Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Lendu language – Verb phrase'

Resultative verb constructions RVCs (hereafter) are a special type of serial verb construction in Mandarin Chinese, in which the verbs hold an action-result relation. On the one hand, they behave like compounds, e.g., the verbs can be questioned as a single verb but cannot be separately modified, and no NP can possibly intervene. On the other hand, they also behave like phrases, i.e, for some types, the verbs can be split by an NP and can be separately modified. There has been controversy about the best way to analyze RVCs. There are two general positions: the pre-lexical syntactic approach and the pre-syntactic lexical approach. The former holds that resultative verb constructions are a syntactic phenomenon which can be derived by transformational rules. The latter, claims that RVCs are best considered a lexical phenomenon, i.e., verb compounds.This dissertation argues that neither approach sufficiently accounts for this phenomenon, in that both only shift the problem from one level of linguistic description to another. I propose a linguistic prototype analysis in which RVCs are seen as conventionalized serial verb constructions. I argue that the properties of the prototype and the conventionalized serial verb construction are subject to constraints in three areas: the semantic and syntactic dependency of the verbs, iconicity, and clause linkage. Through the analysis of the syntactic, semantic, and phonological behavior of various types of serial verb constructions, it is shown that serial verb constructions are on a structural continuum, i.e., from syntax to lexicon. RVCs are seen as close to the lexicalization end on the continuum.This dissertation shows the interplay of syntax, semantics, and phonology in the processes of syntactization and morphologization in Mandarin. It not only helps account for serial verb constructions but also has implications for other serial type phenomena on the word level, such as compounding and incorporation in Mandarin.
Department of English

This thesis deals with the alternation in theAB position of the finite and the non-finite verb in Old English, specifically, with the alternation finite verb-final vs. finite verb-non-final embedded clauses, and the alternation object–verb (OV) vs. verb–object (VO) alternation in the non-finite verb phrase. The central proposal is that information-structural factors underlie most of the Old English word order patterns, including these alternations. What influences the surface position of the finite verb in embedded clauses is the discourse status of the proposition. Verb-final clauses are pragmatically presupposed, while non-final verb position signals pragmatic assertion. The OV/VO alterantion does not reflect competing structures/grammars, but rather focus marking strategies on the VP material, reflected in VO orders. We therefore propose a multi-layered model of information-structure, according to which, topic/background-focus structures are represented at three different levels, wherebythe following types of focus are distinguished: sentence focus, predicate focus and ‘new information’ focus. We also present a mechanism of their interaction and syntactic encoding in Old English. Two important insights emerge from this analysis. First, Old English is a discourse configurational language. Second, at least some discourse configurational languages do not syntactically mark each individual information-structural interpretation of sentence elements. It rather seems that the syntax reflexts IS marking of a larger constituent, leaving it to the context for specific resolutions.
Ova disertacija bavi se problemom alternacije uIZ poziciji finitnog i nefinitnog glagola u staroengleskom, preciznije, razlikom između zavisnih rečenica u kojima je finitni glagol u poslednjoj poziciji u klauzi, i onih u kojima se finitni glagol nalazi u višoj poziciji, kao i alternacijom u položaju nefinitnog leksičkog glagola u odnosu na objekat (objekat-glagol, naspram glagol-objekat). Osnovna hipoteza u radu jeste da su glavni redosledi reči u staroengleskom, uključujući i navedene alternacije, rezultat uticaja informacijsko-strukturalnih faktora. Položaj finitnog glagola u zavisnim rečenicama određen je diskursnim statusom propozicije. Rečenice s glagolom na poslednjem položaju u klauzi su pragmatski presuponirane, dok su one s glagolom u višoj pozicji asertivne. Što se tiče alternacije objekat-glagol/glagol-objekat, ona ne odražava sistem dvostruke gramatike, već način obeležavanja fokusa unutar glagolske fraze. Redosled glagol-objekat je markiran, u smislu da se fokus nalazi Ova disertacija bavi se problemom alternacije u poziciji finitnog i nefinitnog glagola u staroengleskom, preciznije, razlikom između zavisnih rečenica u kojima je finitni glagol u poslednjoj poziciji u klauzi, i onih u kojima se finitni glagol nalazi u višoj poziciji, kao i alternacijom u položaju nefinitnog leksičkog glagola u odnosu na objekat (objekat-glagol, naspram glagol-objekat). Osnovna hipoteza u radu jeste da su glavni redosledi reči u staroengleskom, uključujući i navedene alternacije, rezultat uticaja informacijsko-strukturalnih faktora. Položaj finitnog glagola u zavisnim rečenicama određen je diskursnim statusom propozicije. Rečenice s glagolom na poslednjem položaju u klauzi su pragmatski presuponirane, dok su one s glagolom u višoj pozicji asertivne. Što se tiče alternacije objekat-glagol/glagol-objekat, ona ne odražava sistem dvostruke gramatike, već način obeležavanja fokusa unutar glagolske fraze. Redosled glagol-objekat je markiran, u smislu da se fokus nalazi.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of California, San Diego, 2009.
Title from first page of PDF file (viewed March 19, 2009). Available via ProQuest Digital Dissertations. Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

This thesis investigates the question of how the arguments of a given verb are linked to positions in a phrase structure. Through a study of passives, psych verbs, and ditransitive verbs in Japanese, it provides empirical support for the hypothesis that arguments having particular thematic roles are associated with particular syntactic positions systematically.
Chapter 2 deals with passives, in particular, two types of passive constructions, direct and indirect passives. Following some previous works, it is argued that the subject of a direct passive is generated in the same position as an object of the corresponding active verb, having the same thematic role, whereas the subject of an indirect passive is projected as an argument of a separate predicate. Several pieces of evidence for this hypothesis which are not given in the literature are provided here.
Chapter 3 is concerned with psych verbs, focusing on those that participate in a causative alternation. It is proposed that causative counterparts of these verbs can have two different structures that are parallel to the two types of passives discussed in Chapter 2. The subject of one type is generated in the same position as the object of the noncausative counterpart, having the same thematic role, whereas the subject of the other type is projected as an argument of a separate predicate.
Chapter 4 takes up ditransitive verbs, specifically, those that have inchoative counterparts, which do not project the subject of the ditransitive construction. There are two types of such verbs: one promotes the accusative argument of the ditransitive construction, rather than the dative one, to the subject of the inchoative counterpart, while the other chooses the dative argument over the accusative one for the subject of the inchoative counterpart. It is argued that this reflects the difference in the base-generated position of the dative argument between the two types of verbs. Moreover, the dative arguments of the two are distinguished in terms of thematic role.
This research is meant to contribute toward having a further understanding of how the participants of an event are expressed in grammatical forms.

This essay deals with the issue of readability, the term readability referring to what it is that makes a reader perceive a text as difficult or easy. Some factors are related to the reader but there are also those which depend on the text as such, one such factor being style which is the one that will be focused on in this essay. The investigation is based on the analysis and comparison of a complete version and an abridged version of Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre, and the questions to be investigated are whether the author of the abridged version has succeeded in making it less complicated, and if he or she has done so by considering stylistic features said to be affecting readability. Further, this essay is divided into four chapters. The first chapter contains the background for the analysis and is divided into 4 parts dealing with the following aspects: the definition of readability, early research on readability, later research on readability, and difficult and easy language. Chapter two describes the limitations made and the method used for the analysis which involves looking at the noun phrase, the verb phrase, and the clause. Chapter three gives a detailed description of the corpus investigated. Moving on to chapter four, this is where the results of the investigation are presented. This is done by dividing it into four different subchapters, each of them dealing with issues related to the different areas described in the method. Each of the subchapters then begins with the presentation of the results for each edition which is then followed by a comparative discussion. The essay ends with a conclusion part where conclusions regarding the four areas presented in the analysis are made along with the answering of research questions.

Thesis (M. A. (African Languages) --University of Limpopo,2005
The study aimsat finding out thecategorical status of copulatives in Northern Sotho. This will be achieved by examining the morphosemantic features of various copulatives. From a morphological perspective, thestudy focuses on the following types ofcopulative verbs: ke, se, ba, le, na, and COP. The study argues that the foresaid copulatives are not particles but are fully-fledged verbs. As far as the semantic nature of the copulatives is concerned, the study discovered a variety of meanings associated with copulatives, such as the following: the identifying, descriptive,locational and associative. Lastly, the study contends that any research on the copulative in Northern Sotho should be a morphosemantic one, as previous studies focused on one and neglected the other.

Much recent attention has been devoted to the semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic properties of phrasal verbs--those two-part lexical items like "put on" and "tighten up", along with suggestions regarding effective methods of teaching them to non-native speakers. According to Cornell (1985), phrasal verbs, "have been 'discovered' as an important component in curricula for English as a Foreign Language" (p. 1). However, it is very possible that they have become objects of current research primarily because of their complexity: their polysemy, their idiomaticity, their syntactic restraints, a complexity that means covering phrasal verbs in an ESL/EFL course can be a time-consuming process.

This thesis studies word order variations in Swiss-German sentences that contain infinitival complements. Such sentences exhibit interesting word order. Verbs can be in different orders and the objects selected by these verbs can be in different positions relative to them. The aim of this thesis is to give a general account of these word order facts based solely on structural properties of the complements in the underlying structure. In particular, it is claimed that Swiss-German verbs that take infinitival complements do not all select the same type of complements. Some verbs (like modals, perception verbs and causatives) select VPs, others (like raising verbs) select IPs and others (like control verbs) select IPs or CPs. Mechanisms such as extraposition, verb raising and proliticization then apply to different structures in order for the sentence to satisfy T-linking. Extraposition applies to IPs and CPs, verb raising to IPs and VPs and procliticization to verbs that are sister to VPs.

