Academic literature on the topic 'Liquid LIBS'
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Journal articles on the topic "Liquid LIBS"
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Harun, Hanin Athirah, and Roslinda Zainal. "Improvement of laser induced breakdown spectroscopy signal for sodium chloride solution." Malaysian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences 14 (October 25, 2018): 429–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.11113/mjfas.v14n0.1272.
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Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is one of the analytical spectroscopy technique used in determining elemental composition of solid, liquid or gas sample using high energy laser pulse. However, LIBS technique associated with liquid sample often suffers from strong splashing and shockwave, thereby affecting the LIBS experiment repeatability and performance analysis. Therefore, a simple and quick-freeze sample pre-treatment approach using Peltier Thermoelectric Cooler (TEC) to solidify the water is applied to maintain the inherent homogeneity and chemical composition of the initial liquid sample before each LIBS analysis. This approach successfully solidified and maintained the liquid sample at its freezing point throughout the LIBS signal acquisition process. In this work, the qualitative analysis liquid samples and its solidified form, consisting of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 mol/L sodium chloride (NaCl) were determined under similar experimental conditions by using LIBS. Plasmas were produced by focusing the output of Nd: YAG laser (1064nm, 6 ns and 1 Hz) on the surface of the bulk NaCl solution and its solidified form. LIBS signatures for sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) atomic emission lines (589.00 and 499.55 nm, respectively) were collected for estimating sodium and chlorine depositions in NaCl solutions to indicate correlation between their assay and LIBS measurements. For solidified sample, Na and Cl showed improved signal-to-noise ratio and limits of detection (47.8% and 8.8%, respectively) without the difficulties usually associated with liquid samples, demonstrating the benefits of this sample pre-treatment approach.
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Cui, Chenyang, Qizhou Li, and Yongqi Zhuo. "The Development of High-Power LIBs Separators." E3S Web of Conferences 308 (2021): 01012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202130801012.
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Separators present the crucial functions of separating the positive and negative electrodes due to the free flow of lithium ions through the liquid electrolyte that fills in their open pore. Separators for liquid electrolyte Lithium-ion batteries can be classified into porous polymeric membranes, nonwoven mats, and cellulose separators. When a lithium-ion battery is being overcharged, it releases the heat and results in the inner-short. The polyethylene (PE) separators used here had shut down at around 135°C to cool the exothermal batteries. To enhance the meltdown temperature of the separator, a PE separator was coated with polymers synthesized from various ethylene glycol dimethacrylate monomers. At the same time, nonwoven mats have the potential to be low cost and thermally stable separators. Furthermore, the lithium-ion phosphate/lithium half cell using cellulose separator exhibited stable charge-discharge capability even at 120 °C. This paper presents an overview of the PE and PP membranes of lithium-ion battery separators, discusses how to solve their disadvantages, and reviews the cellulose-based materials developed for potential application in the lithium-ion battery.
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Lazic, Violeta, and Massimiliano Ciaffi. "Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy Applied on Liquid Films: Effects of the Sample Thickness and the Laser Energy on the Signal Intensity and Stability." Journal of Spectroscopy 2017 (2017): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/7872504.
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Droplets of organic liquids on aluminum substrate were probed by an Nd:YAG laser, both in a steady state and during rotation at speeds 18–150 rpm. Rotation transforms the droplet into film, which estimated thickness at high speeds was below 3 μm and 20 μm for diesel and peanut oil, respectively. Line intensities from the liquid (C I) and the support (Al I) material were tracked as a function of the film thickness and the laser energy. By film thinning, the line intensities from liquid sample were enhanced up to a factor 100x; simultaneously, the LIBS signal fluctuations were reduced 5–10 times with respect to the steady droplet. In certain experimental conditions, the line intensities from the support material become very weak with respect to the C I line, indicating an efficient screening of the substrate by highly excited plasma from the liquid layer. At a fixed rotation speed, there is a laser energy threshold, dependent on the liquid thickness, above which the LIBS signal becomes stable. Here, we discuss the relative processes and optimization of the experimental conditions for the LIBS measurements frome one laser shot to another.
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Aguirre, M. A., H. Nikolova, M. Hidalgo, and A. Canals. "Hyphenation of single-drop microextraction with laser-induced breakdown spectrometry for trace analysis in liquid samples: a viability study." Analytical Methods 7, no. 3 (2015): 877–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c4ay02218a.
