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Journal articles on the topic 'Lethal or deadly force'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2025

Last updated: 15 July 2025

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1

Kargin, Vedat. "Police Use Of Excessive Force: A Case Study Of Lethal (Deadly) Force." European Scientific Journal, ESJ 12, no. 1 (2016): 488. http://dx.doi.org/10.19044/esj.2016.v12n1p488.

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Two African-American civilians, Sean Bell and Amadou Bailo Diallo, suffered tragic deaths as a result of use of lethal force by the police. This case study presents an in-depth analysis of the determinants that affected the officers’ use of lethal force with regard to the above mentioned cases. In 1999, Amadou Bailo Diallo was killed in a 41-bullet police shooting in New York. Similarly in 2006, Sean Bell was shot to death in a 50-bullet fusillade that involved officers from The New York City Police Department. After the Bell shooting, officers of The New York City Police Department were under

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2

Hendrix, Cullen S., and Idean Salehyan. "Ethnicity, nonviolent protest, and lethal repression in Africa." Journal of Peace Research 56, no. 4 (2019): 469–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022343318820088.

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Why do governments use deadly force against unarmed protesters? The government’s threat perception may be a function of the mobilization potential of the opposition and/or the size of the ruling elite’s support coalition. Given the high salience of ethnicity in African politics, governments that depend on small ethnic coalitions will see peaceful protests as more threatening, as the opposition may be able to draw on larger numbers of potential dissidents and excluded groups. Alternately, governments with larger, more homogeneous ethnic coalitions will find nonviolent mobilization less threaten

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3

Broomé, Rodger E. "An Empathetic Psychological Perspective of Police Deadly Force Training." Journal of Phenomenological Psychology 42, no. 2 (2011): 137–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156916211x599735.

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Abstract Police officers must be able to make an accurate appraisal of a lethal encounter and respond with appropriate force to mitigate the threat to their own lives and to the lives of others. Contemporary police deadly force training places the cadet in mock lethal encounters, which are designed to simulate those occurring in the real lives of law enforcement officers. This Reality Base Training (RBT) is designed to provide cadets with experiences that require their reactions to be within the law, policies and procedures, and ethics while undergoing a very stressful, emotional, and physical

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4

Prindani, Tubagus Ami, Imam Subandi, Marthinus Hukom, and Fayreizha Destika Putri. "HUMAN RIGHTS AND LAW ENFORCEMENT: THE USE OF FORCE IN COUNTER TERRORISM." Diponegoro Law Review 5, no. 1 (2020): 124–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.14710/dilrev.5.1.2020.124-139.

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This paper aims at discussing the legal as well as the human rights impact on the use of force and firearms by law enforcement officers in the event of counter terrorism, case study of the Indonesian National Police Counter Terrorism Special Detachment 88 CT (Densus 88 AT Polri). The discussion focuses on the nature of the use of force as well as the use of lethal firearms by law enforcement officers made possible by international legislation and provisions on human rights. Is it possible that the use of force and lethal weapons is still in line with respecting and upholding human rights? How

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5

Green, P. A., and S. N. Patek. "Contests with deadly weapons: telson sparring in mantis shrimp (Stomatopoda)." Biology Letters 11, no. 9 (2015): 20150558. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2015.0558.

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Mantis shrimp strike with extreme impact forces that are deadly to prey. They also strike conspecifics during territorial contests, yet theoretical and empirical findings in aggressive behaviour research suggest competitors should resolve conflicts using signals before escalating to dangerous combat. We tested how Neogonodactylus bredini uses two ritualized behaviours to resolve size-matched contests: meral spread visual displays and telson (tailplate) strikes. We predicted that (i) most contests would be resolved by meral spreads, (ii) meral spreads would reliably signal strike force and (iii

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6

Ross, Darrell L., and Mark Jones. "Frequency of Training in Less-than-Lethal Force Tactics and Weapons: Results of a Two-State Survey." Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 12, no. 3 (1996): 250–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/104398629601200304.