Lexicalists assume that words with derivational morphology and compound words are not formed by syntactic transformation (Selkirk, 1982). The Lexicalist Hypothesis implies that the principles of universal grammar are not operative to word formation.
This thesis argues that a word is composed of lexical constituents and post-lexical constituents, and that the post-lexical constituents can incorporate into a verb, to form the complex predicate. This formational process is subject to syntactic constraints and principles. Therefore, I claim that the principles of universal grammar are also operative to word formation. This hypothesis will throw a new light upon the area of language acquisition of complex predicates.

The phrasal verb is a unique type of verb phrase that consists of a main verb, usually of only one or two syllables, followed by a particle, that works as a single semantic unit. Such meaning, however, is characteristically expressed in idomatic terms, which poses a formidable problem for students of English as a second language. To be understood, this meaning must be figuratively interpreted as well as literally translated.

This thesis investigates the second language acquisition of English psych predicates by Chinese-speaking and French-speaking adult learners of English within the Government and Binding Theory. Two major parts comprise the whole work: a study of psych predicates across Chinese, English and French, including verbs like blame and annoy, adjectives such as annoying and annoyed, and nominals like annoyance; and an experiment on Chinese and French learners' knowledge of English psych predicates.
An account of psych predicates is proposed, under which Experiencer Object (EO) verbs are the causatives of Experiencer Subject (ES) verbs, derived by zero affixation. Different D-structures are suggested for the two classes of verbs, solving the linking problem of psych predicates. The binding problem with EO verbs and corresponding -ing adjectives is resolved by the assumption of anaphoric pro, which enables the anaphor to be bound backwards by the antecedent through the extension of chain-binding theory. The Target/Subject Matter (T/SM) restriction is ruled out by a generalization established on the interaction of the zero CAUS and selectional restrictions.
Given the linguistic analysis that EO verbs are made up of a zero CAUS and a root, and the fact that psych adjectives and psych nominals are derived from these verbs, the central hypothesis for the L2 acquisition of English psych predicates hinges on this zero CAUS. It is predicted that if L2 learners of English have difficulty figuring out the causative nature of EO verbs and -ing adjectives, they should have difficulty recognizing the correct argument structure, the ungrammaticality of T/SM violations and the grammaticality of backwards binding with these predicates. A picture identification task, a multiple choice task and a grammaticality judgment and correction task are designed to test L2 learners' knowledge of these properties. The results obtained through the experiment are discussed with respect to the issues in second language acquisition.

Phrasal verbs are a pervasive and distinctly Germanic part of the spoken English language that has been alive for centuries. They have preceded American history, and yet considered to be "the most active and creative pattern and word formation in the American language" (Meyer, 1975). Distinctly colloquial, idiomatic and varying in shades of literalness and figurativity, phrasal verbs are largely dominant in casual usage, such as conversation, while the Latinate verbs of English are dominant in formal usage, such as in making reports (McArthur 1989). While foreign educators and their students, such as from Chinese countries, are found to emphasize English study for formal and academic purposes, the acquisition of phrasal verbs may not be considered instrumental to the purposes of the students coming to the United States in pursuit of academic degrees. Because of the pervasiveness of phrasal verbs in spoken English language, and because of the largely conversational nature of American lectures, this study is intended to answer the following research questions: 1. In university classrooms, are the phrasal verbs spoken by native English speaking lecturers? 2. Are figurative phrasal verbs in academic lectures significantly greater in frequency than non-figuratively classified phrasal verbs in the academic lectures? 3. Do certain academic subjects tend to generate a significant increase in the number of phrasal verbs spoken by instructors, of either figurative phrasal verbs, or the more literal non-figuratively classified phrasal verbs?

Orientador: Lucy Seki
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Estudos da Linguagem
Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-25T12:35:11Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Gomes_AntonioAlmirSilva_D.pdf: 30622643 bytes, checksum: bb4371fbae1f9378f29d28dd8254bbc3 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013
Resumo: Esta Tese tem como objeto aspectos da gramática Sanapaná relativos à sentença simples. Sanapaná é a língua falada pelo povo homônimo que vive, dentre outras, na comunidade La Esperanza, às proximidades do município de Loma Plata - Paraguai. Constituída por seis capítulos, no primeiro constam informações gerais sobre o povo Sanapaná e sua língua inseridos em um contexto socioeconômico, cultural e linguístico. No segundo capítulo, apresento uma análise de aspectos fonéticos e fonológicos, com ênfase para os segmentos consonantais e vocálicos, bem como para a sílaba. O terceiro e o quarto capítulo são destinados ao sintagma nominal. A divisão entre ambos os capítulos pauta-se na concepção de categorias abertas e de categorias fechadas proposta por Schachter e Shopen (2007). Desta forma, no Capítulo III trato das categorias abertas, mais especificamente do Nome e do Adjetivo e, no Capítulo IV, trato das categorias fechadas que se relacionam com as categorias abertas. Incluem-se aí, portanto, os pronomes, os numerais, os advérbios, os quantificadores e as adposições. Compreende-se uma interface Morfologia / Sintaxe ao longo destes dois capítulos. Após referir-me ao sintagma nominal compreendido pelos dois tipos de categorias expressos nos capítulos III e IV, faço referência, no Capítulo V, ao sintagma verbal. Para isso, trato o verbo, assim como nos capítulos anteriores, em sua interface Morfologia / Sintaxe. Na perspectiva da Morfologia, mostro que o verbo Sanapaná apresenta algumas semelhanças com o nome no que diz respeito ao uso de prefixos. No entanto, distinguem-se em relação ao uso de sufixos. Na perspectiva da Sintaxe, mostro o verbo como predicador e, consequentemente, seus mecanismos relativos aos argumentos por ele requeridos. No Capítulo VI trato de aspectos da gramática Sanapaná relativos às sentenças envolvendo negação e imperativo. A análise apresentada para a negação assume (i) a existência de dois processos distintos, sendo um o uso de afixos e outro o uso de partículas e (ii) que tais processos interagem morfossintaticamente. Os seis capítulos em questão não esgotam a discussão acerca da sentença simples Sanapaná mas, ao contrário, a introduz. Apesar disso, constitui-se esta Tese um passo importante para o conhecimento linguístico mais amplo de uma língua da família Maskoy, considerando-se, sobretudo, o conhecimento reduzido que a comunidade científica detém das referidas línguas, em virtude da pouca oferta de trabalhos linguísticos disponíveis referentes, a qualquer uma das seis línguas que constituem a referida família. Esta Tese é, portanto, um dos primeiros estudos sistemáticos de uma língua Maskoy, o que me permite assumir que trabalhos futuros serão importantes para esclarecer, inclusive, dúvidas postas ao longo dos capítulos mencionados. Torna-se a referida Tese, portanto, uma rica fonte de informação de uma língua do Paraguai
Abstract: This thesis has as its objective aspects of grammar of Sanapaná relating to simple sentences. Sanapaná is the language spoken by the Sanapaná people, among others those living in the community La Esperanza, in the vicinity of the city of Loma Plata - Paraguay. The thesis consists of six chapters, the first containning general information about the people and their language in socioeconomic, cultural and linguistic context. In the second chapter I present an analysis of phonetic and phonological aspects, with emphasis on consonant and vowel segments, as well as the syllable. The third and fourth chapters are dedicated to the noun phrase. The division between the two is guided by the design categories of open and closed categories proposed by Schachter e Shopen (2007). Thus, in Chapter III open categories are discussed, specifically nouns and adjectives, and in Chapter IV I discuss the closed categories that relate to open categories: pronouns, numerals, adverbs, quantifiers and adpositions. These two chapters demonstrate the Morphology / Syntax interface. After discussing the noun phrase, defined by the two types of categories analyzed in Chapters III and IV, I refer, in Chapter V, to the verb phrase, and its Morphology / Syntax interface. From the perspective of Morphology, I show that the verb in Sanapaná bears some resemblance to the noun with respect to the use of prefixes. However, they differ regarding the use of suffixes. From the perspective of Syntax, the verb is shown to be with mechanisms for its required arguments. Chapter VI deals with aspects of Sanapaná grammar inherent in sentences with negation and in imperative sentences. The analysis presented for negation assumes (i) the existence of two distinct processes, one being the use of affixes, and the other the use of particles and (ii) that such processes interact morphosyntactically. Finally, I consider that the content of this thesis does not exhaust the discussion of the simple sentence Sanapaná but, on the contrary, introduces it. With this, I assume that future work will be important to clarify questions raised throughout the chapters of this dissertation. Above all, this PhD thesis is one of the most concrete studies of a member of the Maskoyan language family, which make it a reference point in linguistic investigation of the indigenous languages of Paraguay
Doutorado
Linguistica
Doutor em Linguística

Recent discussions on African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) have focused on the linguistic divergence and convergence hypotheses. Some linguists (Ash and Myhill 1986; Bailey and Maynor 1987, 1989; Graff, Labov, and Harris 1986; Labov 1983, 1987; Labov and Harris 1986; Luthin 1987; Myhill and Harris 1986; Thomas 1989) claim that AAVE is diverging from White Vernacular English (WVE) on a national level. However, other linguists (Butters 1987, 1988, 1989; Vaughn-Cooke 1986, 1987; Wolfram 1987) have challenged the divergence hypothesis, and have argued that AAVE is actually converging with WVE. They point out that the data in most of the studies supporting the divergence hypothesis were incomparable and manifested age-grading. In addition, these studies investigated only a few linguistic features. Most importantly, most of these studies lack the time-depth data which are essential to investigate language change.This study analyzed the time-depth data of speech samples from thirty-two African-American subjects, sixteen from 1980 and sixteen from 1993, in Muncie, Indiana. The subjects were both males and females, equally divided into young adult and elderly speakers. The analysis of the study focused on twenty-three syntactic and five phonological features.The results from the study have found no innovative features, either syntactic or phonological, in the speech of Muncie AAVE subjects. More importantly, the findings of the study, based on the time-depth data, have shown that Muncie AAVE was not divergent with WVE, but convergent with it, at least from 1980 to 1993. Thus, the findings of the study do not support the divergence hypothesis.
Department of English

Le 18 février 1949, Gustave Guillaume (1973 :107-108) brossait, dans sa leçon à l’Ecole pratique des Hautes Etudes, un tableau peu flatteur de la terminologie grammaticale :

La terminologie grammaticale – fixée par un long usage, par la tradition – est peu satisfaisante. Elle correspond à des vues qui sont pour une grande part étrangères au véritable mécanisme de la langue, ignoré de ceux qui ont établi cette terminologie, devenue celle de l’enseignement. A quoi il faut ajouter que la terminologie traditionnelle, de caractère philosophique, toute pénétrée de logique formelle, a eu cette infortune d’être retouchée inconsidérément par des esprits moins pénétrants que ceux qui l’avaient conçue.