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Wu Jinquan, 吴金泉, 常亮 Chang Liang, 刘林美 Liu Linmei, 徐小燕 Xu Xiaoyan, and 佘明军 She Mingjun. "Study on LIBS Spectrum for Liquid Sample by Time Resolution." APPLIED LASER 31, no. 3 (2011): 232–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.3788/al20113103.0232.
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de Jesus, Amanda M. D., Miguel Ángel Aguirre, Montserrat Hidalgo, Antonio Canals, and Edenir R. Pereira-Filho. "The determination of V and Mo by dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (DLLME) combined with laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)." J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 29, no. 10 (2014): 1813–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c4ja00151f.
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Zhang, D. C., Z. Q. Hu, Y. B. Su, B. Hai, X. L. Zhu, J. F. Zhu, and X. Ma. "Simple method for liquid analysis by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)." Optics Express 26, no. 14 (July 6, 2018): 18794. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/oe.26.018794.
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Guan, Zeliang, Zhijun Zhang, Binyang Du, and Zhangquan Peng. "A Non-Flammable Zwitterionic Ionic Liquid/Ethylene Carbonate Mixed Electrolyte for Lithium-Ion Battery with Enhanced Safety." Materials 14, no. 15 (July 28, 2021): 4225. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma14154225.
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Today, the requirement for clean, highly efficient, and safe energy seems to be higher and higher due to non-renewable energy and pollution of the environment. At this moment, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) look like a reliable solution for this dilemma since they have huge energy density. However, the flammability of the conventional electrolyte used in the LIBs is one of critical disadvantages of LIBs, which compromises the safety issue of LIBs. Herein, we reported a non-flammable zwitterionic ionic liquid-based electrolyte named TLPEC, which was fabricated by simply mixing a novel zwitterionic ionic liquid TLP (93 wt%) and ethylene carbonate (EC, 7 wt%). The TLPEC electrolyte exhibited a wide electrochemical potential window of 1.65–5.10 V and a robust ionic conductivity of 1.0 × 10−3 S cm−1 at 20 °C, which renders TLPEC to be a suitable electrolyte for LIBs with enhanced safety performance. The LIBs, with TLPEC as the electrolyte, exhibited an excellent performance in terms of excellent rate capability, cycling stability, and high specific capacity at 25 and 60 °C, which were attributed to the stability and high ionic conductivity of TLPEC electrolyte during cycling as well as the excellent interface compatibility of TLPEC electrolyte with lithium anode.
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Harun, Hanin Athirah, and Roslinda Zainal. "Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy measurement for liquids: Experimental configurations and sample preparations." Journal of Nonlinear Optical Physics & Materials 27, no. 02 (June 2018): 1850023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218863518500236.
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Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is an analytical spectroscopy technique that offers precise quantitative chemical analysis using high energy laser pulse. Although LIBS has been linked as an analytical technique with no sample preparation, this case may be a boundary in preventing it from being a more advanced technique. Regardless of LIBS countless contributions in providing measurements for solid samples, the future applications of LIBS can be explored with the aid of sample preparation methods. This review highlights the previous works of researchers that have proposed and improved various configuration methods specifically targeting to upgrade the LIBS measurements of liquid samples.
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Ndruru, Sun Theo Constan Lotebulo, Deana Wahyuningrum, Bunbun Bundjali, and I. Made Arcana. "Green Synthesis of [EMIm]Ac Ionic Liquid for Plasticizing MC-based Biopolymer Electrolyte Membranes." Bulletin of Chemical Reaction Engineering & Catalysis 14, no. 2 (August 1, 2019): 345. http://dx.doi.org/10.9767/bcrec.14.2.3074.345-357.
