Academic literature on the topic 'Liberia – History – 1980-'

The thesis in the main, looks at the decision-making process which underlined the Economic Community of West African States' attempt to end the Liberian crisis. It examines the establishment of ECOMOG to intervene in the Liberian civil crisis and the various pacific attempts to resolve the Liberian question. It does so through the medium of decision - making theory and some of the conceptual models that have flowed out of it. The thesis' focus on the decisional process of a regional body marks an attempt to broaden the scope of application of decision - making paradigms, which are usually employed to analyse decisions of national governments. The imperative for analysing the decisional process of ECOWAS in its quest to find solution to the Liberian problem has in part been dictated by the novelty of the ECOMOG concept. It marks the first major attempt of a sub - regional economic organization to successfully find solution to a civil conflict, as a result, there are numerous lessons to be gleaned from its failures and successes. Its relevance in the African context, with its intractable conflicts cannot be overemphasized. It has also been motivated by the fact that more works need to be produced on the decision-making processes of governments and regional bodies within the continent. The thesis argues that, both rational and "irrational" elements infused the decisional process of ECOW AS in its bid to solve the Liberian Crisis. Among other things, Policy-makers were influenced in their choice of decision by rational calculations based on national interest. It examines the clash of interests which characterized the establishment ofECOMOG as an tntervention force, the impasse this fostered and how it was eventually resolved. It postulates that exteljIlal actors influenced the decision process and that policy :Qiakers were aided to make the decisions they made by other organs in the decisional chain. The "irrational" component of the process, among other things, could be seen from the fact that the Liberian question was solved in " bits and pieces". Besides, blunders were committed through defective decision - making mechanism. The thesis concludes by offering suggestions to improve the quality of ECOW AS decision-making process with regard to conflict resolution and how to achieve regional consensus.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2014.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This dissertation is a missiological assessment of the evangelization of the Mano of Northern Liberia. The study considers the historical record of Liberia, the transmission of Christianity through the Americo-Liberian community, and the movement of the Gospel of Jesus Christ to and through the Mano of Northern Liberia. As a foundation, a theoretical and missiological framework of evangelization is explored on a biblical, theological, and social understanding. How does one measure the extent and evangelization? Definitions and theories are presented along with expressions of evangelization. In regards to transmission, what was the approach of the initiating missionaries? How and through what impetus did a transition occur to local agents? Understanding evangelization involves identifying the contextual process resulting in the community of God expressed as the local church. This dissertation argues that the intent of the American Colonization Society and the immigrants who sailed to Liberia in 1822 was to establish a Christian presence in Africa that would serve as an impetus for evangelization of the continent. The Americo-Liberians, however, became entangled in a cultural Christianity that proved to be a barrier to evangelization of the indigenous people of the region. Other barriers included geographical isolation, the societal structure of governance, and the absence of a contextual witness. Sociological analysis is given to the all-inclusive nature and governance of the Poro Society which stymied the evangelization process. This study explored the influencing factors towards evangelization of the Mano and Gio and the acceptance of the good news of Jesus Christ. The influencing factors included the collapse of the Liberian governmental structure, the empowerment of local agent through theological education, the role and necessity of leadership caused by the coup, and the subsequent diaspora of the Civil War. Over 50% of the Baptist Churches among the Mano and Gio were started after the coup in 1980 and during the civil war which lasted from 1989 – 2004. This study utilized the methodology of qualitative researching through interviews, observations, and empirical surveys to evaluate the process of evangelization. The first gospel witness came to the Mano and Gio in 1926. The next fifty years