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Failing to train police officers in the use of less-than-lethal force tactics and equipment increases the police department's liability risk. Police officers in Michigan and North Carolina (N=482) responded to a questionnaire pertaining to the training their departments have provided in less-than-lethal force tactics and equipment since graduating from the police academy. A number of respondents were unaware that their department had a non-deadly force policy, and a majority of those who were aware of a policy had never been tested in its contents. Patrol officers as a group had received train

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7

Stell, Lance K. "Close Encounters of the Lethal Kind: The Use of Deadly Force in Self-Defense." Law and Contemporary Problems 49, no. 1 (1986): 113. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1191612.

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8

Yurievich, Mamychev Alexey, Gayvoronskaya Yana Vladimitovna, Petrova Daria Anatolievna, and Miroshnichenko Olga Igorevna. "Deadly Automatic Systems: Ethical And Legal Problems." Journal of Politics and Law 12, no. 4 (2019): 50. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jpl.v12n4p50.

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Artificial intelligence, neural networks, speech and behavior recognition systems, drones, autonomous robotic systems - all of these and many other technologies are widely used by the military to create a new type of lethal weapon programmed to independently decide to use military force. According to experts, production of such weapons will be a revolution in military affairs, the same kind of revolution that the creation of nuclear weapons made back in the days.  Adoption of fully autonomous combat systems raises a number of ethical and legal issues, the major of which is a destru

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9

Reineke, Robin C., and Daniel E. Martinez. "Excessive Use of Force and Migrant Death and Disappearance in Southern Arizona." Journal on Migration and Human Security 12, no. 3 (2024): 243–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/23315024241270515.

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Executive Summary In this article, we present a qualitative analysis of the events surrounding death or disappearance in autopsy and missing person reports from the Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner (PCOME) in Arizona to highlight how interactions between border enforcement personnel and migrants can be deadly. We reviewed PCOME records of undocumented border crosser deaths between 2000 and 2023 and observed three main types of deadly U.S. Border Patrol (USBP) practices: reckless motor vehicle pursuits, aggressive strategies used to detain individuals who are on foot, and the use of l

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10

Ushakov, I. B., A. S. Kal’manov, and Yu A. Bubeev. "Specific xenon-based gas mixtures used for stress correction therapy in patients exposed to lethal force scenarios." Medicо-Biological and Socio-Psychological Problems of Safety in Emergency Situations, no. 1 (May 5, 2023): 59–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.25016/2541-7487-2023-0-1-59-67.

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Introduction. Stress reaction in deadly scenarios is a systemic response of human body to the impact of extreme and acute psychotraumatic factors. The condition is associated with complete or partial loss of ability to perform tasks and can lead to the development of post-traumatic stress disorder. Therefore, new effective means and methods of stress correction in lethal force scenarios is a most urgent challenge for catastrophe medicine.The objective is to estimate the therapeutic efficacy of xenon gas mixtures in the treatment of different categories of employees exposed to occupational haza

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11

BUENO, SAMIRA, RENATO SÉRGIO DE LIMA, and MARCO ANTÔNIO CARVALHO TEIXEIRA. "Police use of deadly force in the State of São Paulo." Cadernos EBAPE.BR 17, spe (2019): 783–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1679-395177322x.

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Resumo A polícia constitui o principal mecanismo encontrado pelo Estado moderno para garantir a manutenção da lei e da ordem, tendo como prerrogativa a regulação das relações sociais mediante força física como ato legítimo e constitutivo de sua função. Desse modo, ao mesmo tempo que representa a autoridade para intervir quando necessário for, pode constituir um poderoso instrumento de violação de direitos dos cidadãos quando faz uso abusivo da força, em especial a letal. Este artigo apresenta uma análise descritiva das ocorrências de letalidade policial no Estado de São Paulo tendo por base a

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12

Frank Klahm IV, Charles, James Frank, and John Liederbach. "Understanding police use of force." Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 37, no. 3 (2014): 558–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/pijpsm-08-2013-0079.