Ce point de vue est, aujourd’hui comme hier, partagé par la plupart des grammairiens lato sensu. Le verdict des uns et des autres est à la fois sévère et amer :la terminologie grammaticale est incertaine, incohérente, inexacte, incomplète, contraire à la vérité, trompeuse, confuse, désordonnée, défectueuse, voire désastreuse (Nicolas Beauzée, 1767 :500-501 ;Antoine Meillet, 1936 :31 ;Holger Sten, 1952 :9) ;Robert-Léon Wagner, 1947 :59 ;Gustave Guillaume, 1973 [leçon du 18 fév. 1949] :108 ;Gérard Moignet, 1981 :163 ;Louis Holtz, 1981 :11). L’on ne pouvait faire meilleur état des lieux !

Ce travail s’est efforcé de répondre aux trois questions suivantes :1° une terminologie « parlante » est-elle possible et nécessaire en grammaire ?2° quelle(s) piste(s) les linguistes devraient-ils explorer pour rationaliser la nomenclature et la description des formes verbales ?3° comment les grammairiens ont-ils forgé, au fil des siècles, la nomenclature des formes verbales ?

Que conclure ?

Nous voudrions d’abord noter que la question terminologique constitue un casse-tête consécutif, pour une grande part, à la forte pression de la tradition sur les pratiques grammaticales.

Les concessions faites à l’usage sont telles que toute tentative d’innovation est suspecte .Les exemples sont légion :Girard, Lévizac, Sicard, Domergue, Butet ,etc. subirent tous, à tort ou à raison, les feux nourris de la critique à cause de leur engagement terminologique. Les détracteurs avaient pour noms :Voltaire, Du Marsais, Condillac, Roederer et Brunot.

Voltaire (cité par Brunot, 1905-1953, tome VI, 1e fascicule, p. 902) recommanda même le boycott de la nouvelle grammaire de Girard :

Je recommande, écrivit-il, sur-tout aux jeunes de ne pas lire la nouvelle grammaire de sieur abbé Girard ;elle ne feroit qu’embarrasser l’esprit, par les nouveautez difficiles dont elle est remplie ;et sur-tout elle serviroit à corrompre le stile.

Roederer ne fut pas plus tendre à l’endroit de Domergue. En somme, les attaques à l’endroit des « néologismes grammaticaux » constituent, dans l’histoire de la grammaire, une réalité permanente.

A la fin des années 60 et au début des années 70, Georges Galichet tournait en dérision la terminologie en usage en grammaire générative et transformationnelle, tandis que, plus près de nous, Marc Wilmet (1992) s’insurgeait contre ceux qui accusent les linguistes de « jargonner ».

En ce qui nous concerne, nous avons estimé dans cette thèse que la création terminologique est à la fois nécessaire et possible. Elle devrait conduire, comme nous l’avons postulé au § 3.2.2.1, à l’émergence d’une nomenclature explicative. D’ailleurs, des modèles de terminologie « parlante » existent :nous avons cité les travaux de Guillaume, Damourette et Pichon, Yvon, Wilmet.

Un métalangage grammatical explicatif devrait même, à notre avis, s’imposer et se généraliser pour les trois raisons suivantes :1° la terminologie joue le rôle « d’avant-science »; 2° contrairement aux autres sciences dont le vocabulaire technique renvoie à des objets, en grammaire, derrière les “mots” se profilent non pas des objets, mais des idées et d’autres “mots” dont l’ensemble constitue la science grammaticale. Autrement dit, le triptyque « terme (mot) –> concept –> référent » pourrait être réduit à une reformulation simplifiée où le concept se confondrait avec le référent; 3° contrairement à l’arbitraire consacré du signe linguistique, la création des expressions métalinguistiques est en général utilitaire et plus ou moins individuelle.

A la lumière de ce qui précède, toute nouvelle création d’expression métalinguistique devrait satisfaire à une condition :l’adéquation, même partielle, de la nouvelle dénomination avec le contenu morpho-sémantique qu’elle désigne. En effet, chaque terme en linguistique contiendrait de manière condensée tout un programme sémantique. Mais, le terme ainsi crée devrait aussi répondre à un besoin réel.

Par ailleurs, la principale piste à explorer dans l’entreprise de la rationalisation et de l’harmonisation de la terminologie grammaticale consisterait à homogénéiser les critères définitoires des classes grammaticales. Pour les modes verbaux, nous avons proposé d’associer judicieusement les critères sémantiques et morphologique. Le premier concerne l’actualité, le second la personne grammaticale.

Ces deux paramètres interviennent, d’après Moignet (1981 :57) et nous l’avons suivi dans son raisonnement, à part égale dans la faculté qu’a toute forme verbale de “signifier le “temps” en plus de sa signification propre”.

Grâce à l’exploitation de ces deux variables, nous avons, en nous inspirant largement de Gustave Guillaume et de Marc Wilmet, proposé à titre de simple hypothèse de travail, que les trois « chronothèses guillaumiennes » représentent effectivement, au niveau du discours grammatical, les trois modes verbaux auxquels elles correspondent: 1° le mode nominal (ou quasi nominal) = infinif + participe => mode virtualisatif impersonnel; 2° l’in fieri = subjonctif => mode virtualisatif personnel ;3° l’in esse = indicatif => mode actualisatif personnel.

La principale objection à cette proposition serait d’opposer au double principe de « virtualisation » et d’« actualisation », sur lequel repose notre argumentation, des emplois contraires à cette tripartition modale. Ne nous leurrons pas, c’est une difficulté réelle. La parade nous est fournie, fort heureusement, par Gérard Moignet (1959b :94-95) qui renvoie à l’enseignement de Gustave Guillaume:

Il [Guillaume] insiste dans son enseignement sur la prudence qui s’impose en linguistique de la parole :on y est toujours exposé à rencontrer un sens d’emploi de mot qui soit en contradiction avec la vue fondamentale que le mot apporte de lui-même.

Pour finir, nous avons suffisamment montré tout au long de notre dissertation que la nomenclature des formes verbales, comme d’ailleurs le reste de la grammaire, est dans ses grandes lignes constituée de l’héritage gréco-latin. A certaines époques, comme au XVIIe siècle, cet héritage est malheureusement « corrompu » :par ex. la suppression de toute trace référant à l’époque dans certaines étiquettes. C’est, malheureusement, encore le cas, aujourd’hui, dans la plupart des grammaires scolaires et dans les productions scientifiques des linguistes.

Il faudrait aussi mentionner, au passif des grammairiens du XVIIe siècle et certains de leurs successeurs du début du XVIIIe siècle, l’ignorance des formes verbales surcomposées, pourtant attestées au XVIe siècle.

Comme nous l’avons dit, la terminologie grammaticale est défaillante depuis l’antiquité gréco-romaine jusqu’à ce jour. Elle s’est formée, à travers les siècles, au gré des fantaisies personnelles greffées sur l’essentiel du génie grec et latin. A part quelques rares exceptions, les apports des grammairiens français n’ont amélioré ni les critères de description du verbe, ni la nomenclature des formes verbales.

Nous avons dans le corps de ce texte signalé les acquis de chaque époque retenue dans cette étude. Il serait donc superflu d’y revenir dans le détail. Nous allons cependant rappelé, au risque d’en faire une antienne, les quelques progrès réalisés dans l’étude du verbe entre le XVIIe siècle et le début du XXe siècle :

1° la distinction des temps simples et des temps composés selon la forme chez D’Aisy (1674, 1685), Régnier-Desmarais (1706), Buffier (1709), etc.

2° l’exclusion, déjà au XVIIIe siècle, de l’impératif de la liste des modes verbaux ;3° l’intégration, depuis ce même siècle, des formes en –rais dans le mode indicatif (p. ex. chez Buffier, 1709 ;Restaut, 1730 et Ayer, 1853) avant que le XIXe siècle ne revienne en force au mode conditionnel;

4° l’institution par Nicolas Beauzée (1767) du principe des « ordres relationnels » (époque de comparaison, terme de comparaison, repère, rapport d’existence, etc.) dans la description des temps du verbe ;5° l’exploitation de la série complète des formes simples vs formes composées (Buffier, 1709) ;

6° la tripartition des tiroirs en formes simples / composées / surcomposées chez Dangeau (cf. supra, § 6.3.1.2) :p. ex. prétérit simple je chante /prétérit composé j’ai chanté /prétérit surcomposé j’ai eu chanté, etc.

7° l’usage par Dangeau (1754), à la suite de Girard (1747), des quantifiants et caractérisants numéraux comme discriminants des formes verbales :p. ex. premier temps surcomposé que j’aie eu marché /second temps surcomposé que j’eusse eu marché / troisième temps surcomposé jaurois eu marché) ;

8° la mise sur pied des néologismes très producteurs :futur passé (Restaut, 1730 ;Lhomond, 1780 ;Girault-Duvivier, 1811), futur antérieur (De Wailly, 1754 ;Sicard, 1799 ;Noël et Chapsal, l823 ;Brachet et Dusouchet, 1888, 1889), futur du passé (Maquet et al. 1921), futur antérieur du passé (Clédat, 1896 ;Maquet et al. 1921).

