Journal articles on the topic 'Letter to A.C'

This article describes an activity that revolves around a data set that students help create. The students use data about occurrences of letters in English text to study the relationship between the relative frequency of letters and the percent of Scrabble game tiles for the letter and the relationship between the relative frequency of a letter and the letter's Scrabble game-tile point value.

In a 6 September, 1959 unpublished letter to Reverend Alan Fairhurst, C.S. Lewis clearly denies Universalism. In a second unpublished letter to Fairhurst dated 9 September, 1959, Lewis offered evidence that he was not an Annihilationist. Both letters are unusual because Lewis was normally hesitant to discuss eschatology, particularly the nature of hell. This essay presents both previously unpublished letters in their entirety, discusses the reasons for their importance, sets them in the context of Lewis' other writings on hell and renders a conclusion, based on Lewis' own words, about his positions on Universalism and Annihilationism.

The low interest of students in writing letters must be responded to by the teachers, efforts to increase the passion of writing students, teachers try to improve the techniques and abilities of students through letter writing. The objectives of this study include the first to describe the level of students' ability to write personal letters through student training techniques, second Improve the learning process of writing personal letters to students, and third Improve the ability to write personal letters through training techniques so students achieve grades above KKM. In this study, the research design used was classroom action research (CAR) by taking action through cycle I and cycle II. The scope of this research is classroom learning carried out by teachers and students to make improvements that have an impact on improving student learning outcomes. The results of this study show that in the first cycle the value of the ability to write a personal letter in the first cycle was 66.00 with sufficient categories. While the ability to write a personal letter in the second cycle obtained an average value of 77.83 with a good category experiencing an increase of 11.33 or 17.20%.

In alphabetic orthographies, letter identification is a critical process during the recognition of visually presented words. In the present experiment, we examined whether and when visual form influences letter processing in two very distinct alphabets (Roman and Arabic). Disentangling visual versus abstract letter representations was possible because letters in the Roman alphabet may look visually similar/dissimilar in lowercase and uppercase forms (e.g., c-C vs. r-R) and letters in the Arabic alphabet may look visually similar/dissimilar, depending on their position within a word (e.g., [Formula: see text] - [Formula: see text] vs. [Formula: see text] - [Formula: see text]). We employed a masked priming same–different matching task while ERPs were measured from individuals who had learned the two alphabets at an early age. Results revealed a prime–target relatedness effect dependent on visual form in early components (P/N150) and a more abstract relatedness effect in a later component (P300). Importantly, the pattern of data was remarkably similar in the two alphabets. Thus, these data offer empirical support for a universal (i.e., across alphabets) hierarchical account of letter processing in which the time course of letter processing in different scripts follows a similar trajectory from visual features to visual form independent of abstract representations.

Although best known as the wife of C. S. Lewis, Joy Davidman was a gifted writer. In particular she was a very good poet; her Letter to a Comrade (1938) won both the Yale Younger Poet competition and the Russell Loines Memorial award for poetry given by the National Institute of Arts and Letters. In this essay I sketch the development of Davidman as a poet, explore a thematic discussion of the poems in Letter to a Comrade, and offer a brief critical assessment of the volume as a whole.

Let Γ=ℤm * ℤn or ℤ * ℤn, and let Γ(h) be the subtree consisting of all reduced words starting with any reduced word h ∈ Γ\{e}. We prove that the C*-algebra [Formula: see text] generated by [Formula: see text] and the projection Ph onto the subspace ℓ2(Γ(h)) has a unique nontrivial closed ideal ℐ, ℐ is *-isomorphic to [Formula: see text], and the quotient algebra [Formula: see text] is *-isomorphic to either [Formula: see text] or [Formula: see text] depending on the last letter of h. We also prove that [Formula: see text] is a purely infinite, simple C*-algebra if the last letter of h is a generator of ℤ, and that [Formula: see text] has a unique nontrivial closed ideal [Formula: see text] if the last letter of h is a generator of ℤn; furthermore, [Formula: see text] is *-isomorphic to [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] is again a purely infinite, simple C*-algebra. As consequences, all the C*-algebras above have real rank zero, and [Formula: see text] is nuclear for any h ≠ e.

