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1
Roldán, Manuel, Ana Marcet, and Manuel Perea. "Is there a cost at encoding words with joined letters during visual word recognition?" Psicológica Journal 39, no. 2 (2018): 279–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/psicolj-2018-0012.
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AbstractFor simplicity, models of visual-word recognition have focused on printed words composed of separated letters, thus overlooking the processing of cursive words. Manso de Zuniga, Humphreys, and Evett (1991) claimed that there is an early “cursive normalization” encoding stage when processing written words with joined letters. To test this claim, we conducted a lexical decision experiment in which words were presented either with separated or joined letters. To examine if the cost of letter segmentation occurs early in processing, we also manipulated a factor (i.e., word-frequency) that is posited to affect subsequent lexical processing. Results showed faster response times for the words composed of separated letters than for the words composed of joined letters. This effect occurred similarly for low- and high-frequency words. Thus, the present data offer some empirical support to Manso de Zuniga et al.’s (1991) idea of an early “cursive normalization” stage when processing joined-letters words. This pattern of data can be used to constrain the mapping of the visual input into letter and word units in future versions of models of visual word recognition.
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Jiang, Nan. "Examining L1 influence in L2 word recognition." Journal of Second Language Studies 4, no. 1 (2021): 1–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/jsls.19039.jia.
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Abstract The present study examined L1 influence in visual L2 word recognition in the area of letter case. Whether an English word is displayed in upper- or lower-case letters may be of little significance to English native speakers, but many ESL speakers from east Asia have found it more difficult to recognize words printed in upper-case letters. Two experiments were conducted to explore two questions: (a) whether there was indeed a case effect in L2 word recognition in that ESL speakers took longer in responding to upper-case words, and (b) whether this case effect only occurred for ESL speakers whose first languages employed a script other than the Roman alphabet. The participants included English native speakers, ESL speakers whose L1s employed the Roman alphabet (the Romance ESL group) and ESL speakers whose L1s did not. They were asked to perform a lexical decision task on English words displayed in either upper- or lower-case letters. In both experiments, a reliable case effect was found for the latter ESL group only. This L1-related case effect raised both theoretical and pedagogical issues to be explored in future research.
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Wróbel, Michał, Janusz T. Starczewski, Justyna Fijałkowska, Agnieszka Siwocha, and Christian Napoli. "Handwritten Word Recognition Using Fuzzy Matching Degrees." Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing Research 11, no. 3 (2021): 229–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/jaiscr-2021-0014.
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Abstract Handwritten text recognition systems interpret the scanned script images as text composed of letters. In this paper, efficient offline methods using fuzzy degrees, as well as interval fuzzy degrees of type-2, are proposed to recognize letters beforehand decomposed into strokes. For such strokes, the first stage methods are used to create a set of hypotheses as to whether a group of strokes matches letter or digit patterns. Subsequently, the second-stage methods are employed to select the most promising set of hypotheses with the use of fuzzy degrees. In a primary version of the second-stage system, standard fuzzy memberships are used to measure compatibility between strokes and character patterns. As an extension of the system thus created, interval type-2 fuzzy degrees are employed to perform a selection of hypotheses that fit multiple handwriting typefaces.
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Assink, Egbert, Merel Lam, and Paul Knuijt. "Visual and phonological processes in poor readers' word recognition." Applied Psycholinguistics 19, no. 3 (1998): 471–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0142716400010286.
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ABSTRACTIn two experiments, poor and normal Dutch readers, matched for reading age, were presented with visual matching tasks on a computer screen. In Experiment 1, word and pseudoword letter strings were used. The strings consisted of either uppercase/lowercase congruent (e.g., o/O) or uppercase/lowercase incongruent letters (e.g., a/A). Poor readers needed significantly more time to decode uppercase/lowercase incongruent pairs, especially when the pairs consisted of pseudowords. Experiment 2 investigated whether this effect was phonologically or visually mediated. Strings of letters, digit strings, and abstract figure symbols were used. Letter strings included words, pseudowords, and nonwords. Poor readers needed more time to match incongruent letter case pairs, consistent with Experiment 1. Poor readers performed more poorly on letter and digit string matching but not on the figure–symbol matching task. No evidence was found for the differential use of orthographic information in terms of multiletter constraints. The combined data on the letter, digit, and graphic symbol matching experiments suggest that an inadequate command of grapheme–phoneme associations is a critical factor in reading disability. Evidence for poor visual processing as an independent source of reading disability could not be established.
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LEVIN, IRIS, SIGAL PATEL, TAMAR MARGALIT, and NOA BARAD. "Letter names: Effect on letter saying, spelling, and word recognition in Hebrew." Applied Psycholinguistics 23, no. 2 (2002): 269–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0142716402002060.
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Letter names bridge the gap between oral and written language among English speaking children. This study examined whether letter names have a similar function in Hebrew. Despite their common historical source, Hebrew letter names differ from English: they are longer and not as regular phonologically. However, they follow the acrophonic principle, unlike many English letter names. Israeli kindergartners, whose mother tongue was Hebrew, were asked to orally provide initial or final letters of spoken words, to spell words in writing, and to select one written word out of two as standing for an oral word. First graders were tested on orally providing the initial letter and spelling. Children were found to rely on letter names in performing all these tasks. They succeeded more in providing the initial letter or in spelling it if the word started with a letter-name sequence, like kaftor (button), which is spelled with k (Kaf). They succeeded more in selecting the correct word between two if the words started with a letter-name sequence. In grade 1 the effects decreased and became limited particularly to phonemes spelled with homophonic letters. Partial letter names (impossible in English) affected performance but to a lesser extent than entire names. Reliance on letter names both facilitated and impaired performance but in different ways than in English. The educational implications are discussed.
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Waters, Gloria S. "Word recognition: From letters to meaning." Canadian Journal of Psychology Revue Canadienne de Psychologie 46, no. 1 (1992): 138–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0084367.
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RAPCSAK, S. "From letters to words: Procedures for word recognition in letter-by-letter reading." Brain and Language 38, no. 4 (1990): 504–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0093-934x(90)90134-3.
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Perea, Manuel, Jon Andoni Duñabeitia, and Manuel Carreiras. "Transposed-Letter Priming Effects for Close Versus Distant Transpositions." Experimental Psychology 55, no. 6 (2008): 384–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169.55.6.384.