De toutes ces innovations, la théorie des «ordres relationnels » est celle qui a eu le plus d’impact sur les linguistes du XXe siècle. Comme nous l’avons vu, Guillaume et Wilmet, pour ne prendre que ces deux exemples, s’en sont inspirés dans la mise sur pied de leurs théories respectives :celle de la « chronogénèse » et celle du « repère ».

Ces deux approches du système verbal ont conduit à une description intéressante des modes, des aspects et des tiroirs. C’est une véritable révolution. Un seul regret :la méfiance injustifiée des auteurs de manuels et livres de grammaire à l’égard de cet important renouveau terminologique.

Doctorat en philosophie et lettres, Orientation langue et littérature
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

La présente étude s’inscrit dans le cadre plus vaste de la description des langues de l’aire linguistique Amdo. Cette région est caractérisée par la présence de langues sinitiques, mongoliques, tibétiques et turciques et, pour le salar et le tibétain, une situation de contact linguistique long d’environ sept siècles. Le salar est l’une des langues turciques les moins décrites et elle présente de nombreuses particularités dues à son isolement par rapport aux autres langues turciques. Il n’existe pas non plus de description des variétés de tibétain parlées dans la région salarophone, périphérique dans la tibétosphère. La perspective que nous adoptons ici est donc à la fois descriptive et comparative. Après un exposé des caractéristiques historiques et sociolinguistiques de cette situation de contact, nous analysons de façon détaillée des catégories grammaticales indexées dans le syntagme nominal et dans le prédicat. En particulier, nous proposons une nouvelle analyse des morphèmes de Temps-Aspect-Mode en salar et montrons que cette langue a copié en partie ses catégories évidentielles sur le modèle de celles du tibétain de l’Amdo. Nous nous intéressons ensuite aux problématiques liées à la valence verbale et aux effets du contact linguistique sur l’organisation accusative et ergative qui caractérisent respectivement le salar et le tibétain de l’Amdo. Nous analysons les marques casuelles à la fois comme relateurs, au sein du prédicat verbal, mais également comme converbe ou au sein des formes converbiales. Enfin, nous décrivons les catégories de voix grammaticalisées en salar et en tibétain, et montrons que celles-ci sont quasiment identiques dans les deux langues
This study falls within the larger description of the languages of the Amdo linguistic area. This area is characterized by the coexistence of Sinitic, Mongolic, Tibetic and Turkic languages, and, regarding Salar and Tibetan, an approximately seven-century-long contact situation. Salar language remains one of the less described Turkic languages and, because of its isolation from the other Turkic languages, displays many specificities. There exists no description of the Amdo-Tibetan variety spoken in the Salar-speaking region either, this region being very peripheral in the Tibetosphere. The perspective taken in this study is thus both descriptive and comparative. After a depiction of the historical and sociolinguistic characteristics of this contact-situation, we analyse in detail the grammatical categories indexed in the nominal phrase and in the predicate. Notably, we suggest a new analysis of the Tense-Aspect-Mood morphemes in Salar and we show that the Amdo-Tibetan evidential categories have been partly copied in Salar. Then, the question of verb valency is addressed, and the effects of language contact on the Turkic accusative and on the Tibetic ergative organisation are explored. We analyze the case markers not only as markers of syntactic dependancy within the verb predicate, but also in their role as or in converbs. Finally, we describe the grammatical voices attested in Salar and in Amdo Tibetan, and show that the syntactic and semantic characteristics are almost identical in the two languages

This study describes the diachronic development of modality in South African English (henceforth SAfE) from the early 19th century up to its contemporary state (1820s to 1990s) in the registers of letters, news, fiction/narrative and non-fiction, on the basis of the theoretical framework of socio historical linguistics and the empirical approach of corpus linguistics. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses are conducted for modal and quasi-modal verbs, by means of the newly compiled historical corpus of SAfE and ICE-SA (with the addition of Afrikaans corpora for comparison). The study explores general frequency changes, register-internal changes and macro- and micro semantic changes, with the focus of the main semantic analysis more strongly on the obligation and necessity cluster1. A set of parameters is compiled for analysing the strength of obligation in the modals must and should, and the quasi-modal HAVE to, and is applied in the micro semantic analyses. The findings are compared with the trends for modality in other native English’s, such as American, British and Australian English (cf. e.g. Mair & Leech, 2006; Collins, 2009a; Leech, 2011), in an attempt to present a complete and comprehensive description of SAfE modality, as opposed to the traditional approach of focusing on peculiar features. It is reported that the trends of modality in SAfE correspond to those of other native varieties in some cases, but do not correspond in others. The modals of SAfE for example have declined more and the quasi-modals have increased less over the 20th century than in other native varieties of English. One particular case, in which SAfE is reported to be unique among other varieties, is the quantitative and qualitative trends for must, which has some implications for the manifestation of the democratisation process. Must in SAfE has not declined significantly over the 20th century (as it has in other native varieties) and has become less face threatening, since uses with a median (weaker) degree of force are just as frequent as those with a higher degree of force by the 1990s (unlike in other native varieties, where must has become restricted to high-degree obligative contexts). Based on socio historical, as well as linguistic evidence (on both quantitative and qualitative levels), language contact with Afrikaans is posited as the main influence for the increased use of must in contexts that are not face threatening. Extrapolating from the semantic findings, some new insights are offered regarding the phase in which SAfE finds itself within Schneider’s (2003) model of the evolution of New English’s, and some support is offered for Bekker’s (2012:143) argument that “SAfE is ...the youngest of the colonial varieties of English”, especially in the Southern Hemisphere. Ultimately, this thesis offers a piece in the larger puzzle that is SAfE, both in terms of linguistic (textual) and socio historical (contextual) aspects.
PhD (English), North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2014

"The Verb Phrase in Kihema" investigates a wide range of three different constructions, which have all been termed 'Grammatical Function Changing Processes' (GFCP), by Linguists, using data from Kihema (a Bantu language spoken in the northeastern district of Ituru). It focuses on those GFCPs, namely the causative, the applicative and the passive. On the one hand, Kihema causative constructions are the result of extending the verb by means of a derivational affix. This process has an impact on the argument structure of the verb. On the other hand, Kihema applicative constructions are the outcome of moving the preposition out of a prepositional phrase and incorporating it in the verb that governs it. Lastly, Kihema passive constructions result from the base verb losing its ability to assign accusative case and its failure to assign an external thematic role. Consequently, in passives, the former direct object moves to the syntactic subject position, where it receives nominative case. The thematic subject can only be realized inside a prepositional phrase. In these constructions, the verb bears morphemes such as -is- (for causatives), -ir- (for applicatives), and -w- (for passives). Causative and applicative morphemes have the ability to turn an intransitive verb into a transitive verb and a transitive verb into a ditransitive verb. The study provides data of different objects that appear with the verb in the Kihema verb phrase. It examines the syntactic properties exhibited by those objects. As a result, Kihema is classified as a 'symmetrical' language, since all postverbal objects in causative and applicative constructions exhibit direct object properties. However, the basic object in locative applicatives has some restrictions. In this research, I analyze causatives, applicatives and passives in Kihema within the framework of the Principles-and-Parameters theory (Chomsky, 1981; 1986a, 1986b) in particular, the following two theories have proven useful in my study: (i) Baker's (1988) analysis of causatives in terms of verb incorporation and his treatment of applicatives as preposition incorporation and (ii) Jaeggli's (1986) and Baker, Johnson and Roberts' (1989) theories of the passive. My study shows how these theories account for the three Kihema Grammatical Function Changing Processes.
Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005.