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Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are favorable power source devices at the last two decades, owing to high energy density, rechargeable, long life cycle, portable, safe, rechargeable, good performance and friendly environment. To support their development, in this research has been successfully prepared polymer electrolyte membrane, a main component of LIBs, based on 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate ([EMIm]Ac) ionic liquid-plasticized methyl cellulose/lithium perchlorate (MC/LiClO4). [EMIm]Ac ionic liquid was easy synthesized by metathesis reaction between 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide ([EMIm]Br) ionic liquid and potassium acetate (CH3COOK) at ambient temperature, for 1 hour. [EMIm]Ac ionic liquid was functional groups analyzed with Fourier Transform Infra-red (FT-IR) and structural analyzed with 1H-Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and 13C-NMR. [EMIm]Ac ionic liquid-plasticized MC/LiClO4 biopolymer electrolyte membrane was prepared by casting solution, with [EMIm]Ac ionic liquid content, 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30% (w/w). Effect of 15% (w/w) [EMIm]Ac ionic liquid incorporation to MC/LiClO4 showed the best condition and selected as the optimum condition with conductivity, tensile strength, elongation break, and thermal stability of 9.160×10-3 S.cm-1, 24.19 MPa, 36.43%, ~256 and ~370 ºC, respectively. These results confirm that [EMIm]Ac ionic liquid can plasticize biopolymer electrolyte membranes of MC/LiClO4 to be appealing performances to fulfill the LIB’s separator requirement. Copyright © 2019 BCREC Group. All rights reserved
Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Liquid LIBS"
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Hudson, Shaymus W. "Inclusion Detection in Liquid Aluminum Via Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy." Digital WPI, 2016. https://digitalcommons.wpi.edu/etd-dissertations/540.
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Aluminum alloy castings are becoming commonplace for critical applications in the automotive and aerospace industries where materials failure is not an option. In order to meet such property demands, tight control over the cleanliness of the melt (mitigation of solid particle inclusions) and microstructure must be achieved. In order to control cleanliness, it must first be well defined and measured. Very few techniques exist in industry that can quantitatively measure inclusion levels in-situ. Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is presented as a promising technique to quantify solid particles, desired or undesired, in aluminum melts. By performing LIBS with subsequent statistical analysis on liquid aluminum with varying concentrations of Al2O3, AlB2, TiB2, and SiC particles, calibration curves relating particle concentration and elemental intensity were drawn. Through metallography and automated electron microscopy, it was found that inclusions less than 10 um in size could be detected with LIBS. Concentrations down to at least one part-per-million could be detected and accurately measured, allowing for LIBS to be use as a tool for complete, real-time melt cognition.
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Faye, Cheikh Benoit. "Détection des polluants métalliques particulaires dans les liquides par la spectroscopie de plasma induit par laser." Thesis, Lyon 1, 2014. http://www.theses.fr/2014LYO10099/document.
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La pollution des eaux est une préoccupation majeure relayée par la Communauté Européenne. Cette problématique s'accentue avec les particules métalliques et l'émergence de produits nanostructurés tels les Nano-objets, leurs Agrégats et leurs Agglomérats (NOAA). Ces NOAA constituent un cas particulier de polluants du fait de leurs propriétés physicochimiques. La surveillance et le contrôle de ces polluants dans les eaux, nécessite le développement d'instruments de mesure aptes à répondre à ce fléau environnemental. Dans ce contexte, la technique de spectroscopie de plasma induit par laser ou Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) a été retenue à l'INERIS. Elle permet l'identification chimique élémentaire des polluants sous forme particulaire dans la matrice liquide et la détermination de leurs concentrations in-situ et en temps réel. Ce travail de thèse a permis d'optimiser l'analyse des suspensions par LIBS avec deux modes d'échantillonnage. La première partie de l'étude a porté sur le couplage LIBS avec un jet liquide et les limites de détection du titane ont été évaluées à 0.5 mg/L. Dans la deuxième partie, les suspensions ont été aérosolisées avec un nébuliseur et analysées par LIBS. Les résultats obtenus en comparant ces deux modes d'échantillonnage montrent que le jet liquide peut être avantageux pour l'analyse de particules dans les liquides. Cependant le mode aérosol présente un intérêt pratique à condition d'avoir un rendement d'aérosolisation supérieur à 50%. Au final, ce travail de thèse démontre l'applicabilité de la LIBS comme outil potentiel pour l'analyse in situ de particules dans les liquides telle que la surveillance et le contrôle des eaux uséesWater pollution is a major concern, as noted by the European Community. This problem is accentuated with metallic particles and the emergence of nanostructured products such as Nano-Objects, their Aggregates and their Agglomerates (NOAA). These are the special types of pollutants owing their physicochemical properties. The monitoring and control of these pollutants in water require the development of measurement instruments which are capable to anwer this environmental problem. In this context, the technique of Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) has been developed at INERIS. It not only allows the chemical identification of these particles pollutants present in liquids, but also the determination of their concentrations in situ and in real time. This thesis has optimized the analysis of suspensions by LIBS with two sampling modes. The first mode focused on coupling LIBS with a liquid jet in which the detection limits of titanium dioxide were estimated at 0.5 mg/L. In the second mode, the suspensions were aerosolized with a nebulizer and analyzed by LIBS. The results obtained by comparing these two sampling modes show that the liquid jet may be advantageous for the analysis of suspensions. However, the aerosol mode has a practical interest if it has an aerosolization efficiency of over 50%. Finally, this work demonstrates the applicability of LIBS as a potential tool for in situ particle analysis of suspensions such as monitoring and control of wastewater
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Skočovská, Katarína. "Detekce těžkých kovů v kapalinách metodou spektrometrie laserem buzeného plazmatu." Master's thesis, Vysoké učení technické v Brně. Fakulta strojního inženýrství, 2015. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-231994.