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Transposing two internal letters of a word produces a perceptually similar item (e.g., CHOLOCATE being processed as CHOCOLATE). To determine the precise nature of the encoding of letter position within a word, we examined the effect of the number of intervening letters in transposed-letter effects with a masked priming procedure. In Experiment 1, letter transposition could involve adjacent letters (chocloate-CHOCOLATE) and nonadjacent letters with two intervening letters (choaolcte-CHOCOLATE). Results showed that the magnitude of the transposed-letter priming effect – relative to the appropriate control condition – was greater when the transposition involved adjacent letters than when it involved nonadjacent letters. In Experiment 2, we included a letter transposition condition using nonadjacent letters with one intervening letter (cholocate-CHOCOLATE). Results showed that the transposed-letter priming effect was of the same size for nonadjacent transpositions that involved one or two intervening letters. In addition, transposed-letter priming effects were smaller in the two nonadjacent conditions than in the adjacent condition. We examine the implications of these findings for models of visual-word recognition.
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Geary, Jonathan A., and Adam Ussishkin. "Root-letter priming in Maltese visual word recognition." Mental Lexicon 13, no. 1 (2018): 1–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/ml.18001.gea.
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Abstract We report on a visual masked priming experiment designed to explore the role of morphology in Maltese visual word recognition. In a lexical decision task, subjects were faster to judge Maltese words of Semitic origin that were primed by triconsonantal letter-strings corresponding to their root-morphemes. In contrast, they were no faster to judge Maltese words of non-Semitic origin that were primed by an equivalent, but non-morphemic, set of three consonant letters, suggesting that morphological overlap, rather than simple form overlap, drives this facilitatory effect. Maltese is unique among the Semitic languages for its orthography: Maltese alone uses the Latin alphabet and requires that all vowels are written, making such triconsonantal strings illegal non-words to which Maltese readers are never exposed, as opposed to other Semitic languages such as Hebrew in which triconsonantal strings often correspond to real words. Under a decomposition-based account of morphological processing, we interpret these results as suggesting that across reading experience Maltese readers have abstracted out and stored root-morphemes for Semitic-origin words lexically, such that these morphemic representations can be activated by exposure to root-letters in isolation and thus prime morphological derivatives.
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Forget, Joachim, Marco Buiatti, and Stanislas Dehaene. "Temporal Integration in Visual Word Recognition." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 22, no. 5 (2010): 1054–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2009.21300.
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When two displays are presented in close temporal succession at the same location, how does the brain assign them to one versus two conscious percepts? We investigate this issue using a novel reading paradigm in which the odd and even letters of a string are presented alternatively at a variable rate. The results reveal a window of temporal integration during reading, with a nonlinear boundary around ∼80 msec of presentation duration. Below this limit, the oscillating stimulus is easily fused into a single percept, with all characteristics of normal reading. Above this limit, reading times are severely slowed and suffer from a word-length effect. ERPs indicate that, even at the fastest frequency, the oscillating stimulus elicits synchronous oscillations in posterior visual cortices, while late ERP components sensitive to lexical status vanish beyond the fusion threshold. Thus, the fusion/segregation dilemma is not resolved by retinal or subcortical filtering, but at cortical level by at most 300 msec. The results argue against theories of visual word recognition and letter binding that rely on temporal synchrony or other fine temporal codes.
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Ganayim, Deia. "OPTIMAL VIEWING POSITION OF PARTIALLY CONNECTED AND UNCONNECTED WORDS IN ARABIC." International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education 3, no. 2 (2015): 17–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.23947/2334-8496-2015-3-2-17-31.
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In order to assess the unique reading processes in Arabic, given its unique orthographic nature of natural inherent variations of inter-letter spacing, the current study examined the extent and influence of connectedness disparity during single word recognition using the optimal viewing position (OVP) paradigm. The initial word viewing position was systematically manipulated by shifting words horizontally relative to an imposed initial viewing position. However, unlike previous research, partially connected/unconnected three-, four- and five-letter Arabic words were displayed in the left and right visual hemifields at all possible locations of letter fixation. It was found that OVP effects occurred during the processing of isolated Arabic words. No OVP was found in three-letter words; for four- and five-letter words, the OVP effect appeared as a U-shaped curve with a minimum towards the second and third letters. Thus, the OVP effects generalize across structurally different alphabetic scripts. Furthermore, a perceptual superiority was found for words with right-positioned unconnected sub-units as compared to left positioned unconnected sub-units because of the differential sensitivity of the hemispheres to the gestalt form of letters. Such findings support the established view that the LH specializes in word recognition for alphabetic languages.
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Blythe, Hazel I., Barbara J. Juhasz, Lee W. Tbaily, Keith Rayner, and Simon P. Liversedge. "Reading sentences of words with rotated letters: An eye movement study." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 72, no. 7 (2018): 1790–804. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1747021818810381.
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Participants’ eye movements were measured as they read sentences in which individual letters within words were rotated. Both the consistency of direction and the magnitude of rotation were manipulated (letters rotated all in the same direction, or alternately clockwise and anti-clockwise, by 30° or 60°). Each sentence included a target word that was manipulated for frequency of occurrence. Our objectives were threefold: To quantify how change in the visual presentation of individual letters disrupted word identification, and whether disruption was consistent with systematic change in visual presentation; to determine whether inconsistent letter transformation caused more disruption than consistent letter transformation; and to determine whether such effects were comparable for words that were high and low frequency to explore the extent to which they were visually or linguistically mediated. We found that disruption to reading was greater as the magnitude of letter rotation increased, although even small rotations affected processing. The data also showed that alternating letter rotations were significantly more disruptive than consistent rotations; this result is consistent with models of lexical identification in which encoding occurs over units of more than one adjacent letter. These rotation manipulations also showed significant interactions with word frequency on the target word: Gaze durations and total fixation duration times increased disproportionately for low-frequency words when they were presented at more extreme rotations. These data provide a first step towards quantifying the relative contribution of the spatial relationships between individual letters to word recognition and eye movement control in reading.
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Frost, Ram. "Towards a universal model of reading." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 35, no. 5 (2012): 263–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x11001841.