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Purpose – The study of police use of force remains a primary concern of policing scholars; however, over the course of the last several decades, the focus has shifted from deadly and excessive force to a broader range of police behaviors that are coercive in nature, but not necessarily lethal, violent, or physical. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the critical disjuncture between the conceptualization of police use of force and operationalizations of the construct throughout policing literature. Design/methodology/approach – The current study provides a thorough, systematic review of

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13

Yesufu, Shaka. "Human rights and the policing of disorder in South Africa: challenges and future directions." EUREKA: Social and Humanities, no. 3 (May 31, 2021): 72–84. https://doi.org/10.21303/2504-5571.2021.001861.

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Unarguably, the South African Police during the apartheid era was characterised by brutality and state repression, including the political executions of several South African citizens who dared oppose the apartheid regime. The post-apartheid era has also witnessed deaths of citizens at the hands of the police during demonstrations, demanding better service delivery, higher wages, improved working conditions, and an end to marginalisation and poverty. The author presents some cases of police human rights violations concerning policing citizen's protests. This is a qualitative study, relying on

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14

KELAM, IVICA, and TOMISLAV NEDIĆ. "THE LEGAL AND ETHICAL ASPECTS OF THE USE OF LETHAL AUTONOMOUS WEAPON SYSTEMS IN WARFARE." Arhe 18, no. 36 (2022): 323–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.19090/arhe.2021.36.323-352.

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The development of new technologies has always found its first application in warfare, from the invention of the bow and arrow, through the discovery of gunpowder, to the use of unmanned aerial vehicles in the “War on Terror.” The “successful” use of drones in the targeted killings of “terrorists” gave additional impetus to the development of new types of autonomous weapons that completely replace soldiers of blood and flesh on the battlefield. Currently, there is significant controversy over fully autonomous weapons that are fully autonomous in carrying out military operations. They can auton

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15

Ahmed, Arsto Nasir. "Consumption: The Fashionable Disease of the Self and Its Romantic Allure in Literature." Journal of University of Human Development 3, no. 1 (2017): 268. http://dx.doi.org/10.21928/juhd.v3n1y2017.pp268-273.

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Consumption—Tuberculosis or (TB)—is considered as a peculiarly significant disease across different disciplines. This research traces the medical and literary history of the disease then discusses its aestheticised glamour in a number of writings that date back to the 16th, 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Before being identified as a lethal disease in the 20th century, consumption was dealt with positively during the preceding periods or eras i.e., being consumptive signified love, easy death, female beauty, male creativity and genius, etc. The specific purpose of this academic endeavour is to

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16

Fridel, Emma E., Keller G. Sheppard, and Gregory M. Zimmerman. "Integrating the Literature on Police Use of Deadly Force and Police Lethal Victimization: How Does Place Impact Fatal Police–Citizen Encounters?" Journal of Quantitative Criminology 36, no. 4 (2019): 957–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10940-019-09438-5.

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17

Tauchnitz, Evelyne. "The deadly protection trap: the 'instrumentalisation' of fundamental human right norms by state actors in the Mexican Drug War." Critical Military Studies 9, no. 2 (2021): 236–58. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14938322.

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Despite a proclaimed strengthening of international human rights norms on an international level, the fundamental human 'right to life' is not always able to act as a barrier against state violence and militarization on national levels. As illustrated by Operation Michoacán, which in retrospective marked the start of the Mexican 'war' on drugs, the right to life has been interpreted and implemented by domestic state actors in ambiguous and often very counterproductive ways. Specifically, the argument to protect innocent citizens' lives against drug criminality served as a major justific

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18

Gregory, Thomas. "Dangerous feelings: Checkpoints and the perception of hostile intent." Security Dialogue 50, no. 2 (2019): 131–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0967010618820450.

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Between 2006 and 2007 an average of one Iraqi civilian was killed or injured at a coalition checkpoint each day. In many cases, civilians were shot because soldiers had misinterpreted their behaviour as hostile or as a demonstration of hostile intent. In other words, the soldiers responsible thought that they were acting in self-defence against an imminent threat. Some analysts have argued that these killings can be explained by ambiguities in the rules of engagement, but such explanations wrongly assume that the decision to kill is a purely rational calculation. Drawing upon the work of Sara

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19

Chan, JTS, and RSD Yeung. "A Study on Police bean Bag Injuries in a Pork Model." Hong Kong Journal of Emergency Medicine 10, no. 2 (2003): 124–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/102490790301000210.