Chin Kin-Chung.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2003.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 191-201).
Abstracts in English and Chinese.
Acknowledgements --- p.i
Abbreviations and Symbols --- p.vi
Abstract (English) --- p.vii
Abstract (Chinese) --- p.viii
Chapter Chapter One --- Characteristics of Compounds: An Overview --- p.1
Chapter 1.0 --- Introduction --- p.1
Chapter 1.1 --- General Properties of Compounds --- p.3
Chapter 1.1.1 --- Lexical Properties --- p.4
Chapter 1.1.2 --- Phrasal Properties --- p.12
Chapter 1.1.3 --- Complexity of the Status of Compounds --- p.16
Chapter 1.2 --- Relation between Morphology and Syntax --- p.16
Chapter 1.2.1 --- Lexicalist Approach --- p.18
Chapter 1.2.2 --- Syntactic Approach --- p.19
Chapter 1.2.3 --- Parallel Approach --- p.20
Chapter 1.2.4 --- A Note on the Lexicon --- p.21
Chapter 1.3 --- Research Objectives --- p.24
Chapter 1.4 --- Summary and Organization of the Thesis --- p.29
Chapter Chapter Two --- "Notions of Word, Compound and Phrase" --- p.31
Chapter 2.0 --- Introduction --- p.31
Chapter 2.1 --- Criteria of Wordhood --- p.32
Chapter 2.2 --- Distinction between Compounds and Phrases --- p.38
Chapter 2.2.1 --- Introduction --- p.39
Chapter 2.2.2 --- Syntactic Aspect --- p.43
Chapter 2.2.3 --- Semantic Aspect --- p.45
Chapter 2.2.4 --- Morphological and Phonological Aspects --- p.48
Chapter 2.2.5 --- Summary --- p.50
Chapter 2.3 --- The Lexical Integrity Hypothesis (LIH) --- p.52
Chapter 2.4 --- Further Consideration on the Nature of Compound --- p.60
Chapter 2.4.1 --- Compounding and Other Combinatory Processes --- p.60
Chapter 2.4.2 --- Status of the Constituents --- p.62
Chapter 2.4.3 --- Degree of Separability --- p.64
Chapter 2.4.4 --- Definitions of Compounds --- p.66
Chapter 2.5 --- Summary --- p.69
Chapter Chapter Three --- Issues on Cantonese Verb-Object Compounds (VOCs) --- p.70
Chapter 3.0 --- Introduction --- p.70
Chapter 3.1 --- General Properties of Cantonese VOCs --- p.74
Chapter 3.1.1 --- Meaning --- p.75
Chapter 3.1.1.1 --- Compositionality of Meaning --- p.75
Chapter 3.1.1.2 --- Anaphoric Reference --- p.79
Chapter 3.1.2 --- Movement --- p.80
Chapter 3.1.2.1 --- Topicalization --- p.80
Chapter 3.1.2.2 --- Passivization --- p.83
Chapter 3.1.3 --- Separability --- p.84
Chapter 3.1.3.1 --- Semantic Object --- p.85
Chapter 3.1.3.2 --- Aspect Markers --- p.88
Chapter 3.1.3.3 --- Duration and Frequency Adverbials --- p.91
Chapter 3.1.4 --- Status of the Cantonese VOCs --- p.94
Chapter 3.2 --- Analyses of VOCs --- p.96
Chapter 3.2.1 --- S.-F. Huang (1984) --- p.96
Chapter 3.2.2 --- C.-T. Huang (1984) --- p.99
Chapter 3.2.3 --- Paul (1988) --- p.103
Chapter 3.2.4 --- Wang (1994) --- p.105
Chapter 3.2.5 --- Her (1997) --- p.110
Chapter 3.3 --- Existence of Two Types of VOCs in Cantonese --- p.113
Chapter 3.3.1 --- Distinction between Lexical and Phrasal VOCs --- p.113
Chapter 3.3.2 --- Diagnostic Tests for the Lexical-Phrasal VOC Distinction --- p.117
Chapter 3.4 --- Summary --- p.120
Chapter Chapter Four --- Nature and Formation of Cantonese VOCs --- p.121
Chapter 4.0 --- Introduction --- p.121
Chapter 4.1 --- Theoretical Assumptions --- p.123
Chapter 4.1.1 --- Parallel Morphology --- p.123
Chapter 4.1.2 --- Lexical-Semantic and Lexical-Syntactic Representations --- p.134
Chapter 4.1.3 --- Lexical Syntax --- p.139
Chapter 4.1.4 --- VP Shell --- p.141
Chapter 4.2 --- Levels of Formation of Cantonese VOCs --- p.143
Chapter 4.3 --- Mechanism of the Formation Processes --- p.147
Chapter 4.3.1 --- Issue of Transitivity --- p.147
Chapter 4.3.2 --- Formation of Lexical VOCs --- p.154
Chapter 4.3.3 --- Formation of Phrasal VOCs --- p.158
Chapter 4.4 --- Phenomena in Relation to Cantonese VOCs --- p.161
Chapter 4.4.1 --- Separation of Constituents of Phrasal VOCs --- p.161
Chapter 4.4.2 --- Positions of Aspect Markers --- p.168
Chapter 4.5 --- Summary and Theoretical Consequences --- p.172
Chapter Chapter Five --- Concluding Remarks --- p.176
Endnotes --- p.181
References --- p.191

Dissertação de mest., Natural Language Processing & Human Language Technology, Faculdade de Ciências Humanas e Sociais, Univ. do Algarve, 2011
The present research adopted a descriptive corpus-based translation approach and focused on the patterns of translation of English Verb Phrase Ellipsis (VPE) into Persian. The goal was to find out how the observed translation behavior may be taken as advantageous information for improving English-Persian Machine Translation (MT) systems performances. For this purpose, a bilingual English-Persian parallel corpus was used. It consisted of 1,600 movies´ subtitles, consisting of informal conversations, with about 4 million words for each language. Unitex finite-state tools were applied in order to detect the intended English VPE by defining certain search patterns. The extracted cases of VPE were then compared with their Persian counterparts. Analysis of the Persian translations provided by the translators and the strategies utilized by them in dealing with English VPE was indicative of the fact that in those cases where Persian and English show some similar VPE constructions, the human translator keeps the translation quite close to the original text, especially by retaining the ellipsis. However, in many cases, the elliptical forms are language-specific. In such cases, it is not possible to keep the ellipsis and the translator has to render the text in a non-elliptical form in order to provide the appropriate text, so to comply with Persian grammatical norms; that is, the gap resultant of VPE in English is usually recovered by the antecedent verb or replaced by a pro-verb. When the two languages present similar construction, Google translator (GT) also produces a quite reasonable translation. However, in cases where Persian does not allow ellipsis, GT fails to recover the gap left by zeroed material in the source text. Auxiliary verbs also pose some specific problems, as GT translate them into light or lexical verbs. The analysis of data was based on the following order: VPE after auxiliary verbs; VPE after 2 complementizer `to´; and VPE in the presence of pro-forms. The results indicate that human translator dealing with English VPE predominantly adopts the strategy of recovering the zeroed verb from its previous occurrence in discourse. Naturally, in some cases, instead of a verb, a pro-verb is used. For light verb constructions in Persian, the tendency is towards retaining the light verb and zeroing the nominal component. For a residual number of cases the strategies were non-literal. This general behavior, however, depends on the auxiliary verb, used in the source language. Differences in the kind of the auxiliary verb in English VPE, thus, have a relevant bearing on the choice of the strategies the human translator adopted. For instance, English VPEs occurring after auxiliaries `do´, `be´, and `have´ cannot be translated into Persian by keeping the ellipsis; therefore, the gap is usually filled by the antecedent verb or a pro-verb. However, if the English sentence carries a VPE after auxiliary `be´ and the sentence is translated into Persian using passive voice, then the VPE can be kept. Persian allows keeping the gap produced by the English VPE when this involves the modal verbs `can´, `may´, or `must/have to´, if they are translated as بودن مجبور (majboor boodan) [OBLIGED+BE/GR]). In case of English VPEs occurring after infinitival complementizer `to´, the translation is mostly by filling the gaps with the antecedent verb. For English VPEs with pro-form structures with `so/too/as well/neither/either´, the translation, for the most part, is by using pro-forms, and thus, keeping the ellipsis. GT produces distorted translations when dealing with English VPEs occurring after tense operators, since it translate these auxiliaries literally, and also because it does not recover the gap resulting from the English elliptical sentence. For VPEs after modal verbs, GT performs quite acceptably but only after modal `can´; however it fails in dealing with other modal verbs. GT, in all cases, retains the VPE after complementizer `to´; thus, the output is often unnatural. And, finally, GT, in dealing with VPE in presence of pro-forms, mostly produces inadequate translations. 3 As a statistical-based MT system, GT does not take into consideration the discourse previous to the sentence under processing. Therefore, it seems incapable to recover the gap induced by English VPE, which results in incorrect translation output in many cases. The comparison between HT and GT of Persian texts indicates that a stronger effort should be invested in an anaphora resolution module, particularly, for certain English VPE patterns: those auxiliary verbs` do´, `be´, `have´, and `will´, and those after complementizer `to´. The findings of this study may help devise better performing strategies for English-Persian MT systems, namely, by highlighting the relevance of an anaphora resolution module prior to the MT of this language pair.

Thesis (Ph.D. (English Studies)) -- University of Limpopo, 2019
The aims of the study were to compare connector use and verb phrase use between two achievement groups. The achievement groups comprised the Highs, students whose essays were highly rated (124 essays; word length 59702), and the Lows, students whose essays were rated poorly (126 essays; word length 60524). The analytical frameworks for the analysis of appropriate use were taken from Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad and Finegan (1999).The analytical frameworks for inappropriate use were designed by the researcher. Connectors comprised circumstance adverbials, linking adverbials, co-ordinators and relativisers. Verb phrase uses comprised all the categories described in Biber, et al. (1999). The analysis entailed counting number of occurrences per use for each achievement group and determining whether difference in use was significant or not by undertaking Log Likelihood calculations using Paul Rayson’s Log Likelihood calculator available online. These also indicate the relative frequency of each use. The results for appropriate connector use revealed that although no significant differences occurred with respect to connector categories, highly/significant differences did occur with regard to specific forms. Regarding inappropriate connector use, results showed that differences between the two achievement groups were overall highly significant, with a substantially higher occurrence of inappropriate uses in the Lows compared to the Highs. The results for appropriate verb phrase use revealed highly/significant differences between the Highs and Lows for several verb phrase categories, such as modal auxiliary use and Perfect Aspect. The results for inappropriate verb phrase use, as was the case for inappropriate connector use, showed highly significant differences between the two achievement groups, with the Lows having a much higher incidence of inappropriate uses than the Highs. The study finally considers the pedagogical implications arising from the results and makes suggestions for course design relating to writing instruction.