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AbstractIn the last decade, reading research has seen a paradigmatic shift. A new wave of computational models of orthographic processing that offer various forms of noisy position or context-sensitive coding have revolutionized the field of visual word recognition. The influx of such models stems mainly from consistent findings, coming mostly from European languages, regarding an apparent insensitivity of skilled readers to letter order. Underlying the current revolution is the theoretical assumption that the insensitivity of readers to letter order reflects the special way in which the human brain encodes the position of letters in printed words. The present article discusses the theoretical shortcomings and misconceptions of this approach to visual word recognition. A systematic review of data obtained from a variety of languages demonstrates that letter-order insensitivity isneithera general property of the cognitive systemnora property of the brain in encoding letters. Rather, it is avariantand idiosyncratic characteristic of some languages, mostly European, reflecting a strategy of optimizing encoding resources, given the specific structure of words. Since the main goal of reading research is to develop theories that describe thefundamental and invariantphenomena of reading across orthographies, an alternative approach to model visual word recognition is offered. The dimensions of a possible universal model of reading, which outlines the common cognitive operations involved in orthographic processing in all writing systems, are discussed.
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Walker, Peter. "Word Shape as a Cue to the Identity of a Word: An Analysis of the Kučera and Francis (1967) Word List." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A 39, no. 4 (1987): 675–700. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14640748708401809.
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A word printed in lower-case letters has a characteristic shape as a result of the pattern created by its ascending, descending and neutral letters. The importance of word shape as a cue in word recognition, though debated for many years, has still to be satisfactorily resolved. On the assumption that the utility of a word's shape will depend on the extent to which it precludes all but a relative small set of candidate words, a promising approach to the issue compares reading performance for words with rare versus common shapes. As a prerequisite to this experimental approach, however, the distinctiveness of different word shapes needs to be determined. To this end, all of the three- to seven-letter words from the Kučera and Francis (1967) corpus were analysed. This revealed that although word shape in itself is rarely adequate to uniquely identify a word, when it is combined with knowledge of other orthographic features its potential utility is enhanced considerably. Examination of the distribution of letter types across letter positions within words revealed a potential source of information concerning word boundaries. It is suggested that this information may contribute to reading when, for example, the interword spacing is tight. The association of word-shape distinctiveness with a number of other word features is also reported.
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Paciorek, Wiktor, and Joanna Rączaszek-Leonardi. "The influence of sentential context and frequency of occurrence on the recognition of words with scrambled letters." Psychology of Language and Communication 13, no. 2 (2009): 45–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/v10057-009-0010-9.
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The influence of sentential context and frequency of occurrence on the recognition of words with scrambled letters In this paper we examine the "jumbled words" effect which denotes human ability to easily read words whose internal letters have been re-arranged as long as external letters remain in their positions. Hitherto, many explanations for this effect have focussed on the processes that operate "bottom-up". Here we suggest that "top-down" processes also play an important role and demonstrate this experimentally. First, we briefly describe the main types of word-recognition models and consider which model best explains the effect. Then, we present an experiment in which jumbled words of different frequency of occurrence were immersed in various types of contexts. Results indicate that both the frequency and semantic sentential context are involved in jumbled word recognition. The implications of these findings for word recognition models are discussed.
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Abd Alahad, Faten, and Enaam Saeed. "Segmentation of Arabic Word into Letters and Recognition." AL-Rafidain Journal of Computer Sciences and Mathematics 2, no. 2 (2005): 123–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.33899/csmj.2005.164092.
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Ranbom, Larissa J., and Cynthia M. Connine. "Silent letters are activated in spoken word recognition." Language and Cognitive Processes 26, no. 2 (2011): 236–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01690965.2010.486578.
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Ganayim, Deia. "Optimal Viewing Position for Fully Connected and Unconnected words in Arabic." Polish Psychological Bulletin 47, no. 2 (2016): 207–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ppb-2016-0024.
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Abstract In order to assess the unique reading processes in Arabic, given its unique orthographic nature of natural inherent variations of inter letter spacing, the current study examined the extent and influence of connectedness disparity during single word recognition using the optimal viewing position (OVP) paradigm (three-, four- and five-letter stimuli presented at a normal reading size, at all possible locations). The initial word viewing position was systematically manipulated by shifting words horizontally relative to an imposed initial viewing position. Variations in recognition and processing time were measured as a function of initial viewing position. Fully connected/unconnected Arabic words were used. It was found that OVP effects occurred during the processing of isolated Arabic words. In Arabic, the OVP may be in the center of the word. No OVP was found in three-letter words; for four- and five-letter words, the OVP effect appeared as a U-shaped curve with a minimum towards the second and third letters. Thus, the OVP effects generalize across structurally different alphabetic scripts.
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Perea, Manuel, and Manuel Carreiras. "Do Transposed-Letter Similarity Effects Occur at a Syllable Level?" Experimental Psychology 53, no. 4 (2006): 308–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169.53.4.308.
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One key issue for any computational model of visual word recognition is the choice of an input coding scheme for assigning letter position. Recent research has shown that transposed-letter similarity effects occur even when the transposed letters are not adjacent (caniso- casino; Perea & Lupker, 2004 , JML). In the present study we conducted two single-presentation lexical decision experiments to examine whether transposed-letter effects occur at a syllable level. We tested two types of nonwords: (1) nonwords created by transposing two internal CV syllables (PRIVEMARA; the base word is primavera, the Spanish for spring) and (2) nonwords created by transposing two adjacent bigrams that do not form a syllable (PRIMERAVA). We also created the appropriate orthographic control conditions, in which the critical letters were replaced instead of being switched. Results showed that the transposition of two syllables or two adjacent bigrams produced a quite robust (and similar) transposed-letter effect. Thus, transposed-letter effects seem to occur at an early orthographic, graphemic level, rather than at a syllable level. We examine the implications of the observed results for the input coding schemes in visual word recognition.
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BIADSY, FADI, RAID SAABNI, and JIHAD EL-SANA. "SEGMENTATION-FREE ONLINE ARABIC HANDWRITING RECOGNITION." International Journal of Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence 25, no. 07 (2011): 1009–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218001411008956.
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Arabic script is naturally cursive and unconstrained and, as a result, an automatic recognition of its handwriting is a challenging problem. The analysis of Arabic script is further complicated in comparison to Latin script due to obligatory dots/stokes that are placed above or below most letters. In this paper, we introduce a new approach that performs online Arabic word recognition on a continuous word-part level, while performing training on the letter level. In addition, we appropriately handle delayed strokes by first detecting them and then integrating them into the word-part body. Our current implementation is based on Hidden Markov Models (HMM) and correctly handles most of the Arabic script recognition difficulties. We have tested our implementation using various dictionaries and multiple writers and have achieved encouraging results for both writer-dependent and writer-independent recognition.