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Introduction Currently law enforcement agencies in 10 countries have been granted approval for the use of police bean bag. The need for “less lethal” weapon to control violent suspects is under hot discussion. The manufacturer acknowledges that this weapon will only cause bruises, skin abrasions and minor injuries so as to incapacitate the violent suspect. The objective of this study was to see the degree of trauma produced by shooting police bean bag at different firing ranges. Materials and methods Fresh pork was chosen for this test. The pork was subjected to police bean bag challenge at tw

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20

Aliyev, Huseyn. "Why Are Some Civil Wars More Lethal Than Others? The Effect of Pro-Regime Proxies on Conflict Lethality." Political Studies 68, no. 3 (2019): 749–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0032321719862752.

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Previous large-N studies on conflict lethality have focused in large part either on structural factors or on the properties of key conflict protagonists – governments and rebels. This article challenges the dyadic two-actor approach to studying conflict lethality that examines exclusively the key actors of the dyad, and – on the example of pro-regime militias – hypothesises that participation of extra-state actors in civil wars can exert significant influence on battlefield lethality. It is proposed here that pro-regime militias can swell the number of combat deaths through, first of all, acti

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21

AJIBOYE, Babatope Matthew. "BOKO HARAM: SHEKAU’S DEMISE – HALCYON OR NADIR FOR SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA’S FIGHT AGAINST TERRORISM?" Conflict Studies Quarterly, no. 41 (October 5, 2022): 3–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.24193/csq.41.1.

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In Sub-Saharan Africa, no terrorist group has been as lethal as Boko Haram, under the leadership of Abubakar Shekau. Barely more than a decade, since the group’s inception, the entire Sub-Saharan Africa has been engulfed by deadly activities of the dreaded terrorist group. From evidence, more than 40,000 people have been killed, over 2 million people have been displaced, scores of forced migrants have been scattered across West Africa, properties worth billions of dollars have been destroyed, and governance in the sub-region has, essentially, been ineffective since 2009, when the group launche

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22

Terrill, William. "Deadly Force." Criminology & Public Policy 15, no. 2 (2016): 491–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12193.

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23

Cook, Philip J. "Deadly force." Science 355, no. 6327 (2017): 803. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aam5966.

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24

Lucas, George. "The deadly diffusion of lethal technologies." Science 366, no. 6467 (2019): 810. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aaz4545.

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25

Perkins, Sid. "Not-so-Deadly Force." Science News 153, no. 10 (1998): 156. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4010155.

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26

Huq, Aziz Z. "Dignity, Not Deadly Force." World Policy Journal 34, no. 2 (2017): 38–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/07402775-4191602.

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27

Walker, Jeffery T. "Police and Correctional Use of Force: Legal and Policy Standards and Implications." Crime & Delinquency 42, no. 1 (1996): 144–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011128796042001009.

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In the 1980s, the police use of deadly force against nonviolent felons began to be questioned. This critical examination culminated in the decision in Tennessee v. Garner, which ruled that the police could use deadly force only in certain life-threatening situations. However, a decade after Garner, there are few limitations on the use of deadly force by correctional officers in situations where prisoners are attempting to escape. This article compares correctional deadly force policies and practices with current standards governing police use of deadly force. Court actions that might limit suc

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28

Munasinghe, B. M., Nishanthan Subramaniam, and J. K. D. B. S. Ranatunga. "A Lethal Apparatus: Life Saver Converted Deadly." Sri Lankan Journal of Anaesthesiology 30, no. 1 (2022): 92. http://dx.doi.org/10.4038/slja.v30i1.8832.

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29

Belur, Jyoti. "Police Use of Deadly Force." Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 25, no. 2 (2009): 237–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1043986209333594.

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30

Hontz, Thomas A. "Justifying the Deadly Force Response." Police Quarterly 2, no. 4 (1999): 462–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/109861119900200404.

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31

Bradley, Arthur. "Deadly force: Contract, killing, sacrifice." Security Dialogue 50, no. 4 (2019): 331–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0967010619843477.