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The diploma thesis deals with the use of laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) for detection of heavy metals traces, copper and lead, in aqueous solution of copper(II) sulphate pentahydrate and lead(II) ethanoate trihydrate. Results obtained by using single and double-pulse LIBS are compared. The theoretical section focuses on the issue of heavy metals and detection possibilities, describes the fundamental principle of LIBS technique and its modification for liquid analysis. The experimental section describes analyzed samples, the experimental apparatus, double-pulse technique, and method of spectral analysis. The moving breakdown model, which theoretically predicts optimal values of some experimental parameters, is explained briefly in section Optimalizácia. This model has been tested, however the results of experiments did not prove the theory. Furthermore, the experimental section reports the process and results of the optimization of all key measurement parameters and obtaining limits of detection from calibration curves.
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Tian, Ye. "Characterization of laser-induced plasma and application to surface-assisted LIBS for powder and liquid samples." Thesis, Lyon, 2017. http://www.theses.fr/2017LYSE1292/document.
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La spectroscopie de plasma induit par laser (En anglais LIBS: laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy) est une méthode analytique de spectroscopie d'émission optique qui utilise un plasma induit par laser comme source de vaporisation, d'atomisation et d'excitation. Bien que la LIBS ait démontré sa polyvalence et ses caractéristiques attrayantes dans de nombreux domaines, les aspects quantitatifs de la LIBS sont considérés comme son talon d'Achille. D'un point de vue fondamental, cela peut être dû à la nature complexe du plasma induit par laser comme source d'émission spectroscopique. La caractérisation temporelle et spatiale du plasma induit par laser est considérée comme l'un des points clés pour comprendre les fondements de la technique LIBS. D'autre part, la LIBS est habituellement caractérisée par l'utilisation d'une ablation laser directe, sans traitement préalable de l'échantillon. Cela pourrait être assez limitant en particulier pour certains types de matériaux tels que des poudres ou des liquides. Une préparation adéquate ou un traitement approprié de l'échantillon permettant le dépôt d'un film mince et homogène de l'échantillon sur une surface métallique pourrait grandement augmenter le potentiel de la LIBS en vue d'obtenir de meilleures performances analytiques, et notamment une meilleure sensibilité et un effet de matrice réduit. On parle alors de LIBS assistée par surface car la matrice métallique contribue à une augmentation de la température du plasma. Le présent travail de thèse est donc motivé par deux aspects importants de la technique LIBS: la connaissance du plasma induit par laser comme source d'émission spectroscopique, et de nouvelles méthodes de préparation des échantillons pour améliorer la performance analytique de la LIBS, notamment pour des échantillons comme poudres et liquides visqueux. La première partie de cette thèse (chapitre 2) est consacrée à la caractérisation du plasma induit sur des échantillons de verre, en fonction de la longueur d'onde du laser, infrarouge (IR) ou ultraviolet (UV), et du gaz ambiant, de l'air ou de l'argon. L'imagerie spectroscopique et la spectroscopie d'émission résolue en temps et en espace sont utilisées pour le diagnostic du plasma. La deuxième partie de cette thèse est de développer des méthodes de préparation d'échantillons, déposés sur des surfaces métalliques pour l'analyse LIBS de poudres ainsi que de vins comme exemples de liquide. Au chapitre 3, nous avons appliqué la LIBS pour l'analyse quantitative dans des poudres (exemples de poudres : cellulose, alumine ainsi que de la terre). Au chapitre 4, nous avons appliqué la LIBS pour la classification des vins français selon leurs régions de production. Deux modèles de classification basées sur l'analyse des composants principaux (PCA) et la forêt aléatoire (RF) sont utilisés pour la classification. A l'aide de ces applications, ce travail de thèse démontre l'efficacité de la méthode LIBS assistée par surface pour l'analyse de poudres (cellulose, alumine et sols) et de liquides (vins), avec une limite de détection dans l'ordre de ou sous la ppm et une réduction significative de l'effet de matriceLaser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is an analytical method with optical emission spectroscopy that uses a laser pulse to vaporize, atomize, and excite a hot plasma as the spectroscopic emission source. Although LIBS has demonstrated its versatility and attractive