In the Japanese language, there are various modal elements, which mark speakers' subjective attitudes toward propositions. One of the most common modals is the noda predicate, which possesses the dual function of either asserting the truth of the position or relaying the speaker's desire for information sharing. Japanese Native Speakers (JNSs) use noda frequently in conversation; however, Japanese Language Learners (JLLs) often face difficulty in learning noda because of its wide variety in function and use. To determine the nature of noda use, this study examines conversational data from role-plays and a case study of two JLLs. The main aims of this thesis are 1) to review research on noda and to provide a cohesive and concise explanation of its functions and 2) to examine the use and acquisition of noda by JLLs. Following Noda's (1997) categorization, noda can be divided broadly into two types: scope and mood. Noda of scope exhibits the speaker's assertion that the proposition is true, while noda of mood marks the speaker's strong desire for information to be shared by speaker and hearer. This study proposes a framework with which to understand the functions of noda, and classifies information which is speaker-oriented (+ Speaker/- Hearer knowledge), hearer-oriented (-Speaker/+ Hearer), and shared (+ Speaker/+ Hearer). JLLs first tend to use noda with speaker-oriented information, and later acquire functions related to hearer-oriented and shared information. In the study of role-plays, JLLs with higher oral proficiency levels as rated by the ACTFL-OPI (Oral Proficiency Interview) used a higher frequency of noda. Both the JLLs and JNSs used noda primarily to provide and seek explanations. The intermediate-level JLLs underused noda in providing supplemental explanations. Other uses of noda in the role-plays included emphasizing information, seeking validity, and back-channeling. The two JLLs in the case study did not notice the use of noda during conversations with the JNS, but began to use noda more frequently during practice conversations upon receiving explicit instructions on the use of noda. While the post-test did not demonstrate increased use of noda due to the limited time of this study, there are clear indications for pedagogy. First, because the functions of noda are varied and numerous, Japanese language textbooks and classrooms should not be limited in providing only the 'explanation' function of noda. Second, the frequent use of noda in Japanese conversation suggests that it should be an area of focus in oral practice. Finally, JLLs need to develop skills in both comprehension and production of noda to improve their Japanese discourse.

by Choi Lai Kun, Annie.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1996.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves [122]-125).
Acknowledgements
Chapter Chapter 1 --- Second Language Acquisition Research: Background and the Present Study
Chapter 1.1 --- Introduction --- p.1
Chapter 1.2 --- Rationale for the Present Study --- p.4
Chapter 1.2.1 --- Literature Background --- p.4
Chapter 1.2.2 --- Finiteness in Verb Complementation as the Target for Research --- p.9
Chapter 1.2.3 --- Differences between L1 (Cantonese) and L2 (English) --- p.12
Chapter 1.2.4 --- Minimal Effect of Formal Instruction and Negative Evidence --- p.18
Chapter 1.2.5 --- Research Issues --- p.19
Chapter Chapter 2 --- Grammatical Analysis and Theoretical Issues
Chapter 2.1 --- Introduction --- p.21
Chapter 2.2 --- Definition of Finiteness --- p.21
Chapter 2.2.1 --- Properties of Finiteness --- p.21
Chapter 2.2.2 --- Tense of the That-Clause and the Infinitival Clause --- p.23
Chapter 2.2.3 --- The Infinitival Particle TO --- p.24
Chapter 2.2.4 --- Modality of the That-Clause and the Infinitival Clause --- p.25
Chapter 2.3 --- Classification of Clausal Complement Taking Verbs --- p.27
Chapter 2.3.1 --- A Syntactic Classification --- p.28
Chapter 2.3.2 --- A Semantic Classification --- p.32
Chapter 2.4 --- Theoretical Issues on Syntactic-Semantic Mappings --- p.36
Chapter 2.4.1 --- Canonical Structural Realization (Grimshaw 1981) --- p.37
Chapter 2.4.2 --- Correspondence between Syntactic Structure and Conceptual Structure (Jackendoff 1991) --- p.37
Chapter 2.4.3 --- Bootstrapping Proposals on the Acquisition of Verb Meaning --- p.43
Chapter 2.4.4 --- Syntactic-Semantic Mappings of Clausal Complements --- p.47
Chapter 2.5 --- Review of SLA Literature --- p.48
Chapter 2.5.1 --- L1 Transfer in L2 Verb Lexis --- p.48
Chapter 2.5.2 --- Semantics-Syntax Correspondence in SLA (Juffs 1994) --- p.51
Chapter 2.5.3 --- Language Transfer (Martohardjono & Flynn 1993) --- p.56
Chapter 2.5.4 --- Argument Structure in SLA (White 1991) --- p.59
Chapter 2.6 --- Hypotheses to the Research Issues --- p.62
Chapter Chapter 3 --- The Experiments
Chapter 3.1 --- Experiment I --- p.69
Chapter 3.1.1 --- Introduction --- p.69
Chapter 3.1.2 --- Subjects --- p.71
Chapter 3.1.3 --- Procedure --- p.71
Chapter 3.1.4 --- Logic and Hypotheses of the Test --- p.72
Chapter 3.1.5 --- Results of the Experiment --- p.82
Chapter 3.1.6 --- Analysis of the Results --- p.87
Chapter 3.2 --- The Follow-up Test --- p.100
Chapter 3.2.1 --- The Test --- p.100
Chapter 3.2.2 --- Subjects --- p.105
Chapter 3.2.3 --- Procedure --- p.106
Chapter 3.2.4 --- Analysis of the Results --- p.106
Chapter Chapter 4 --- Conclusion
Chapter 4.1 --- Conclusion --- p.112
Chapter 4.2 --- Future Research --- p.121
References
Appendix I
Appendix II

by Hua Dongfan.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1991.
Includes bibliographical references.
Acknowledgments --- p.i
Abstract --- p.i i
Table of Contents --- p.iv
List of tables --- p.vii
Chapter Chapter 1. --- Introduction --- p.1
Chapter 1.1. --- The English Dative --- p.1
Chapter 1.2. --- The Learnability Problem --- p.3
Chapter 1.3. --- Aims of the Present Study --- p.8
Chapter Chapter 2. --- Approaches to the Acquisition of the English Dative --- p.13
Chapter 2.1. --- Approaches to the Acquisition of the English Dative --- p.13
Chapter 2.1.1. --- An Item-by-item Approach --- p.14
Chapter 2.1.2. --- A Semantic and Morphophonological Approach --- p.15
Chapter 2.1.3. --- A Formal Approach --- p.19
Chapter 2.2. --- Empirical Studies on the Acquisition of the English Dative --- p.22
Chapter 2.2.1. --- L1 Acquisition of the English Dative --- p.22
Chapter (a) --- Mazurkewich and White (1984) --- p.22
Chapter (b) --- White ( 1987 ) --- p.23
Chapter (c) --- Gropen et al . (1989) --- p.25
Chapter 2.2.2. --- L2 Acquisition of the English Dative --- p.27
Chapter (a) --- Mazurkewich ( 1984 ) --- p.27
Chapter (b) --- Le Compagnon (1984) --- p.28
Chapter (c) --- Hawkins ( 1987 ) --- p.31
Chapter Chapter 3. --- Research Design and Procedure --- p.36
Chapter 3.1. --- Test Design --- p.37
Chapter 3.1.1. --- Test 1 --- p.38
Chapter 3.1.2. --- Hypotheses --- p.44
Chapter 3.2. --- Test 2 --- p.46
Chapter 3.3. --- Test 3 and Test 4 --- p.47
Chapter 3.4. --- Cloze Test --- p.50
Chapter 3.5. --- Subjects --- p.50
Chapter 3.6. --- Test Procedure --- p.52
Chapter Chapter 4 --- . Results --- p.54
Chapter 4.1. --- Scoring Method --- p.54
Chapter 4.2. --- Results of Test 1 --- p.55
Chapter 4.2.1. --- Subjects' Judgments of Prepositional Datives --- p.55
Chapter 4.2.2. --- Subjects' Judgments of Double-object Datives --- p.56
Chapter 4.2.2.1. --- Performance of Native Speakers --- p.56
Chapter 4.2.2.2. --- Performance of Secondary Students --- p.57
Chapter 4.2.2.3. --- Performance of University Students --- p.59
Chapter 4.2.2.4. --- The Effect of L1 --- p.62
Chapter 4.3. --- Results of Test 2 --- p.63
Chapter 4.4. --- Results of Test 3 and Test 4 --- p.64
Chapter 4.5. --- Summary --- p.67
Chapter Chapter 5. --- Discussion --- p.71
Chapter 5.1. --- The Semantic Constraint on the English Dative --- p.71
Chapter 5.2. --- Overgeneralization and the Learnability Problem --- p.76
Chapter 5.3. --- L1 Influence on Dative Acquisition by Chinese ESL Learners --- p.81
Chapter Chapter 6. --- Conclusions --- p.85
References --- p.89
Chapter Appendix I. --- Verb Check List --- p.93
Chapter Appendix IIa. --- Instruction for Test 1 --- p.94
Chapter Appendix IIb. --- Test Sentences for Test 1 --- p.96
Chapter Appendix IIIa. --- Instruction for Test 2 --- p.103
Chapter Appendix IIIb. --- Test Sentences for Test 2 --- p.104
Chapter Appendix IVa. --- Instruction for Test 3 --- p.107
Chapter Appendix IVb. --- Test Sentences for Test 3 --- p.108
Chapter Appendix Va. --- Instruction for Test 4 --- p.110
Chapter Appendix Vb. --- Test Sentences for Test 4 --- p.111
Chapter Appendix VI. --- Cloze Test --- p.114