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This article proposes a political prehistory of drone theory that traces its juridico-political evolution from the 17th century to the present day. To outline my argument, I construct a constellation between Hobbes’s theory of sovereign punishment in Leviathan and Chamayou’s critique of drone warfare in Drone Theory to illuminate the political origins of drone violence. First, I argue that Hobbes’s social contract theory lays the conceptual groundwork for Chamayou’s drone theory. Second, I contend that Hobbes’s theory of the sovereign punishment of domestic citizens preempts Chamayou’s critiqu

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32

Waddington, P. A. J. "Police use of deadly force." Policing and Society 22, no. 4 (2012): 538–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2012.657195.

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33

Trostle, Lawrence C. "The Force Continuum: From Lethal to Less-than-Lethal Force." Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 6, no. 1 (1990): 23–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/104398629000600104.

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34

White, Michael D. "Controlling Police Decisions to Use Deadly Force: Reexamining the Importance of Administrative Policy." Crime & Delinquency 47, no. 1 (2001): 131–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011128701047001006.

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Prior research has sought to identify appropriate mechanisms that can effectively control police officers' decisions to use deadly force. Using data from Philadelphia for a period of more than two decades, this article employs interrupted time series analysis (ARIMA) to examine the impact of two changes in administrative policy on monthly levels of deadly force in Philadelphia. Findings support prior deadly force research suggesting that administrative policy can be an effective deadly force discretion control, but the Philadelphia experience indicates that formal policy can be outweighed by t

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35

Klein, Jessie. "Book Review: Deadly Lessons: Understanding Lethal School Violence." Men and Masculinities 8, no. 4 (2006): 535–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1097184x05284149.

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36

MacDonald, John M., Robert J. Kaminski, Geoffrey P. Alpert, and Abraham N. Tennenbaum. "The Temporal Relationship Between Police Killings of Civilians and Criminal Homicide: A Refined Version of the Danger-Perception Theory." Crime & Delinquency 47, no. 2 (2001): 155–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011128701047002001.

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The connection between police use of deadly force and the criminal homicide rate has long been recognized in the literature. Their temporal relationship, however, has seldom been examined. The present study suggests that earlier research has underestimated the importance of the temporal relationship between the homicides that present the greatest level of public danger and police use of deadly force. This research suggests that police use of deadly force can best be understood through a “ratio-threat” version of the danger-perception theory. Through a time-series analysis of data from the Fede

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37

Alpert, Geoffrey P., and Patrick R. Anderson. "The most deadly force: Police pursuits." Justice Quarterly 3, no. 1 (1986): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07418828600088761.

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38

PATEL, GOONJA, PUSHTI KHANDWALA, SRUTHI SAMALA, and RAJAGOPALAN RENGAN. "THE DEADLY TEA: THE LEGAL HERB WITH LETHAL CONSEQUENCES." Chest 160, no. 4 (2021): A775. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2021.07.731.

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Perkins, James E., and Martin J. Bourgeois. "Perceptions of Police Use of Deadly Force." Journal of Applied Social Psychology 36, no. 1 (2006): 161–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00056.x.

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40

Dudley, Steven. "Deadly Force: Security and Insecurity in Rio." NACLA Report on the Americas 32, no. 3 (1998): 31–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10714839.1998.11725651.

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41

FitzGerald, Sean C., and Max L. Bromley. "Surviving deadly force encounters: A case study." Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 13, no. 2 (1998): 25–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02806710.

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42

Huff-Corzine, Lin, Jay Corzine, and David C. Moore. "Deadly Connections: Culture, Poverty, and the Direction of Lethal Violence." Social Forces 69, no. 3 (1991): 715. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2579472.

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Huff-Corzine, L., J. Corzine, and D. C. Moore. "Deadly Connections: Culture, Poverty, and the Direction of Lethal Violence." Social Forces 69, no. 3 (1991): 715–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sf/69.3.715.