features in many fields, the quantitative analysis ability of LIBS is considered as its Achilles’ heel. From a fundamental point of view, this can be due to the complex nature of laserinduced plasma as the spectroscopic emission source for LIBS application. The temporal and spatial characterization of laser-induced plasma is considered as one of the key points for the LIBS technique. On the other hand, from the analytical point of view, LIBS is usually characterized by direct laser ablation. This can be however quite limiting, especially for some types of materials such as powders or liquids. Proper sample preparation or treatment allowing the deposition of a thin homogeneous film on a metallic surface could greatly improve the analytical performance of LIBS for these types of materials. Since the metallic surface is expected to contribute to increase the temperature and the density of the plasma and, consequently, to a better overall sensitivity, we call this technique surface-assisted LIBS. The present thesis work is therefore motivated by two basic aspects of LIBS analysis: the need of an improved knowledge of laser-induced plasma as a spectroscopic emission source, and new methods to improve the analytical performance of LIBS, including a higher sensibility and a reduced matrix effect. The first part of this thesis (Chapter 2) is dedicated to an extensive characterization of the plasma induced on glass samples, as a function of the laser wavelength, infrared (IR) or ultraviolet (UV), and the ambient gas, air or argon. Both the spectroscopic imaging and time- and space-resolved emission spectroscopy are used for plasma diagnostics in this work. The second part of this thesis is to develop a surface-assisted LIBS method for the elemental analysis in powders, and in wines as examples of liquids. We applied the surface-assisted LIBS for the quantitative elemental analysis in cellulose powders, alumina powders, and soils (Chapter 3). Special attentions are paid on the figures-of-merit, matrix effects, and normalization approaches in LIBS analysis. We also used the surfaceassisted LIBS for the classification of French wines according to their production regions (Chapter 4). Two classification models based on the principal component analysis (PCA) and random forest (RF) are used for the classification. Through these applications, this thesis work demonstrates the efficiency of the surface-assisted LIBS method for the analysis of powders (cellulose, alumina and soils) and of liquids (wines), with ppm or sub-ppm sensitivities and a reduced matrix effect
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Lam, Julien. "Pulsed Laser Ablation in Liquid : towards the comprehension of the growth processes." Thesis, Lyon 1, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015LYO10137/document.
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Lorsqu'une impulsion laser est focalisée sur une cible solide immergée dans un liquide, de la matière est vaporisée. La nucléation et la croissance ont lieu dans le liquide et des nanoparticules sont ainsi synthétisées. La méthode est très polyvalente puisqu'une grande variété de matériaux peut être générée. De plus, les nanoparticules sont directement stabilisées dans le solvant. L'ajout d'agent complexant n'est pas nécessaire mais peut tout de même permettre de mieux contrôler la taille des nanoparticules. Cependant, de nombreux processus sont mis en jeu durant la synthèse et l'objectif de ce travail doctoral est de développer la compréhension de ces éléments. Dans la mesure où l'ablation laser déploie une multitude d'´échelle de temps, il a fallu employer différentes méthodes pour élucider ces mécanismes. Pour commencer, je définirai un état de l'art de l'utilisation de l'ablation laser en milieu liquide et nos résultats concernant la synthèse d'aluminium oxyde dopé chrome. Par la suite, je présenterai la spectroscopie des plasmas et les questions sous-jacentes à la notion d'´équilibre dans un plasma moléculaire. Ensuite, je décrirai notre approche atomistique de la nucléation basée sur les techniques de chimie quantique. Enfin, je montrerai l'apport de l'utilisation des méthodes d'ombrographie pour mieux comprendre la thermodynamique du système au temps plus long. Notre étude démontre que la bulle formée suite à l'ablation laser est constituée essentiellement de molécule du solvant dont la quantité n'évolue quasiment pas au cours du temps de vie de la bulleWhen a pulsed-laser is focused into a solid target immersed in water, the material is evaporated. Nucleation and growth occur in the liquid and nanoparticles are synthesized. The method can be considered as versatile because one can try to synthesize any kinds of materials. Also, the nanoparticles are directly stabilized by the solvant so there is no need of complexing agents. The nanoparticles are described as ligand-free. However, various processes can occur during the synthesis and the aim of my work is to understand these different components. Since the laser ablation in liquid displays a wide range of timescales, we used numerous methods to address this problem. First, I will present the use of plasma spectroscopy and the questions it raises towards local thermodynamic equilibrium. Then, I will describe our microscopic approach of nucleation based on quantum chemistry techniques. Finally, I will illustrate the advantages of shadowgraphic measurements to reach an hydrodynamic understanding of the system