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Lavidor, Michal, and Vincent Walsh. "A Magnetic Stimulation Examination of Orthographic Neighborhood Effects in Visual Word Recognition." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 15, no. 3 (2003): 354–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/089892903321593081.
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The split-fovea theory proposes that visual word recognition is mediated by the splitting of the foveal image, with letters to the left of fixation projected to the right hemisphere (RH) and letters to the right of fixation projected to the left hemisphere (LH). We applied repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) over the left and right occipital cortex during a lexical decision task to investigate the extent to which word recognition processes could be accounted for according to the split-fovea theory. Unilateral rTMS significantly impaired lexical decision latencies to centrally presented words, supporting the suggestion that foveal representation of words is split between the cerebral hemispheres rather than bilateral. Behaviorally, we showed that words that have many orthographic neighbors sharing the same initial letters (“lead neighbors”) facilitated lexical decision more than words with few lead neighbors. This effect did not apply to end neighbors (orthographic neighbors sharing the same final letters). Crucially, rTMS over the RH impaired lead-, but not end-neighborhood facilitation. The results support the split-fovea theory, where the RH has primacy in representing lead neighbors of a written word.
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Olijhoek, Vita. "Technisch Lezen in Het Engels (t2)." Toegepaste Taalwetenschap in Artikelen 61 (January 1, 1999): 85–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/ttwia.61.08oli.
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A pupil who is a dab hand at technical reading has the ability to recognise words as correctly, quickly and automatically as possible. Initially, the recognition is done by the transposition of each word letter by letter into sounds ('indirect recognition'), but later on without the transposition of letters into sounds ('direct recognition'). Because of many pupils' inability to recognize words correctly, quickly and automatically, I investigated the reading proficiency of pupils of VBO and MAVO. I investigated which English words did cause pronunciation problems: completely regular words ('predictable words') or completely irregular words ('unpredictable words'). Secondly, I investigated whether the pupils had problems with the meaning of the same words, caused by their pronunciation problems. Thirdly, I investigated whether there was a relation between technical reading in Dutch and in English.
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Whitney, Carol, Daisy Bertrand, and Jonathan Grainger. "On Coding the Position of Letters in Words." Experimental Psychology 59, no. 2 (2012): 109–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169/a000132.
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Open-bigram and spatial-coding schemes provide different accounts of how letter position is encoded by the brain during visual word recognition. Open-bigram coding involves an explicit representation of order based on letter pairs, while spatial coding involves a comparison function operating over representations of individual letters. We identify a set of priming conditions (subset primes and reversed interior primes) for which the two types of coding schemes give opposing predictions, hence providing the opportunity for strong scientific inference. Experimental results are consistent with the open-bigram account, and inconsistent with the spatial-coding scheme.
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Grainger, Jonathan, and Thomas Hannagan. "What is special about orthographic processing?" Written Language and Literacy 17, no. 2 (2014): 225–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/wll.17.2.03gra.
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Starting from a generic architecture for reading words in alphabetic scripts, we examine the special status of letters as the building block of single word reading. After briefly describing the overall architecture that defines the interaction between orthographic and phonological processes during silent reading for meaning, we then focus on orthographic processing. We describe the nature of orthographic representations as hypothesized in our approach and we discuss how such representations might be learned during reading acquisition. We present the hypothesis that such learning involves the adaptation of basic object identification mechanisms to the specific constraints of reading, and we provide examples of this adaptation. In the light of this, we then compare the function of letters as constituents of written words relative to the role of object parts in other kinds of familiar visual stimuli (e.g. faces, numbers). We explain why we think letters must have a special status and we provide some preliminary empirical evidence in favor of this special status for letters as parts of words. Keywords: reading; orthography; visual word recognition; orthographic learning; letter strings; object identification
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Friedmann, Naama, and Manar Haddad-Hanna. "Letter Position Dyslexia in Arabic: From Form to Position." Behavioural Neurology 25, no. 3 (2012): 193–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/296974.
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This study reports the reading of 11 Arabic-speaking individuals with letter position dyslexia (LPD), and the effect of letter form on their reading errors. LPD is a peripheral dyslexia caused by a selective deficit to letter position encoding in the orthographic-visual analyzer, which results in migration of letters within words, primarily of middle letters. The Arabic orthography is especially interesting for the study of LPD because Arabic letters have different forms in different positions in the word. As a result, some letter position errors require letter form change. We compared the rate of letter migrations that change letter form with migrations that do not change letter form in 10 Arabic-speaking individuals with developmental LPD, and one bilingual Arabic and Hebrew-speaking individual with acquired LPD. The results indicated that the participants made 40% letter position errors in migratable words when the resulting word included the letters in the same form, whereas migrations that changed letter form almost never occurred. The error rate of the Arabic-Hebrew bilingual reader was smaller in Arabic than in Hebrew. However, when only words in which migrations do not change letter form were counted, the rate was similar in Arabic and Hebrew. Hence, whereas orthographies with multiple letter forms for each letter might seem more difficult in some respects, these orthographies are in fact easier to read in some forms of dyslexia. Thus, the diagnosis of LPD in Arabic should consider the effect of letter forms on migration errors, and use only migratable words that do not require letter-form change. The theoretical implications for the reading model are that letter form (of the position-dependent type found in Arabic) is part of the information encoded in the abstract letter identity, and thus affects further word recognition processes, and that there might be a pre-lexical graphemic buffer in which the checking of orthographic well-formedness takes place.
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Mohamad, Haidar, Seham Hashim, and Anwar Al-Saleh. "Recognize printed Arabic letter using new geometrical features." Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 14, no. 3 (2019): 1518. http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/ijeecs.v14.i3.pp1518-1524.