of evangelization revolved around missionaries, mission stations, schools, and humanitarian enterprises. More recently, the Gospel has spread rapidly through the influence of contextual witness and local agents. The delimitations of the study focused on the role of Baptist Churches affiliated with Nimba Baptist Union. Prior to 1970, there were few indigenous led, linguistically Mano or Gio Baptist churches. Today, there are almost a hundred churches and missions affiliated with the Nimba Baptist Union, most started after the coup and during the war. A crucial component of the study was to determine whether or not this was a contextual indigenous movement of evangelization. The evidence of such a movement is determined by the presence of churches in the local villages, acts of personal and community transformation associated with the church, and reproductive patterns in regards to leadership and church starting. The movement of evangelization was a collaborative effort of the missionaries and local agents facilitated by political, social, and spiritual transitions. On this basis, the study proposes an Interpretative Model of Evangelization to serve as a useful tool in attempting to understand how to interpret the extent of evangelization. From this study, it is clear that evangelization is an imperfect process, but the movement towards contextualization of the gospel infuses deeper levels of transformation. As the Apostle Paul concluded in the Acts of the Apostles, the Gospel continued unhindered (Acts 28:31). The unhindered manner did not reflect the absence of barriers, but the onward movement propelled by the Holy Spirit, through proclamation of the good news of the Gospel of Jesus Christ, and by local empowerment through contextualization of methods, message, and leadership. The study is evaluative in nature and has implications for missiological strategy, cross-cultural understanding, and contextual methods of evangelization.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie proefskrif is ʼn sendingkundige assessering van die evangelisasie van die Mano-stam in Noord-Liberië. Die studie ondersoek die geskrewe geskiedenis van Liberië, die oordrag van die Christendom deur die Amerikaans-Liberiese gemeenskap en die verspreiding van die evangelie van Jesus Christus aan en deur die Mano-stam van Noord-Liberië. Om ʼn grondslag vir die studie te lê, is ʼn teoretiese en sendingkundige raamwerk vir evangelisasie ondersoek vanuit ʼn Bybelse, teologiese en sosiale perspektief. Dit is gedoen deur die volgende vrae te beantwoord: Hoe meet ʼn mens die reikwydte van evangelisasie? Definisies en beskrywings van, asook teorieë oor, evangelisasie word hiervoor aangebied. Wat was die benadering deur die aanvanklike sendelinge om die evangelie aan ander oor te dra? Hoe en deur watter impetus het oordrag na plaaslike agente plaasgevind? Om evangelisasie te verstaan, moet die kontekstuele proses geïdentifiseer word wat lei tot die gemeenskap van God, soos uitgedruk deur die plaaslike kerk. In hierdie proefskrif word daar geargumenteer dat die oogmerk van die American Colonization Society en die immigrante wat in 1822 na Liberië gevaar het, was om ʼn Christelike teenwoordigheid in Afrika te vestig wat sou dien as ʼn impetus vir evangelisasie van die kontinent. Die Amerikaans-Libiërs het egter in ʼn kulturele vorm van Christenskap verstrik geraak wat ʼn hindernis gevorm het vir die verspreiding van die evangelie onder die inheemse bevolking van daardie streek. Ander hindernisse was geografiese isolasie, die gemeenskapstruktuur van die regering en die afwesigheid van ʼn plaaslike getuie. Die allesomvattende aard en regering van die Poro-gemeenskap, wat die evangelisasieproses gestuit het, is gevolglik in hierdie studie geanaliseer. Hierdie studie het verder die faktore ondersoek wat evangelisasie van die Mano- en Gio-stamme, asook hul aanvaarding van die blye boodskap van Jesus Christus, beïnvloed het. Hierdie faktore sluit in die ineenstorting van Liberië se regeringstruktuur, die bemagtiging van plaaslike agente deur teologiese opvoeding, die rol en noodsaaklikheid van leierskap wat deur die staatsgreep veroorsaak is en die diaspora na aanleiding van die burgeroorlog. Meer as 50% van die Baptistekerke onder die Mano- en Gio-stamme is gestig na die staatsgreep in 1980 en tydens die burgeroorlog wat van 1989 tot 2004 geduur het. In hierdie studie is daar van kwalitatiewe navorsingsmetodologie, deur middel van onderhoude, waarnemings en empiriese opnames, gebruik gemaak om die evangelisasieproses te evalueer. Die eerste evangeliese getuie het in 1926 die Mano- en Gio-stamme besoek. Vir vyftig jaar daarna het evangelisasie om sendelinge, sendelingstasies, skole en humanitêre inisiatiewe gewentel. Meer onlangs het die evangelie vinnig versprei as gevolg van die invloed van