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44

Hehman, Eric, Jessica K. Flake, and Jimmy Calanchini. "Disproportionate Use of Lethal Force in Policing Is Associated With Regional Racial Biases of Residents." Social Psychological and Personality Science 9, no. 4 (2017): 393–401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1948550617711229.

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Due to a lack of data, the demographic and psychological factors associated with lethal force by police officers have remained insufficiently explored. We develop the first predictive models of lethal force by integrating crowd-sourced and fact-checked lethal force databases with regional demographics and measures of geolocated implicit and explicit racial biases collected from 2,156,053 residents across the United States. Results indicate that only the implicit racial prejudices and stereotypes of White residents, beyond major demographic covariates, are associated with disproportionally more

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45

Carson, Jennifer Varriale, and Matthew Suppenbach. "The Global Jihadist Movement: The Most Lethal Ideology?" Homicide Studies 22, no. 1 (2017): 8–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088767917733783.

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Prior research has established a link between ideology and lethality, both within the homicide and terrorism literatures. We examine this relationship as it pertains to the Global Jihadist Movement (GJM). Using a series of logit and negative binomial models with a sample from the Global Terrorism Database, we find that the GJM is indeed more deadly. However, this relationship does not seem to differentially affect Americans, despite their role as the GJM’s defined “other.”

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46

Wood, David. "Police Accountability for Lethal Force." Police Journal: Theory, Practice and Principles 77, no. 1 (2004): 55–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1350/pojo.77.1.55.31515.

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47

Phillips, Scott W., and Dae-Young Kim. "Exploring Officer-Involved Shootings With Interaction Effects: A Deeper Understanding of How Race/Ethnicity Interacts With Other Factors in the Use of Deadly Force." Criminal Justice and Behavior 48, no. 6 (2021): 755–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854821997529.

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There has been a substantial body of research examining the reasons behind the police officers’ use of deadly force. Little research has been done to examine how race and ethnicity interact with other factors in the use of deadly force. With data collected in Dallas, Texas, the present study examines the influence of individual, situational, and neighborhood characteristics on officers’ decision to use deadly force. The present study also provides an alternative approach to logistic regression models by estimating predictive probabilities of officers shooting at citizens. The results show that

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48

O'Connell, Mary Ellen. "The Venezuela Crisis 2019: Use of Lethal Force and Action Short of Force." Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting 113 (2019): 273–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/amp.2019.138.

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These comments briefly address two international legal issues of concern in the Venezuela crisis: the legality of any party resorting to lethal force or taking action short of lethal force. Turmoil in Venezuela moved to a new, more dangerous level, when in January 2019 the leader of the parliament, Juan Guaidó, claimed to be the legitimate president in place of the incumbent, Nicolás Maduro. A variety of parties have taken and have threatened to take action in the wake of Guaidó’s claim. The news media has reported on three categories of action short of lethal force, including economic sanctio

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Probst, Claudia, Henry Njapau, and Peter J. Cotty. "Outbreak of an Acute Aflatoxicosis in Kenya in 2004: Identification of the Causal Agent." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73, no. 8 (2007): 2762–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.02370-06.

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ABSTRACT Maize contaminated with aflatoxins has been implicated in deadly epidemics in Kenya three times since 1981, but the fungi contaminating the maize with aflatoxins have not been characterized. Here we associate the S strain of Aspergillus flavus with lethal aflatoxicoses that took more than 125 lives in 2004.

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Biggs, Adam T., Joel Suss, Sarah Sherwood, Joseph A. Hamilton, and Tatana Olson. "Perception Over Personality in Lethal Force: Aggression, Impulsivity, and Big Five Traits in Threat Assessments and Behavioral Responses due to Weapon Presence and Posture." American Journal of Psychology 135, no. 2 (2022): 195–214. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/19398298.135.2.06.

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Abstract:

Abstract The use of lethal force is a combination of threat perception and individual judgment that sometimes warrants a behavioral response. This simplified description implicates perceptual factors and individual differences in lethal force decision making, which ongoing research continues to address. However, personality-based factors have been less explored as to how they might affect either threat perception or behavioral responses in a lethal force decision. The current investigation examined multiple personality traits with the potential to influence lethal force decision making, includ

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