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<p>The task of recognizing the shape of Arabic letters using modified algorithms discussed in this paper. The difficulty of recognizing these letters is summarized in the shape of the Arabic letter within a word from a large set of letters has a similar shape. Moreover, the shape of the letter is different depending on its position begin, middle, end within a word. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce new geometric features to categorize each letter. The suggested algorithm with 19 features is used in this paper. These features, like define points for each letter, divide a letter to blocks, edge detection and other features are shown in the suggested algorithm. The introduced geometric features give a high accuracy to recognize printed Arabic letter within a word or text. Minimum distance criteria used to estimate the error of the recognition process between the database and the tested Arabic letter. This method is good to explain the behaviour of the designed algorithm code to distinguish the geometric properties and the accuracy reaches 99.8% for the proposed method. The letter size changes geometry details when the font size is changed. The studied font is Times New Roman with size 30, 36, and 39. </p>
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Elzobi, Moftah, and Ayoub Al-Hamadi. "Generative vs. Discriminative Recognition Models for Off-Line Arabic Handwriting." Sensors 18, no. 9 (2018): 2786. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s18092786.
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The majority of handwritten word recognition strategies are constructed on learning-based generative frameworks from letter or word training samples. Theoretically, constructing recognition models through discriminative learning should be the more effective alternative. The primary goal of this research is to compare the performances of discriminative and generative recognition strategies, which are described by generatively-trained hidden Markov modeling (HMM), discriminatively-trained conditional random fields (CRF) and discriminatively-trained hidden-state CRF (HCRF). With learning samples obtained from two dissimilar databases, we initially trained and applied an HMM classification scheme. To enable HMM classifiers to effectively reject incorrect and out-of-vocabulary segmentation, we enhance the models with adaptive threshold schemes. Aside from proposing such schemes for HMM classifiers, this research introduces CRF and HCRF classifiers in the recognition of offline Arabic handwritten words. Furthermore, the efficiencies of all three strategies are fully assessed using two dissimilar databases. Recognition outcomes for both words and letters are presented, with the pros and cons of each strategy emphasized.
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Grainger, Jonathan. "Orthographic processing: A ‘mid-level’ vision of reading: The 44th Sir Frederic Bartlett Lecture." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 71, no. 2 (2018): 335–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2017.1314515.
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I will describe how orthographic processing acts as a central interface between visual and linguistic processing during reading, and as such can be considered to be the ‘mid-level vision’ of reading research. In order to make this case, I first summarize the evidence in favour of letter-based word recognition before examining work investigating how orthographic similarities among words influence single word reading. I describe how evidence gradually accumulated against traditional measures of orthographic similarity and the associated theories of orthographic processing, forcing a reconsideration of how letter-position information is represented by skilled readers. Then, I present the theoretical framework that was developed to explain these findings, with a focus on the distinction between location-specific and location-invariant orthographic representations. Finally, I describe work extending this theoretical framework in two main directions: first, to the realm of reading development, with the aim to specify the key changes in the processing of letters and letter strings that accompany successful learning to read, and second, to the realm of sentence reading, in order to specify how orthographic information can be processed across several words in parallel, and how skilled readers keep track of which letters belong to which words.
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Mariol, Marina, Corentin Jacques, Marie-Anne Schelstraete, and Bruno Rossion. "The Speed of Orthographic Processing during Lexical Decision: Electrophysiological Evidence for Independent Coding of Letter Identity and Letter Position in Visual Word Recognition." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 20, no. 7 (2008): 1283–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2008.20088.
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Adults can decide rapidly if a string of letters is a word or not. However, the exact time course of this discrimination is still an open question. Here we sought to track the time course of this discrimination and to determine how orthographic information—letter position and letter identity—is computed during reading. We used a go/no-go lexical decision task while recording event-related potentials (ERPs). Subjects were presented with single words (go trials) and pseudowords (no-go trials), which varied in orthographic conformation, presenting either a double consonant frequently doubled (i.e., “ss”) or never doubled (i.e., “zz”) (identity factor); and a position of the double consonant was which either legal or illegal (position factor), in a 2 × 2 factorial design. Words and pseudowords clearly differed as early as 230 msec. At this latency, ERP waveforms were modulated both by the identity and by the position of letters: The fronto-central no-go N2 was the smallest in amplitude and peaked the earliest to pseudowords presenting both an illegal double-letter position and an identity never encountered. At this stage, the two factors showed additive effects, suggesting an independent coding. The factors of identity and position of double letters interacted much later in the process, at the P3 level, around 300–400 msec on frontal and central sites, in line with the lexical decision data obtained in the behavioral study. Overall, these results show that the speed of lexical decision may depend on orthographic information coded independently by the identity and position of letters in a word.
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Mankin, Jennifer L., and Julia Simner. "A Is for Apple: the Role of Letter–Word Associations in the Development of Grapheme–Colour Synaesthesia." Multisensory Research 30, no. 3-5 (2017): 409–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22134808-00002554.
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This study investigates the origins of specific letter–colour associations experienced by people with grapheme–colour synaesthesia. We present novel evidence that frequently observed trends in synaesthesia (e.g., A is typically red) can be tied to orthographic associations between letters and words (e.g., ‘A is for apple’), which are typically formed during literacy acquisition. In our experiments, we first tested members of the general population to show that certain words are consistently associated with letters of the alphabet (e.g., A is for apple), which we named index words. Sampling from the same population, we then elicited the typical colour associations of these index words (e.g., apples are red) and used the letter → index word → colour connections to predict which colours and letters would be paired together based on these orthographic-semantic influences. We then looked at direct letter–colour associations (e.g., red, blue…) from both synaesthetes and non-synaesthetes. In both populations, we show statistically that the colour predicted by index words matches significantly with the letter–colour mappings: that is, red because A is for apple and apples are prototypically red. We therefore conclude that letter–colour associations in both synaesthetes and non-synaesthetes are tied to early-learned letter–word associations.
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Shillcock, Richard, and Padraic Monaghan. "The Computational Exploration of Visual Word Recognition in a Split Model." Neural Computation 13, no. 5 (2001): 1171–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/08997660151134370.
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We argue that the projection of the visual field to the cortex constrains and informs the modeling of visual word recognition. On the basis of anatomical and psychological evidence, we claim that the higher-level cognition involved in word recognition does not completely transcend initial foveal splitting. We present a schematic connectionist model of word recognition that instantiates the precise splitting of the visual field and the contralateral projection of the two hemifields. We explore the special nature of the exterior (i.e., first and last) letters of words in reading. The model produces the correct behavior spontaneously and robustly. We analyze this behavior of the model with respect to words and random patterns and conclude that the systematic division of the visual input has predictable, general informational consequences and is chiefly responsible for the exterior letters effect.
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di Pellegrino, Giuseppe, Elisabetta Làdavas, and Claudio Galletti. "Lexical Processes and Eye Movements in Neglect Dyslexia." Behavioural Neurology 13, no. 1-2 (2002): 61–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2002/789013.