This study was conducted to describe (1) the type of abreviation and (2) the formation of abreviation in the weekly newspaper of Padang Ekspres in January 2018. This research type is qualitative research by using descriptive method. This research data is a kind of abreviation (abbreviations, acronyms, fragments, contractions, and symbols) that exist in the news sentences of the weekly newspaper Padang Ekspres January 2018. The data sources of this research in the newspaper Padang Ekpres Weekly edition in January 2018. Based on the results of data analysis obtained two research findings. First, the type of abreviation in the weekly newspaper Padang Ekspres January 2018, found five types of abreviation, namely (a) abbreviation, (b) acronym, (c)fragments, (d) contractions, and (e) symbols. Second, the formation of abreviation in the weekly newspaper Padang Ekspres January 2018, consists of four processes. (a) The formation of abbreviations consisting of: the first letters of each component; first letters with conjunction, preposition, reduplication, articulation and word; first letters; and first and third letter. (b) The formation of acronyms and contractions consisting of: the first syllabus of each component; first of each component, first two letters of each component, the first three letters of each component, the first two letters of the first two and the first two letters of the second component together with the deletion; and the sequence of various letters and syllables difficult to formulate. (c) The formation of a fragment consist of: that is letters the last syllable of a word and partial splitting sequence. (d) The formation of letter symbol consisting of: that is symbol of letters that characterize size consisting of first letters of consolidation of component, letter symbol expressing data number, and symbol letters that mark currency.Keywords: Abreviation, Newspaper, Padang Ekspress

This study was conducted to describe (1) the type of abreviation and (2) the formation of abreviation in the weekly newspaper of Padang Ekspres in January 2018. This research type is qualitative research by using descriptive method. This research data is a kind of abreviation (abbreviations, acronyms, fragments, contractions, and symbols) that exist in the news sentences of the weekly newspaper Padang Ekspres January 2018. The data sources of this research in the newspaper Padang Ekpres Weekly edition in January 2018. Based on the results of data analysis obtained two research findings. First, the type of abreviation in the weekly newspaper Padang Ekspres January 2018, found five types of abreviation, namely (a) abbreviation, (b) acronym, (c)fragments, (d) contractions, and (e) symbols. Second, the formation of abreviation in the weekly newspaper Padang Ekspres January 2018, consists of four processes. (a) The formation of abbreviations consisting of: the first letters of each component; first letters with conjunction, preposition, reduplication, articulation and word; first letters; and first and third letter. (b) The formation of acronyms and contractions consisting of: the first syllabus of each component; first of each component, first two letters of each component, the first three letters of each component, the first two letters of the first two and the first two letters of the second component together with the deletion; and the sequence of various letters and syllables difficult to formulate. (c) The formation of a fragment consist of: that is letters the last syllable of a word and partial splitting sequence. (d) The formation of letter symbol consisting of: that is symbol of letters that characterize size consisting of first letters of consolidation of component, letter symbol expressing data number, and symbol letters that mark currency. Keywords: Adverbs, Novel, Pujangga Baru

The main purpose of this project was to see if there is a difference in performance between blind and sighted subjects when reading raised letters by feel. A secondary purpose was to attempt to find the optimum height while keeping all other variables constant. Six blind and 22 blindfolded subjects were asked to identify raised plastic letters by feel. The following confusion letters were used: E,F,P,R,G,C,O,Q,D,B,U,V,J,I,T. The heights were 1.27, 1.91 and 2.54 cm. The time it took to identify the letter and whether or not the letter was misidentified were recorded. There was not enough evidence to conclude a difference between blind and blindfolded subjects. The sizes 1.91 and 2.54 cm were not significantly different. However, 1.27 cm was harder to identify. There were significant differences between letters. There was no correlation between identification time and accuracy.