This dissertation describes six syntactic complex predicates in Q'anjob'al (Maya) spoken in Santa Eulalia, Huehuetenango, Guatemala: the Directional Construction (DIRC), Verbal Resultative Predicate (resultative V1V2), Causative Predicate (causative V1V2), Complement-like Predicate (complement-like V1V2), Preverbal Resultative Predicate (R2°P), and Positional Resultative Construction (PRC). They resemble resultatives, serial verbs, and causatives in other languages. The dissertation describes their monoclausal structure, meaning, event and argument structure, and lexical restrictions. These translate into five parameters: (a) they have a single value of time, aspect, modality and polarity, (b) they have a single set of arguments, (c) they have one intonational contour, (d) the elements denote a single event or subparts of a macro event, and (e) the elements minimally involve argument sharing, but could also involve argument fusion, or composition. Q'anjob'al complex predicates have two main features: (a) they are of an asymmetric type in that one element functions as the 'primary' element, and (b) they always have a verbal element (V) with another element that can be verbal or nonverbal (NV). Thus, these complex predicates always have a verbal 'primary' element. Regarding their structure, complex predicates involve four constructions: (a) a nonverbal-verbal construction used by the R2°P and shared by depictives (where it is a non-complex predicate and multi-headed clause), (b) a verb-verb construction used for causative, resultative, and complement-like V1V2s and shared by DIRCs, (c) a verbdirectional construction, a serial verb type, where V is the main verb and DIR corresponds to up to three motion verbs, and (d) a verb-positional construction used by the PRC. In their argument structure, resultatives and causative V1V2s, PRCs, and R2°Ps involve argument fusion, complement-like V1V2s involve raising, and DIRCs may involve argument sharing or fusion depending on the particular type. Regarding event structure, resultative V1V2s, and aspectual DIRCs denote a single event, and other complex predicates denote macro events. Finally, lexical semantics is central for distinguishing complex predicates from each other and from other multi-headed clauses. This dissertation contributes to the documentation of Q'anjob'al and advances the syntactic and semantic analysis of Mayan languages. It also contributes to our understanding of complex predicates through a case study.
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MA (Xitsonga)
MER Mathivha Centre for African Languages, Arts and Culture
ni/kumbe swi ri hava maendli yo vulavula hi swa miehleketo eka Xitsonga. Ku xopaxopiwa ntsena maendli yo pfumala xiendliwa ni maendli ya xiendliwa xin’we eka dyondzo leyi. Maendli ya miehleketo ya swiendliwa swinharhu a ya katsiwangi eka ntirho lowu. Dyondzo leyi yi langutana ngopfu ni tinxaka tinharhu ta maendli ya swa miehleketo, ku nga maendli lama khumbaka swa miehleketo, maendli yo vulavula hi ntsako, na maendli yo vulavula hi nchavo. Tinhlamuselo leti talaka ku kumeka ni leti nga taliki ku kumeka eka swihlambanyisi leswi nga tirha eswivulweni ni maendli lama kumbe leswi nga tirhangiki na wona ma kaneriwa eka dyondzo leyi. Thiyori leyi landzeleriwaka eka dyondzo leyi i ya Lakoff (1992) ya Conceptual Theory of Metaphor. Ku ya hi thiyori leyi matirhelo ya swivulwa swa xivumbeko xa vutlhokovetseri swavugego ma le ka ririmi eka miehleketo. Thiyori leyi yi tirhisa mpimanyiso wa swilo leswi kumekaka eka michumu mimbirhi, laha nchumu wo karhi wu twisisekaka ku antswa hi ku xiya nchumu lowu pimanyisiwaka na wona. Eka dyondzo leyi, miehleketo yo pimanyisa milongoti leyi kumekaka eka michumu mimbirhi yo hambana yi tirhisiwaka eka ku xopaxopa swihlambanyisi swa Xitsonga leswi tirhaka na maendli ya swa miehleketo. Mahungu lama kamberiwaka eka ndzavisiso lowu ma tirhisiwa eka swivulwa hi xikongomelo xo kuma mikhuva ya tinhlamuselo leti humelelaka.

Leung Chung-hong.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2004.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 178-193).
Abstracts in English and Chinese.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT --- p.i
ABSTRACT (English version) --- p.ii
ABSTRACT (Chinese version) --- p.iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS --- p.iv
LIST OF TABLES --- p.x
LIST OF FIGURES --- p.xi
LIST OF APPENDICES --- p.xii
Chapter CHAPTER ONE: --- INTRODUCTION --- p.1
Chapter 1.1 --- Introduction --- p.1
Chapter 1.2 --- Phraseology and second language acquisition --- p.1
Chapter 1.3 --- Phrasal verbs in ESL/EFL students --- p.3
Chapter 1.4 --- The proposed particle-based learning (PBL) of phrasal verbs --- p.5
Chapter 1.5 --- Cognitive semantic framework for PBL --- p.6
Chapter 1.5.1 --- The theory of conceptual metaphors --- p.6
Chapter 1.5.2 --- The theory of image schemas --- p.7
Chapter 1.5.3 --- A cognitive semantic approach to teaching phrasal verbs --- p.8
Chapter 1.6 --- Research gaps and research implications --- p.9
Chapter 1.7 --- Organization of this thesis --- p.10
Chapter CHAPTER TWO: --- ESL/EFL LEARNING OF ENGLISH PHRASAL VERBS --- p.13
Chapter 2.1 --- Introduction --- p.13
Chapter 2.2 --- General views on phrasal verbs in ESL/EFL learning --- p.14
Chapter 2.2.1 --- Phrasal verbs in SLA research --- p.14
Chapter 2.2.2 --- ESL/EFL learners' phraseological incompetence and ignorance --- p.15
Chapter 2.2.3 --- Summary --- p.17
Chapter 2.3 --- Avoidance behaviour of phrasal verbs in ESL/EFL learners --- p.17
Chapter 2.3.1 --- Definition of avoidance --- p.18
Chapter 2.3.2 --- Causes of avoidance --- p.20
Chapter 2.3.3 --- Four previous studies on avoidance of phrasal verbs --- p.22
Chapter 2.3.3.1 --- Dagut and Laufer's study (1985) --- p.24
Chapter 2.3.3.2 --- Hulstijn and Marchena's study (1989) --- p.25
Chapter 2.3.3.3 --- Laufer and Eliasson's study (1993) --- p.26
Chapter 2.3.3.4 --- Liao and Fukuya's study (2002) --- p.27
Chapter 2.4 --- Avoidance of figurative phrasal verbs --- p.28
Chapter 2.5 --- Summary --- p.31
Chapter CHAPTER THREE: --- "PHRASAL VERBS, CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS AND IMAGE SCHEMAS" --- p.33
Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.33
Chapter 3.2 --- Phrasal verbs as a category of multi-word verbs --- p.34
Chapter 3.3 --- Multi-word verbs --- p.34
Chapter 3.3.1 --- The syntactic frame of multi-word verbs --- p.36
Chapter 3.3.2 --- The semantic frame of multi-word verbs --- p.37
Chapter 3.3.3 --- Summary --- p.37
Chapter 3.4 --- Defining phrasal verbs --- p.39
Chapter 3.4.1 --- """VPC and literal + figurative"" as phrasal verbs" --- p.41
Chapter 3.4.2 --- """VPC + VPP and literal + figurative"" as phrasal verbs" --- p.46
Chapter 3.5 --- A cognitive approach to the understanding of phrasal verbs (Part I) --- p.49
Chapter 3.5.1 --- The meaning of the particles in phrasal verbs --- p.50
Chapter 3.5.2 --- "The metaphorical extension of the spatial, prototypical particles" --- p.51
Chapter 3.5.3 --- A cognitive schematic representation of particles in phrasal verbs --- p.54
Chapter 3.5.4 --- Summary --- p.58
Chapter 3.6 --- The theory of conceptual metaphors --- p.59
Chapter 3.6.1 --- Metaphor as ordinary everyday language --- p.59
Chapter 3.6.2 --- Conceptual metaphor as a cross-domain mapping --- p.61
Chapter 3.7 --- The theory of image schemas --- p.64
Chapter 3.7.1 --- Image schemas as the basis for thought and understanding --- p.65
Chapter 3.7.2 --- Examples of image schemas --- p.66
Chapter 3.7.2.1 --- The PATH schema --- p.66
Chapter 3.7.2.2 --- The CONTAINER schema --- p.68
Chapter 3.7.3 --- Image schemas as the underlying logic of conceptual metaphors --- p.69
Chapter 3.7.4 --- Image schemas in relation to words --- p.71
Chapter 3.7.5 --- Summary: A hierarchical framework --- p.72
Chapter 3.8 --- A cognitive approach to the understanding of phrasal verbs (Part II) --- p.74
Chapter 3.8.1 --- A new classification of phrasal verbs based on the cognitive semantic framework --- p.74
Chapter 3.8.2 --- Rationale for the particle-based learning (PBL) --- p.77
Chapter 3.8.3 --- The particle-based learning model (PBLM) --- p.80
Chapter 3.8.4 --- Conclusion --- p.86
Chapter CHAPTER FOUR: --- RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND METHODOLOGY --- p.87
Chapter 4.1 --- Introduction --- p.87
Chapter 4.2 --- Metaphorical competence and motivation --- p.87
Chapter 4.3 --- Research questions and hypotheses --- p.89
Chapter 4.4 --- Research methodology --- p.91
Chapter 4.4.1 --- Subjects --- p.91
Chapter 4.4.2 --- Materials --- p.91
Chapter 4.4.2.1 --- Elicitation of phrasal verbs for test --- p.91
Chapter 4.4.2.2 --- Materials design --- p.95
Chapter 4.4.2.2.1 --- Pre-test paper --- p.95
Chapter 4.4.2.2.2 --- Teaching and learning paper --- p.96
Chapter 4.4.2.2.3 --- Post-test paper --- p.98
Chapter 4.4.2.2.4 --- Questionnaire --- p.99
Chapter 4.4.2.2.5 --- One-week delay test paper --- p.99
Chapter 4.4.3 --- Procedures --- p.99
Chapter 4.4.4 --- Scoring system --- p.103
Chapter CHAPTER FIVE: --- GENERAL RESULTS FROM SPSS --- p.105
Chapter 5.1 --- Introduction --- p.105
Chapter 5.2 --- Results of pre-test and pro-test --- p.106
Chapter 5.2.1 --- The output of SPSS --- p.106
Chapter 5.2.2 --- General description --- p.107
Chapter 5.3 --- Results of Hypothesis1 --- p.108
Chapter 5.3.1 --- The output of SPSS --- p.108
Chapter 5.3.2 --- General description --- p.109
Chapter 5.3.3 --- Conclusion --- p.110
Chapter 5.4 --- Results of Hypothesis2 --- p.110
Chapter 5.4.1 --- The output of SPSS --- p.110
Chapter 5.4.2 --- General description --- p.111
Chapter 5.4.3 --- Conclusion --- p.112
Chapter 5.5 --- Results of Hypothesis 3 --- p.112
Chapter 5.5.1 --- The mean score for each question --- p.113
Chapter 5.5.2 --- The output of SPSS --- p.114
Chapter 5.5.3 --- General description --- p.114
Chapter 5.5.4 --- Conclusion --- p.114
Chapter 5.6 --- Summary --- p.115
Chapter CHAPTER SIX: --- GENERAL DISCUSSIONS OF RESULTS --- p.117
Chapter 6.1 --- Introduction --- p.117
Chapter 6.2 --- Discussion of Hypothesis1 --- p.117
Chapter 6.2.1 --- General evaluation of Hypothesis1 --- p.117
Chapter 6.2.2 --- Conceptual metaphors and image schemas as embodied motivation --- p.119
Chapter 6.2.3 --- English as a satellite-framed language --- p.123
Chapter 6.2.4 --- Visualization and dual coding theory --- p.124
Chapter 6.2.5 --- Consolidation and elaboration in vocabulary acquisition --- p.127
Chapter 6.3 --- Discussion of Hypothesis2 --- p.130
Chapter 6.3.1 --- General evaluation of Hypothesis2 --- p.130
Chapter 6.3.2 --- The cognitive linguistic view on polysemous words --- p.132
Chapter 6.3.3 --- Effective guessing based on core meaning --- p.135
Chapter 6.4 --- Discussion of Hypothesis3 --- p.136
Chapter 6.4.1 --- General evaluation of Hypothesis3 --- p.136
Chapter 6.4.2 --- Discussion of six questions of questionnaire --- p.137
Chapter 6.4.3 --- Fallacies in traditional phrasal verb learning --- p.140
Chapter 6.4.4 --- Metaphoric triangle for phrasal verb learning --- p.142
Chapter 6.5 --- Summary --- p.144
Chapter CHAPTER SEVEN: --- PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION --- p.149
Chapter 7.1 --- Introduction --- p.149
Chapter 7.2 --- Traditional approach to phrasal verbs in Hong Kong English textbooks --- p.150
Chapter 7.3 --- Pedagogical implications of PBL on phrasal verb learning --- p.155
Chapter 7.3.1 --- Forewords to pedagogical application of PBL --- p.156
Chapter 7.3.2 --- Sample learning materials --- p.158
Chapter 7.3.2.1 --- Sample One (lower intermediate to intermediate level) --- p.159
Chapter 7.3.2.2 --- Sample Two (upper intermediate to advanced level) --- p.165
Chapter 7.3 --- Conclusion to pedagogical implications --- p.171
Chapter 7.4 --- An overall conclusion of the present study --- p.173
Chapter 7.4.1 --- Limitations --- p.173
Chapter 7.4.2 --- Suggestions for future research --- p.175
Chapter 7.4.3 --- Author's expectation of PBL on phrasal verb learning --- p.176
REFERENCES --- p.178
APPENDICES 1-19 --- p.194