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Neglect dyslexia is a disturbance in the allocation of spatial attention over a letter string following unilateral brain damage. Patients with this condition may fail to read letters on the contralesional side of an orthographic string. In some of these cases, reading is better with words than with non-words. This word superiority effect has received a variety of explanations that differ, among other things, with regard to the spatial distribution of attention across the letter string during reading. The primary goal of the present study was to explore the interaction between attention and lexical processes by recording eye movements in a patient (F.C.) with severe left neglect dyslexia who was required to read isolated word and non-word stimuli of various length.F.C.’s ocular exploration of orthographic stimuli was highly sensitive to the lexical status of the letter string. We found that: (1) the location to which F.C. directed his initial saccade (obtained approximately 230 ms post-stimulus onset) differed between word and non-word stimuli; (2) the patient spent a greater amount of time fixating the contralesional side of word than non-word strings. Moreover, we also found that F.C. failed to identify the left letters of a string despite having fixated them, thus showing a clear dissociation between eye movement responses and conscious access to orthographic stimuli.Our data suggest the existence of multiple interactions between lexical, attentional and eye movement systems that occur from very initial stages of visual word recognition.
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Fitrianingsih, Fitrianingsih, Sarifuddin Madenda, Ernastuti Ernastuti, Suryarini Widodo, and Rodiah Rodiah. "Cursive Handwriting Segmentation using Ideal Distance Approach." International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering (IJECE) 7, no. 5 (2017): 2863. http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/ijece.v7i5.pp2863-2872.
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Offline cursive handwriting becomes a major challenge due to the huge amount of handwriting varieties such as slant handwriting, space between words, the size and direction of the letter, the style of writing the letter and handwriting with contour similarity on some letters. There are some steps for recursive handwriting recognition. The steps are preprocessing, morphology, segmentation, features of letter extraction and recognition. Segmentation is a crucial process in handwriting recognition since the success of segmentation step will determine the success level of recognition. This paper proposes a segmentation algorithm that segment recursive handwriting into letters. These letters will form words using a method that determine the intersection cutting point of image recursive handwriting with an ideal image distance. The ideal distance of recursive handwriting image is an ideal distance segmentation point in order to avoid the cutting of other letter’s section. The width and height of images are used to determine the accurate segmentation point. There were 999 recursive handwriting input images taken from 25 researchers used for this study. The images used are the images obtained from preprocessing step. Those are the images with slope correction. This study used Support Vector Machine (SVM) to recognize recursive handwriting. The experiments show the proposed segmentation algorithm able to segment the image precisely and have 97% success recognizing the recursive handwriting.
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Parkinson, Jim, and Beena Khurana. "Temporal Order of Strokes Primes letter Recognition." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 60, no. 9 (2007): 1265–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470210600937460.
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Does the perception of objects that are the result of human actions reflect the underlying temporal structure of the actions that gave rise to them? We tested whether the temporal order of letter strokes influences letter recognition. In three experiments, participants were asked to identify letters that temporally unfolded as an additive sequence of letter strokes, either consistent or inconsistent with common writing action. Participants were significantly faster to identify letters from consistent temporal sequences, indicating that the initial part of the sequence contained sufficient information to prime letter recognition. We suggest that letter perception reflects the temporal structure of letter production; in other words, Simon sees as Simon does.
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Cortese, Michael J., David Von Nordheim, and Maya M. Khanna. "Word length negatively predicts recognition memory performance." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 73, no. 10 (2020): 1675–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1747021820921133.
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We examined how word length affects performance in three recognition memory experiments to resolve discrepant results in the literature for which there are theoretical implications. Shorter and longer words were equated on frequency, orthographic similarity, age of acquisition, and imageability. In Experiments 1 and 2, orthographic length (i.e., the number of letters in a word) was negatively related to hits minus false alarms. In Experiment 3, recognition performance did not differ between one- and two-syllable words that were equated on orthographic length. These results are compatible with single-process item-noise models that represent orthography in terms of features and in which memory representation strength is a product of the probabilities that the individual features have been stored. Longer words are associated with noisier representations than shorter words.
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Bernard, Jean-Baptiste, Françoise Vitu-thibault, and Eric Castet. "Can crowded letter recognition predict word recognition?" Journal of Vision 16, no. 12 (2016): 1113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/16.12.1113.
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Mahach, Karen Renee. "A Comparison of Computer Input Devices: Linus Pen, Mouse, Cursor Keys and Keyboard." Proceedings of the Human Factors Society Annual Meeting 33, no. 5 (1989): 330–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/154193128903300521.
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Four input devices were compared in a data entry task by speed and accuracy scores. The input devices were: Linus pen (a handwriting recognition system), optical mouse, cursor keys, and alphabetic keys on a keyboard. Data entry consisted of twenty 5-letter words and 100 single letters. Two different screen designs (QWERTY and ALPHA) were used for the mouse and cursor keys conditions. Results showed the keyboard to be fastest and the cursor keys to be slowest in data entry. The mouse and Linus pen had comparable latency scores. Overall, five-letter words were entered faster than five single letters. Latency decreased over trials, and ALPHA conditions required more time than QWERTY conditions. The Linus pen was the least accurate input device. The cursor QWERTY condition produced the highest accuracy scores for letter entry while the keyboard produced the highest accuracy scores for word entry.
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Molinaro, Nicola, Jon Andoni Duñabeitia, Alejandro Marìn-Gutièrrez, and Manuel Carreiras. "From numbers to letters: Feedback regularization in visual word recognition." Neuropsychologia 48, no. 5 (2010): 1343–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.12.037.
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I. Abdalla, Mahmoud, Mohsen A. Rashwan, and Mohamed A. Elserafy. "Generating realistic Arabic handwriting dataset." International Journal of Engineering & Technology 8, no. 4 (2019): 460. http://dx.doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v8i4.29786.
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During the previous year's holistic approach showing satisfactory results to solve the problem of Arabic handwriting word recognition instead of word letters segmentation. In this paper, we present an efficient system for generation realistic Arabic handwriting dataset from ASCII input text. We carefully selected simple word list that contains most Arabic letters normal and ligature connection cases. To improve the performance of new letters reproduction we developed our normalization method that adapt its clustering action according to created Arabic letters families. We enhanced Gaussian Mixture Model process to learn letters template by detecting the number and position of Gaussian component by implementing Ramer-Douglas-Peucker algorithm which improve the new letters shapes reproduced by using and Gaussian Mixture Regression. We learn the translation distance between word-part to achieve real handwriting word generation shape. Using combination of LSTM and CTC layer as a recognizer to validate the efficiency of our approach in generating new realistic Arabic handwriting words inherit user handwriting style as shown by the experimental results.