<p class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 100%;" align="justify"> </p><p class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 100%;" align="justify"><span style="color: #000000;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><span lang="en-US">The aim of the present study was to determine the level of ginsenosides in </span></span></span></span><span style="color: #000000;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><span lang="en-US">extracts from </span></span></span></span><span style="color: #000000;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><span lang="en-US">hairy root A, B, G clones of</span></span></span></span><span style="color: #000000;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><span lang="en-US"><em> Panax quinquefolium </em></span></span></span></span><span style="color: #000000;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><span lang="en-US">and their action with antibiotics against clinical bacterial isolates. The content of ginsenosides (the key biologically active compounds) were determined in tested extracts using HPLC. The activity of extracts with antibiotics was established by micro-dilution broth method. Total triterpene saponin content was 14.68, 14.32 and 10.07 mgg</span></span></span></span><span style="color: #000000;">^{<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><span lang="en-US">-1</span></span></span>}</span><span style="color: #000000;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><span lang="en-US"> d.w. for root culture clones B, A and G, respectively. Our research indicates that the addition of extracts mainly from B and G clone hairy root cultures to antibiotics allow to reduce the ampicillin and tetracycline effective concentration respectively against </span></span></span></span><span style="color: #000000;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><span lang="en-US"><em>Enterococcus faecalis</em></span></span></span></span><span style="color: #000000;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><span lang="en-US"> and both </span></span></span></span><span style="color: #000000;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><span lang="en-US"><em>Escherichia coli</em></span></span></span></span><span style="color: #000000;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><span lang="en-US"> and </span></span></span></span><span style="color: #000000;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><span lang="en-US"><em>Acintobacter baumannii</em></span></span></span></span><span style="color: #000000;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><span lang="en">.</span></span></span></span></p><p class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; line-height: 100%;" align="justify"><span style="color: #000000;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;"><span lang="en"><br /></span></span></span></span></p>