gekontekstualiseerde getuies en plaaslike agente. Die afbakening van hierdie studie was om te fokus op die rol van die Baptistekerke wat met die Nimba Baptist Union geaffilieer is. Voor 1970 was daar min Baptistekerke wat deur mense van die inheemse bevolking gelei is en waar daar in Mano of Gio gepreek is. Vandag is daar amper ʼn honderd kerke en sendinggenootskappe wat met die Nimba Baptist Union geaffilieer is. Meeste van hierdie kerke is na die staatsgreep en tydens die burgeroorlog gestig. ʼn Belangrike komponent van die studie was om te bepaal of hierdie ʼn kontekstuele, inheemse evangelisasiebeweging was. Bewyse van so ʼn beweging sal wees die teenwoordigheid van kerke in plaaslike dorpies, persoonlike en gemeenskapstransformasie wat met die kerk geassosieer word en reproduserende patrone met betrekking tot leierskap en kerkvestiging. Die evangelisasiebeweging was ʼn samewerkingspoging tussen die sendelinge en plaaslike agente wat gefasiliteer is deur politieke, sosiale en geestelike oorgangstadiums. Op grond hiervan, stel die proefskrif ʼn interpretatiewe model van evangelisasie voor om te dien as ʼn nuttige hulpmiddel om die omvang van evangelisasie te probeer verstaan. Uit hierdie studie kan daar duidelik gesien word dat evangelisasie ʼn onvolmaakte proses is, maar dat dieper vlakke van transformasie bewerkstellig kan word, namate die evangelie gekontekstualiseer word. Soos die apostel Paulus ook in die Handelinge van die Apostels opmerk, het die verspreiding van die evangelie onverstoord (soos in Handelinge 28:31) in Liberië voortgegaan. Dié onverstoorde wyse het egter nie die afwesigheid van hindernisse weerspieël nie en die voorwaartse beweging het plaasgevind danksy voortdrywing deur die Heilige Gees, deur die verkondiging van die blye boodskap van die evangelie van Jesus Christus, en as gevolg van plaaslike bemagtiging deur middel van die kontekstualisering van metodes, die boodskap en leierskap. Hierdie studie was evaluerend van aard en hou gevolge in vir die bewerkstelliging van sendingkundige strategieë, transkulturele begrip en kontekstuele evangelisasiemetodes.

This thesis describes and analyzes the context and the evolution of the Quebec literary essay between 1970 and 1990. It is supported by a body of texts which, in our opinion, reflect the structure of contemporary essayistic discourse in Quebec.<br>By studying three dimensions of the Quebec essay--the socio-political, the personal and the feminist--we will attempt to understand and interpret the various modes through which the essayistic "I" deals with its cultural and ideological contexts. Beyond this principal goal, we offer an account of recent studies on the definition of the literary essay.<br>This vast panorama of Quebec essay is accompanied, in the second part of this work, by the bibliography of texts published during the last two decades. In order to facilitate a clearer assessment of the development of the "genre" in question, we have appended a chronological listing of these texts.

Ma these :theatre et liberte en afrique noire francophone de 1930-1985 a 6 chapitres. Le 1er porte 1) sur la liberte au service du theatre qui s'est exprimee en europe par la revolution romantique et le nouveau theatre, en afrique par le theatre-ballet ,de participation, de recherche et le koteba 2) sur le theatre comme moyen pour denoncer une dictature 3) sur le theatre ideologique donc censurable par un regime meme liberal. Le 2eme porte sur les conquetes sociales (suppression du travail force ; du code de l'indigenat) - economiques (f. I. D. E. S pour le developpement de s t. O. M) -politiques (libertes d'association citoyennete francaise, assemblees des t. O. M , r. D. A) des deputes africains au parlement francais. Ainsi en 1960 ,les independances et en 1985 , la democratie avec des rates ici ou la. Le 3eme : le theatre et le combat pour l'emancipation sociale , culturelle et politique des africains au titre de la periode coloniale traite de la satire des moeurs-sociales. Le 4eme : le theatre des independances et le combat pour la liberte de 1958-1985 prend en compte 1) la creation theatrale de la guinee sous la 1ere et la 2eme republique 2) la creation theatrale d'autres pays d'afrique noire francophone qui traite de la satire des moeurs sociales et politiques des independances et de la rehabilitation des heros de la resistance a la colonisation. Le 5eme porte sur la production de cesaire en rapport avec les preoccupations de l'afrique et des auteurs de l'exil sud-sud (s koly et w. Liking) et sud-nord (a. T. Cisse, b. Sangare, t. E. A. Bisikisi). Le 6eme rend compte du theatreet de la liberte des dramaturges au plan economique, politique et esthetique. Les festivals en et hors de l'afrique et le concours theatral de r. F. I. Contribuent a l'elargissement de l'espace culturel francophone.

