engaged and perform well. Chinese employees (N = 544) working in various organizations participated in a survey. We found that servant leadership, as evaluated by employees, predicted work engagement and that job crafting played a partial mediating role in this relationship. Results of structural equation modeling offered strong support for the proposed model. Specifically, empowering promoted employees' absorption through task crafting, and emotional healing promoted employees' vigor through relational crafting. Our findings enrich the literature on positive organizational behavior and will help with identifying practical considerations around promoting work engagement.

Purpose The purpose of this research paper is to identify and describe the key leadership skills associated with great leaders in the sales discipline. Nine critically important sales leadership skills are identified and discussed in this manuscript with the purpose of getting sales leaders think about skill set development while providing those responsible for sales leadership development an opportunity to think through some critically important questions. Design/methodology/approach A sample of over 300 sales personnel were asked to individually describe the best sales leader with whom they had ever worked for during your career. Focus groups were then conducted to identify the most critical skills for sales leadership success. A content analysis of the focus group findings were then used to tabulate the key findings in this paper. Findings Key findings from this focus group study identified a wide range of critically important leadership skills and behaviors that included: emotional intelligence and 360° communication skills, possessing the ability to effectively coach and develop sales personnel, the ability to create clear performance expectations and accountability, problem-solving and conflict resolution skills, the ability to engage a sales workforce, strategic acumen, character and integrity, and data Mining and analytical skills, among others. Research limitations/implications The key findings from this research provide the reader with a host of potentially testable hypotheses as well as ideas and findings for future sales leadership research. 10;This study provides a clear roadmap for sales leaders to develop critically important skill sets needed for improving a sales force's performance and revenue generation capabilities. 10. Practical implications This study provides a clear roadmap for sales leaders to develop critically important skill sets needed for improving a sales force's performance and revenue generation capabilities. Social implications The social implications of the study make it clear that great sales leaders take great care of their workforces, develop their people, and demonstrate great character and integrity in the workplace. Originality/value This paper will identified nine specific leadership skills and practices required for high performance in this regard. Focus group findings will challenge the readers thinking on several key fronts while at the same time providing them with a punch list of critically important behaviors that can be targeted and developed. This information is important for both individual performers as well as those responsible for sales leadership development in their organizations.

Total Worker Health® (TWH) frameworks call for attention to organizational leadership in the implementation and effectiveness of TWH approaches. It is especially important to study this within in the small business environment where employees face significant health, safety, and well-being concerns and employers face barriers to addressing these concerns. The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of how small business leaders perceive employee health, safety, and well-being in the context of their own actions. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 18 small business senior leaders and used a qualitative coding approach to analyze the transcripts to determine the frequency with which leaders discussed each code. When we asked leaders about their leadership practices for health, safety, and well-being, leaders reflected upon their business (65%), themselves (28%), and their employees (7%). Leaders rarely discussed the ways in which they integrate health, safety, and well-being. The interviews demonstrate that small business leaders care about the health of their employees, but because of the perceived value to their business, not to employees or themselves. Thus, they may lack the knowledge and skills to be successful TWH leaders. The present study supports a need for continued small business TWH leadership research.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the mediating role of job characteristics and social exchange in transformational leadership (TFL) and employability relationship. Design/methodology/approach The sample is composed of 760 participants employed in Yangtze Delta and Pearl River Delta in China. The participants have worked under their line manager for more than one year. In order to better prevent data from possible common method bias, two waves of surveys (in 2014) on a stratified sample, included a mix of industries, such as construction, manufacturing, finance, insurance and communications, were used to investigate the proposed relationship between TFL, job characteristics, social exchange and employability. Findings The research has empirically tested the relationship between TFL and employability. While previous research has analyzed the relationship between them, the authors have enriched existing literature by exploring the mediating factors and illustrating the importance of indirect effects. Besides the direct effect, the results of this study showed that TFL could also improve employees’ employability through job demands, skill discretion, decision authority, perceived organizational support and team–member exchange, but not leader–member exchange. Originality/value The study opens up a debate around the employability of employees as it stands apart from the performance measurement. The authors believe that this new mediating model can provide an insight into complex mechanisms of employability enhancement from the perspective of leader development.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the relationship between visionary leadership and the perception of organizational effectiveness in nonprofit organizations. Leaders with high levels of transformational leadership were predicted to be reported as having more effective organizations. Design/methodology/approach – Data from 135 executive organizational leaders and 221 of their subordinates were collected from 52 various nonprofit organizations across USA. Leaders completed measures of leadership behavior and perceived organizational effectiveness, while followers provided ratings of their perspective leaders’ leadership style, organizational effectiveness, and organizational change magnitude. Findings – Significant relationships were found between visionary leadership and perceived organizational effectiveness. Regression analysis also showed some significant correlations between high leadership behaviors and perceived organizational effectiveness. Visionary leaders with high leadership skills facilitated the greatest perceived organizational effectiveness in their respective organizations. Practical implications – Leaders wishing to improve their organization's effectiveness may wish to adopt a visionary leadership style. Visionary leaders develop practices through executive training and development that would hone their skills to significantly impact organizational effectiveness. Originality/value – This paper contributes to the existing literature focussed on the relationship between leadership styles and organizational effectiveness. Different aspects of these variables were tested in order to provide a wider and more comprehensive understanding of the factors affecting nonprofit organizations and their employees.

We examined the process of leaders' resource loss through servant leadership behavior (SLB) based on conservation of resources theory. Participants were 72 department managers each paired with 1 of their subordinates, who were employed by 5 enterprises in Eastern China. We used the experience sampling method and asked the department managers to complete a 10-day diary survey. The employees filled in a conscientiousness scale. A multilayer linear model was used for data analysis. The results show that as participants' SLB led to daily resource loss, the relationship between their work and their family life deteriorated. In addition, employee conscientiousness acted as an escape valve, slowing the loss effect of SLB, and indicating that servant leaders experience less resource loss and emotional exhaustion when employees have a strong sense of responsibility. These results broaden understanding of and provide new insight into the role and practice of SLB.

Previous sport management research has demonstrated the positive relationship between political skill and personal career outcomes, but research addressing the question of how leader social effectiveness (i.e. political skill) influences the commitment and satisfaction of subordinates is lacking. This study sought to determine if leader (athletic director) political skill influences subordinate (head coach) evaluations of leader effectiveness, in turn influencing subordinate job satisfaction and commitment. Surveys were completed by interscholastic athletic directors ( n = 250) and representative subsets of head coaches ( n = 806) in the United States. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. Political skill was shown to have a positive impact on evaluations of leader effectiveness. Leader effectiveness also acts as a mediator between political skill and employee job satisfaction and affective organizational commitment. Thus, political skill appears to be an important contributor to subordinate perceptions of leadership effectiveness, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.