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Zhang, Qian, Dong Wang, Run Zhao, Yinggang Yu, and JiaZhen Jing. "Write, Attend and Spell." Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies 5, no. 3 (2021): 1–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3478100.
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Text entry on a smartwatch is challenging due to its small form factor. Handwriting recognition using the built-in sensors of the watch (motion sensors, microphones, etc.) provides an efficient and natural solution to deal with this issue. However, prior works mainly focus on individual letter recognition rather than word recognition. Therefore, they need users to pause between adjacent letters for segmentation, which is counter-intuitive and significantly decreases the input speed. In this paper, we present 'Write, Attend and Spell' (WriteAS), a word-level text-entry system which enables free-style handwriting recognition using the motion signals of the smartwatch. First, we design a multimodal convolutional neural network (CNN) to abstract motion features across modalities. After that, a stacked dilated convolutional network with an encoder-decoder network is applied to get around letter segmentation and output words in an end-to-end way. More importantly, we leverage a multi-task sequence learning method to enable handwriting recognition in a streaming way. We construct the first sequence-to-sequence handwriting dataset using smartwatch. WriteAS can yield 9.3% character error rate (CER) on 250 words for new users and 3.8% CER for words unseen in the training set. In addition, WriteAS can handle various writing conditions very well. Given the promising performance, we envision that WriteAS can be a fast and accurate input tool for smartwatch.
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Ferrand, Ludovic, and Jonathan Grainger. "Phonology and Orthography in Visual Word Recognition: Evidence from Masked Non-Word Priming." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A 45, no. 3 (1992): 353–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02724989208250619.
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Three lexical decision experiments in French investigated the effects of briefly presented forward-masked non-word primes on latencies to phonologically and/or orthographically related targets. At 64-msec prime presentation durations, primes that are pseudohomophones of the target produced facilitatory effects compared to orthographic controls, but these orthographically similar non-word primes did not facilitate target recognition compared to unrelated controls. These results were obtained independently of target word frequency and independently of the presence or absence of pseudohomophone targets in the experimental lists. With a 32-msec prime duration, on the other hand, pseudohomophone and orthographic primes had similar effects on target recognition, both producing facilitation relative to unrelated controls. The results are discussed in terms of the time course of phonological and orthographic code activation in the processing of pronounceable strings of letters.
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Bilcu, Beatrice, and Jaakko Astola. "A hybrid approach to bilingual text-to-phoneme mapping." Facta universitatis - series: Electronics and Energetics 21, no. 1 (2008): 91–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/fuee0801091b.
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In this paper, we address the problem of bilingual text-to-phoneme (TTP) mapping in which the phonetic transcription of isolated written words must be found. In general, in the bilingual/multilingual TTP mapping for isolated words, two processing steps are applied to each input word. The language of each word is first identified and then the letters of the word are translated into their phonetic transcriptions according to the recognized language. We use the multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural network for the letter to phoneme conversion task and a hybrid approach composed of a MLP and a decision rule system for the language recognition task. We introduce a new bilingual TTP mapping system and we provide an analysis of the influence of several different factors on its phoneme accuracy. .
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Alluhaybi, Ibrahim, and Jeffrey Witzel. "Letter connectedness and Arabic visual word recognition." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 73, no. 10 (2020): 1660–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1747021820926155.
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This study investigates the processing consequences of letter connectedness during Arabic visual word recognition. Specifically, this study examined (a) whether there is a processing cost associated with letter connectedness during word-level reading and (b) whether this factor modulates form-level activation among words during lexical access. Experiment 1 tested one-, two-, and three-chunk Arabic words and nonwords in a lexical decision task with masked identity priming. Experiment 2 tested the same stimuli in a lexical decision task with masked form priming, in which prime–target pairs differed by a letter associated with the morphological root. In both experiments, there was a clear processing cost for letter connectedness—one-chunk words had longer processing times than two-chunk words, which had longer processing times than three-chunk words. Comparable processing time differences were also found for nonwords, suggesting that letter connectedness influences Arabic word recognition at a prelexical orthographic processing stage. Furthermore, although reliable priming was found in both the experiments, there was a suggestion that letter connectedness modulated form priming effects (Experiment 2), with the strongest effect for three-chunk word targets. These findings are taken to indicate that letter connectedness is an important factor that should be considered—and controlled for—in examinations of Arabic visual word recognition.
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Gomez, Pablo, Ana Marcet, and Manuel Perea. "Are better young readers more likely to confuse their mother with their mohter?" Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 74, no. 9 (2021): 1542–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/17470218211012960.
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One of the most replicated effects in the contemporary word recognition literature is the transposed-letter effect (TL effect): pseudowords created by the transposition of two letters (e.g., MOHTER) are often misread as the real word. This effect ruled out those accounts that assume that letter position is encoded accurately and led to more flexible coding schemes. Here, we examined whether reading skill modulates this effect. The relationship between reading skill and the TL effect magnitude is a contentious issue both empirically and theoretically. The present lexical decision experiment was designed to shed some light on the relationship between reading skill and the TL effect magnitude with a large sample of Grade 6 children. To that end, we conducted both multiple regression and path analyses. Results showed that a specific aspect of reading skills (pseudoword reading) negatively correlates with the TL effect’s magnitude in the error data (i.e., MOHTER is less wordlike for better readers). This finding highlights the need for a comprehensive visual-word recognition model that includes individual variability and the multidimensional character of reading in school-age children.
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Carreiras, Manuel, Margaret Gillon-Dowens, Marta Vergara, and Manuel Perea. "Are Vowels and Consonants Processed Differently? Event-related Potential Evidence with a Delayed Letter Paradigm." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 21, no. 2 (2009): 275–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2008.21023.