In this work, the primary goal will be to construct the most descriptively and explanatorily adequate analysis possible to account for the complementary distribution of the Spanish copula verbs ser and estar. Over the past several decades, numerous theoretical accounts have been put forth in an attempt to accomplish this goal. Though such accounts accurately predict most types of stative sentences with the two copulas, they often fall short of predicting a significant number of them that are used in everyday speech. The first chapters of this dissertation will be devoted to reviewing a number of existing approaches that have been taken to account for the uses of ser and estar by testing their theoretical viability and descriptive adequacy. Among these are traditional conventions such as the inherent qualities vs. current condition distinction and the analysis of estar as an indicator of change. Those of a more recent theoretical framework, which will receive the most attention, include the application of Kratzer's (1995) individual-level vs. stage-level distinction to stative predicates and Maienborn's (2005) discourse-based interpretation of Spanish copulative predication. Schmitt's (2005) compositionally-based analysis of Portuguese ser and estar, which treats only estar as an aspectual copula, will be of special interest. After testing each of these analyses, it will be shown that the least costly and most accurate course to take for analyzing ser and estar is to treat both verbs as aspectual morphemes along the lines of Luján (1981). As aspectual copulas, ser and estar denote the aspectual distinction [±Perfective]. In my proposed analysis, I will argue that aspect applies to both events and states, but does so internally and externally respectively. By adapting Verkuyl's (2004) feature algebra to states, I will posit that aspect for stative predication is compositionally calculated, and the individual aspectual values for ser and estar remain constant in co-composition. In light of its descriptive adequacy for Spanish stative sentences and universality in natural language, it will also be shown that the [±Perfective] aspectual distinction is very strong in terms of explanatory adequacy as well.
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Text in Afrikaans
Tradisioneel is aanvaar dat die indirekte voorwerp nie in Afrikaanse stelsinne kan optree sander die voorkoms van 'n direkte voorwerp in dieselfde sin nie. Hierdie ondersoek het aan die lig gebring dat sekere voorwerpe wat voorheen as "direkte voorwerpe" geklassifiseer is, eerder die eienskappe van indirekte Hulle word dus nou geklassifiseer as en die parameters van die indirekte ooreenkomstig uitgebrei. Aangesien daar geen formele merkers vir die uitkenning en onderskeiding van direkte en indirecte voorwerpe bestaan nie, is parameters vir die doel vasgestel. Skoon indireckte voorwerpe (op enkele uisonderings na) verskyn altyd direk na die SPIL-posisie in 'n stelsin toon 'n groot affiniteit vir voorsetsels (versa vir, aan), en kan in die koers van adjunk afgegradeer word, deur me 'n voorsetsel te verbind, en kan sodoende ook na' 'n adjunk verskyn. Direkte voorwerpe kan daarenteen nie met voorset-: sels verbind nie en kan buitendien na enige adjunk verskyn.
Language Education, Arts and Culture
M.A. (Afrikaans)

Written and oral material produced by a group of low-achieving learners of English from the 2-year lines of the Swedish upper secondary school was analysed from the perspective of grammatical correctness and communicative ability. The grammatical analysis focussed on the verb phrase and tests included both free production in speech and writing and elicitation tests. Communicative ability was assessed ‘ ‘objectively* ’ by identifying such parameters as fluency, copiousness and span, and “holistically” by using non-expert evaluators.The scores thus obtained were correlated. Grammatical correctness was correlated with communicative ability both in speech and in writing and writing proficiency was correlated with speech proficiency with respect to both grammatical correctness and communicative ability.Our findings are that there is a positive correlation between grammatical correctness and communicative ability. A remarkable finding is that the percentage of correct verb phrases correlates very weakly with communicative ability in written data. In oral data, the correlation is in fact slightly negative. The learner’s competence in grammar is reflected in both his written and oral performance. On the other hand, there is no correlation between communicative ability in writing and communicative ability in speech.The study shows that a working command of a set of syntactic rules is essential for communication. Errors are, however, an integral part of the learning process. The major part of errors are accounted for by the learner’s use of compensatory strategies. Among these low-achievers, communicative ability in conversation is distinct from writing ability.
digitalisering@umu

MA (Xitsonga)
M.E.R. Mathivha Centre for African Languages, Arts and Culture
Xikongomelonkulu xa ndzavisiso lowu i ku xopaxopa maendli ya mfambo yo pfumala xiendliwa eka Xitsonga. Maendli ya mfambo ma nga aviwa hi mitlawantsongo mimbirhi ku nga maendli ya mfambo yo tsutsuma na maendli ya mfambo yo khunguluka. Ndzavisiso lowu wu kongomisa eka maendli ya mfambo yo tsutsuma. Swi nga tlhela swi koteka ku ava maendli ku ya hi tinhlamuselo leti ma ti paluxaka, tanihi maendli ya xihlovo na maendli ya mpakaniso. Eka ndzavisiso lowu, ku kaneriwa hi maendli ya mfambo ehansi ka mitlawa mimbirhi ya maendli ma mfambo lama paluxaka maendlelo na maendli lama endzeni ka wona ma nga na nhlamuselo leyi kongomisaka eka tlhelo. Eka ntirho lowu ku kaneriwa maendli mo ringana 24. Mitlawa leyi ya tinxaka ta maendli ya mfambo yi tlhela yi aviwa hi mitlawantsongo ya mune ku nga maendli ya mfambo lama nchumu wu fambaka hinkwawo ku suka eka ndhawu yo karhi ku ya eka yin’wana, maendli ya mfambo lawa ku fambaka xirho xa nchumu wo karhi ntsena, maendli ya mfambo lama ku fambaka nchumu hi ndlela yin’we na maendli ya mfambo ya muhulahula. Mahungu ya ndzavisiso lowu ma hlengeletiwa hi ku tirhisa yin’wana ya maendlelo ya phurayimari leyi vuriwaka endlelo ra nhlokohlo (elicitation), laha ku tirhisiwaka swivulwa leswi nga vumbiwa hi swichudeni leswi dyondzaka Xitsonga swa lembe ra vunharhu eYunivhesiti ya Vhenda. Ndzavisiso lowu wu endliwa ehansi ka thiyori ya thitha (theta-theory), ku nga thiyori leyi tirhanaka na vuxaka bya riendli ni swiphemu swa swivulwa leswi ri tirhaka na swona, leswi kumekaka eka tindhawu ta nhlokomhaka na swiendliwa. Hi ku ya hi thiyori leyi, agumente yin’wana ni yin’wana yi fanela ku nyikiwa nhlamuselo (ntirho) yo karhi hi riendli. Tinhlamuselo ta kona ti katsa leti landzelaka: muendli, nkongomelo, ndhawu, muamukeri, muvabyi, tlhelo, nkarhi, mukhuva ni tin’wana na tin’wana. Eka ndzavisiso lowu ku tirhisiwa tindlela timbirhi ku xopaxopa mahungu. Ndlela yo sungula i leyi vuriwaka nxopaxopo wa nkoka hi ku landza mikongomelo (thematic qualitative analysis), kasi ya vumbirhi yi vuriwaka manyikelo ya tinhlamuselo eka tiagumente ta swivulwa hi riendli (theta-role assignment). Tiagumente hinkwato leti nga eka swivulwa swa ndzavisiso lowu, leti katsaka tinhlokomhaka, swihetisi na swilandzelandzhaku, ta kombisiwa kasi na tinhlamuselo leti tiagumente ti nyikiwaka tona hi riendli ti paluxiwa.