Esta tesis busca analizar dos revistas pornográficas creadas en el Perú durante las décadas de 1970 y 1980: Cinco y Zeta. Ambas compartían un mismo interés por tratar de proyectar contenidos políticos mediante el uso de la sexualidad explicita. Se pretende demostrar que las revistas pornográficas en el Perú durante las décadas de 1970 y 1980, utilizaron la pornografía para poder transmitir y difundir ideas políticas a la población. En un primer momento funcionó como una medida eficaz para evitar la censura política, sin embargo, el paso a la democracia y la liberalización de los medios, convirtió a estas revistas en una nueva forma de censura respecto a los contenidos sexuales que presentaban. Así pues, también se analizarán los principales discursos y controversias que se generaron en este proceso, que a su vez nos permitirá conocer los cambios en la sexualidad vividos por la sociedad peruana durante la década de 1980.<br>This thesis aimes to analyze two pornographic magazines created in Peru during the 70s and 80s: Cinco and Zeta. Both tried to project political content through the use of explicit sexuality. Its intended to prove that pornographic magazines in Peru during the 70s and 80s used pornography to transmit and spread political ideas to the citizens. At first, it worked as an effective measure to prevent political censorship, however, the return of democracy and freedom of speech in the media turned these magazines into a new way of censorship regarding the sexual contents they presented. Therefore, it will also analyze the main discourses and controversies produced by this process, as well as discover and know about the changes in sexuality that the Peruvian society lived through during the 1980s.<br>Tesis

This study follows the religious and educational issues which formed the background to the Education Bills of the Liberal Government in the period 1906-08. The role of the churches and their place in society in the 19th and early 20th Centuries is outlined. The problems of educational provision and lack of resources through the voluntary agencies is reviewed and the impact of the Education Act of 1870 during the period of the School Board era is considered. The position of the Church of England is outlined alongside the provisions of the Education Act of 1902 and an assessment is made of the working of that Act. The claims and grievances of the Nonconformists are reviewed. The political consequences of the Conservative Government's defeat and the return of a Liberal Government to power in 1906 is outlined together with a review of that Election. The role of the newspapers and the demands of the various bodies with a declared interest in religion and education are considered. A detailed examination of the negotiations undertaken between the Liberal Government and the various denominational interests in their attempts to remedy the Nonconformist grievances over the 1902 Education Act during the period 1906-08 is included. The work of the Archbishop of Canterbury on behalf of the Established Church is closely followed to draw the distinction between those working at the highest level of negotiation and those at grass roots level. The Liberal Government's social reforms and the decline in popularity of the Liberal Party as a vehicle for political Nonconformism is reviewed alongside the stalemate in educational legislation affecting religious issues. The growth of that Government's intervention into the field of social welfare and the lessening impact of religion in the overall life of the Nation is also considered together with a review of changes in attitudes towards religion and its part in educational provision in more recent times.

This thesis examines the relationship between ethnicity and violent group mobilisation in Liberia’s civil war (1989-2003). It focuses on Gio, Mano and Mandingo mobilisation to investigate how and why internal dynamics about moral norms and expectations motivated leadership calls for violence and ethnic support. Much of the existing literature interprets popular involvement in violent group mobilisation on the Upper Guinea Coast as a youth rebellion against gerontocracy. I argue that such an approach is incomplete in the Liberian case, and does not account for questions of ethnic mobilisation and the participation of groups such as the Gio, Mano and Mandingo. At the onset of hostilities, civilians in Liberia were not primarily mobilised to fight based on their age, but rather as members of ethnic communities whose membership included different age groups. I explore constructivist approaches to ethnicity to analyse mobilisation for war as the collective 'self-defence' of ethnic groups qua moral communities. In the prelude to the outbreak of civil war, inter-ethnic inequalities of access to the state and economic resources became reconfigured. Ethnic groups—as moral communities—experienced external 'victimisation' and a sense of internal dissolution, or threatened dissolution. In particular, the understanding of internal reciprocal relations between patrons and clients within ethnic groups was undermined. Internal arguments about morality, personal responsibility, social accountability/justice, increased the pressure on excluded elites and thus incentivised them to pursue violent political strategies. Mobilisation took on an ethnic form mainly because individuals believed that they were fighting to protect the moral communities that generate esteem and ground understandings of good citizenship. Therefore, ethnic participation in the Liberian countryside differed from the model peasant rebellion that seeks to overthrow the feudal elites. Rather than a revolution of the social order, individuals regarded themselves as protecting an extant ethnic order that provided rights and distributed resources. Even though some individuals fought for political power and resources, and external actors facilitated group organisation through the provision of logistical support, the violence was also an expression of bottom-up moral community crisis and an attempt by politico-military elites to keep their reputation and enforce unity.