<span style="font-family: 'Garamond',serif; font-size: 8pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: ES; mso-fareast-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Eluso<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">x</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.15pt;">c</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>sivode<span style="letter-spacing: -0.3pt;">I</span>nt<span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">e</span>rn<span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">e</span>t<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>n<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">a</span>doles<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ce</span>ntesy jóve<span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">n</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>sse<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>onsid<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>ra r<span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">e</span>la<span 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-0.05pt;">e</span>siv<span style="letter-spacing: 0.2pt;">o</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">-c</span>ompu<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">l</span>sivas.<span style="letter-spacing: -0.15pt;">L</span>a<span style="letter-spacing: 0.15pt;">m</span>u<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>stra<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>stuvo fo<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">r</span>madap<span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">o</span>r132<span style="letter-spacing: 0.2pt;">v</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>ron<span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">e</span>sy 178mu<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">j</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">r</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>sde<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>d<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">d</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>s<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>ompr<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>ndidas<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>ntre16y 23<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>ñosq<span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">u</span>e <span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>urs<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>b<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>nB<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ac</span>hi<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">l</span>le<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">r</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>toy <span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>stud<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">i</span>osunive<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">r</span>si<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">t</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>rios.<span style="letter-spacing: -0.15pt;">L</span>osr<span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">e</span>sul<span style="letter-spacing: 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style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">o</span>mpu<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">l</span>sivode<span style="letter-spacing: -0.3pt;">I</span>nt<span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">e</span>rn<span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">e</span>t.Els<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">x</span>o<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>f<span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">e</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>tóa losnivel<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>sd<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>lusop<span style="letter-spacing: -0.15pt;">r</span>oblem<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">á</span>t<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">i</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>ode<span style="letter-spacing: -0.3pt;">I</span>n<span style="letter-spacing: 0.15pt;">t</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>rn<span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">e</span>tsiendolos<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>hicoslos quem<span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">a</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.25pt;">y</span>o<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">r</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>s puntua<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>iones<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>lc<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>n<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">z</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>ron<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>nuso<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>ompu<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">l</span>sivoy<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">c</span>ons<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ec</span>u<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>n<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.15pt;">i</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>sn<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>g<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>t<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">i</span>v<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>s.<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">S</span>e<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>onfi<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">r</span>mó una<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;"> c</span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">o</span>r<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">re</span>l<span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">a</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>ión s<span style="letter-spacing: 0.15pt;">i</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">g</span>nifi<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ca</span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.15pt;">t</span>ivaydi<span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">r</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ec</span>ta<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>nt<span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">r</span>euso <span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">p</span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">r</span>oblem<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">á</span>t<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">i</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>o de<span style="letter-spacing: -0.15pt;">I</span>nte<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">r</span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">n</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>ty r<span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">e</span>spu<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>stasde <span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>nsied<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>ds<span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">o</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>ialy ob<span style="letter-spacing: 0.2pt;">s</span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">e</span>siv<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">o</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">-c</span>ompu<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">l</span>sivas.<span style="letter-spacing: -0.25pt;">L</span>ospr<span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">e</span>dicto<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">re</span>smási<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">m</span>por<span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">t</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>nted<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>luso probl<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>mático de <span style="letter-spacing: -0.15pt;">I</span>nte<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">r</span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">n</span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">e</span>t fu<span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">e</span>ron <span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>l dom<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">i</span>nio d<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>l <span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>ntorno,la <span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>nsied<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>d so<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>ial y los sín<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">t</span>omasobs<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>siv<span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">o</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">-c</span>ompu<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">l</span>sivo<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">s</span>.<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">S</span>epodría <span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>o<span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">n</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>lu<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">i</span>r,<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>unque<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>on<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ca</span>utel<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>,quem<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">i</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>ntr<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">a</span>s que losjóven<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>s<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>on<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>nsied<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>dso<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">i</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>lpodr<span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">í</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>nbus<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">c</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>r <span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>lusode in<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">te</span>rn<span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">e</span>t<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>o<span style="letter-spacing: 0.15pt;">m</span>ounmediode in<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">t</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>r<span style="letter-spacing: -0.1pt;">a</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">cc</span>iónpl<span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">a</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ce</span>nt<span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">e</span>ro, losjóven<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>s<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>onsín<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">t</span>omasobs<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>siv<span style="letter-spacing: 0.2pt;">o</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">-c</span>ompu<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">l</span>sivospodrí<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>nl<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">l</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>g<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>r a un uso <span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span><span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">x</span><span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">ce</span>sivo como m<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>dio de <span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">e</span>l<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">i</span>m<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">i</span>n<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>r la<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;"> a</span>nsi<span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">e</span>d<span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">a</span>d <span style="letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">c</span>ompu<span style="letter-spacing: 0.05pt;">l</span>siva.</span>

Summary Modern linguistics textbooks devote little, if any, space to writing systems. Shifting our attention from naming precursors or proto-theories to reading earlier language study and linguistics as theorizing and description, the present paper explores ancient and early medieval concepts of the letter in terms of the semiotics of written language and the emergence of textual consciousness in manuscript culture. Early concepts and uses of the letter in alphabetic writing were ambiguous, multilayered, and occasionally contested, but they were not confused. Ancient and early medieval concepts of the letter were based on a semiotics of language and writing which connected spoken and visual signs as multimodal textual activity. Theories of the letter included: (a) the written character (gramma, littera) is a visual sign signifying a particular sound or group of sounds; (b) letters can function as arbitrary second-order signifying systems, such as numbers or diacritics; (c) different alphabets are rooted in the history of peoples although the Roman alphabet is a plastic medium for inscribing the emerging European vernaculars; (d) letters are material substances; (e) the written character is a mute sign; (f) the written character is imperfect or incomplete when detached from sound and the practice of reading aloud.