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To investigate the neural bases of consonant and vowel processing, event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded while participants read words and pseudowords in a lexical decision task. The stimuli were displayed in three different conditions: (i) simultaneous presentation of all letters (baseline condition); (ii) presentation of all letters, except that two internal consonants were delayed for 50 msec (consonants-delayed condition); and (iii) presentation of all letters, except that two internal vowels were delayed for 50 msec (vowels-delayed condition). The behavioral results showed that, for words, response times in the consonants-delayed condition were longer than in the vowels-delayed condition, which, in turn, were longer than in the baseline condition. The ERPs showed that, starting as early as 150 msec, words in the consonants-delayed condition produced a larger negativity than words in vowels-delayed condition. In addition, there were peak latency differences and amplitude differences in the P150, N250, P325, and N400 components between the baseline and the two letter-delayed conditions. We examine the implications of these findings for models of visual-word recognition and reading.
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Mandler, George, Peter Graf, and Dolores Kraft. "Activation and Elaboration Effects in Recognition and Word Priming." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A 38, no. 4 (1986): 645–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14640748608401618.
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Two experiments investigated the effect of direct and indirect activation on subsequent accessibility to individual items. In the first experiment, words were semantically processed in the context of either phonologically (rhyming) or conceptually (categorical) related words and tested subsequently for recognition and word completion. On the completion test the initial three letters of a word are presented for completion. The previously presented target word is one of several possible completions. The presence of different contexts had no differential effect either on recognition memory—which persisted at high levels for two days—or on completion—which decayed in the course of about 15 min. In the second experiment, the contexts were presented but the target words were not. Thus the rhyming and categorical contexts were directly activated but not the actual words that were scored on the subsequent tests. Prior activation of phonologically similar items affected both recognition and completion performance on immediate testing, but not after 10 min. Conceptual activation affected only recognition—an effect that lasted for a period of days. Completion performance demonstrates access to the integration component of recognition. The results were compared with attempts to demonstrate independence of recognition and completion.
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Fiset, Daniel, Frédéric Gosselin, Caroline Blais, and Martin Arguin. "Inducing Letter-by-letter Dyslexia in Normal Readers." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 18, no. 9 (2006): 1466–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2006.18.9.1466.
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Letter-by-letter (LBL) dyslexia is an acquired reading disorder characterized by very slow reading and a large linear word length effect. This suggests the use of a sequential LBL strategy, in sharp contrast with the parallel letter processing used by normal subjects. Recently, we have proposed that the reading difficulty of LBL dyslexics is due to a deficit in discriminating visually similar letters based on parallel letter processing [Arguin, M., Fiset, S., & Bub, D. Sequential and parallel letter processing in letter-by-letter dyslexia. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 19, 535–555, 2002]. The visual mechanisms underlying this deficit and the LBL strategy, however, are still unknown. In this article, we propose that LBL dyslexic patients have lost the ability to use, for parallel letter processing, the optimal spatial frequency band for letter and word recognition. We claim that, instead, they rely on lower spatial frequencies for parallel processing, that these lower spatial frequencies produce confusions between visually similar letters, and that the LBL compensatory strategy allows them to extract higher spatial frequencies. The LBL strategy would thus increase the spatial resolution of the visual system, effectively resolving the issue pertaining to between-letter similarity. In Experiments 1 and 2, we succeeded in replicating the main features characterizing LBL dyslexia by having normal individuals read low-contrast, high-pass-filtered words. Experiment 3, conducted in LBL dyslexic L.H., shows that, indeed, the letter confusability effect is based on low spatial frequencies, whereas this effect was not supported by high spatial frequencies.
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Marcet, Ana, Hnazand Ghukasyan, María Fernández-López, and Manuel Perea. "Jalapeno or jalapeño: Do diacritics in consonant letters modulate visual similarity effects during word recognition?" Applied Psycholinguistics 41, no. 3 (2020): 579–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0142716420000090.
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AbstractPrior research has shown that word identification times to DENTIST are faster when briefly preceded by a visually similar prime (dentjst; i↔j) than when preceded by a visually dissimilar prime (dentgst). However, these effects of visual similarity do not occur in the Arabic alphabet when the critical letter differs in the diacritical signs: for the target the visually similar one-letter replaced prime (compare and is no more effective than the visually dissimilar one-letter replaced prime Here we examined whether this dissociative pattern is due to the special role of diacritics during word processing. We conducted a masked priming lexical decision experiment in Spanish using target words containing one of two consonants that only differed in the presence/absence of a diacritical sign: n and ñ. The prime-target conditions were identity, visually similar, and visually dissimilar. Results showed an advantage of the visually similar over the visually dissimilar condition for muñeca-type words (muneca-MUÑECA < museca-MUÑECA), but not for moneda-type words (moñeda-MONEDA = moseda-MONEDA). Thus, diacritical signs are salient elements that play a special role during the first moments of processing, thus constraining the interplay between the “feature” and “letter” levels in models of visual word recognition.
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Vinckier, Fabien, Lionel Naccache, Caroline Papeix, et al. "“What” and “Where” in Word Reading: Ventral Coding of Written Words Revealed by Parietal Atrophy." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 18, no. 12 (2006): 1998–2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2006.18.12.1998.
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The visual system of literate adults develops a remarkable perceptual expertise for printed words. To delineate the aspects of this competence intrinsic to the occipitotemporal “what” pathway, we studied a patient with bilateral lesions of the occipitoparietal “where” pathway. Depending on critical geometric features of the display (rotation angle, letter spacing, mirror reversal, etc.), she switched from a good performance, when her intact ventral pathway was sufficient to encode words, to severely impaired reading, when her parietal lesions prevented the use of alternative reading strategies as a result of spatial and attentional impairments. In particular, reading was disrupted (a) by rotating word by more than 50°, providing an approximation of the invariance range for words encoding in the ventral pathway; (b) by separating letters with double spaces, revealing the limits of letter grouping into perceptual wholes; (c) by mirror-reversing words, showing that words escape the default mirror-invariant representation of visual objects in the ventral pathway. Moreover, because of her parietal lesions, she was unable to discriminate mirror images of common objects, although she was excellent with reversible pseudowords, confirming that the breaking of mirror symmetry was intrinsic to the occipitotemporal cortex. Thus, charting the display conditions associated with preserved or impaired performance allowed us to infer properties of word coding in the normal ventral pathway and to delineate the roles of the parietal lobes in single-word recognition.
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Nazir, Tatjana A., Arthur M. Jacobs, and J. Kevin O’Regan. "Letter legibility and visual word recognition." Memory & Cognition 26, no. 4 (1998): 810–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/bf03211400.
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