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Diaz, Rosado José Carlos. "Étude et développement de la spectroscopie d'émission optique sur plasma induit par laser pour la réalisation d'analyses de terrain : application à l’analyse en ligne de métaux dans les liquides." Thesis, Paris 11, 2013. http://www.theses.fr/2013PA114805/document.
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La contamination par métaux des eaux est un enjeu de santé publique important. Des contrôles et traitements de plus en plus drastiques sont ainsi effectués sur les eux destinés à la consommation humaine. Il est indispensable, pour cela, de posséder des outils analytiques fiables et sensibles, adaptés aux réglementations existantes et suffisamment souples d'utilisation. La technique de « Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy » (LIBS), ayant fait ses preuves pour l’analyse des solides, y compris dans les explorations exo-terrestres, présente des avantages très intéressants pour les liquides dont, par exemple, sont caractère multi-élémentaire et la possibilité des mesures in-situ de la contamination des eaux par métaux.Un première volet d’étude de ce travail de thèse à permis d'étudier les potentialités de la spectroscopie sur plasma induit par laser (LIBS) pour l'analyse des métaux dissous ou en suspensions dans les eaux. Etude qu’a permis de constater un effet important lié à la taille des particules lors de l’analyse de suspensions. Un deuxième volet consisté à regarder les effets de matrice organique représentée par un acide humique et ceux des minéraux naturels représentés par la bentonite et des particules d’alumine. Effets matrice qu’ont étais corriges par une normalisation par étalon interneMetal contamination of water is a major public health issue. Controls and treatments are more drastic and performed on them for human consumption. It is essential for this to possess reliable and sensitive analytical tools adapted to the existing regulations and flexible enough to use. The technique of "Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy" (LIBS), proven for the analysis of solids, including exo-terrestrial explorations, this very interesting advantages for liquids including, for example, are multi-character elementary and the possibility of in-situ measurements of water contamination by metals.A first part of this study thesis allowed to explore the potential (LIBS) for the analysis of dissolved metals or suspensions in water. Study has found an important effect related to the particle size in the analysis of suspensions. A second prong is to look at the effects of organic matrix represented by humic acid and those natural minerals represented by the bentonite and alumina particles. The matrix effect observed was corrected by normalization by internal standard
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Klempa, Tomáš. "Modulární systém pro prvkovou analýzu metodou laserové spektroskopie." Master's thesis, Vysoké učení technické v Brně. Fakulta strojního inženýrství, 2015. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-231948.
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This diploma thesis is solved for AtomTrace Company and describes mechanical design of modular system for elemental analysis using laser spectroscopy. Object of this thesis is to create at once compact and modular system, with addition of liquid analysis module. System described in this work came out from current solution and is capable of interaction of new and previous modules. New solution is more economical both in budget and mass, whole system is fully functional and liquid analysis module with flat jet has 40 % stability, as described in experiments. The benefit of this work is possible future integration of system or separate modules into the AtomTrace portfolio and industry applications.
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Nacef, Saci. "Hydrodynamique des lits fluidisés gaz-liquide-solide." Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, INPL, 1991. http://www.theses.fr/1991INPL056N.
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@L'objectif de ce travail est l'étude de l'hydrodynamique des réacteurs à lit fluidisé gaz-liquide-solide à co-courant ascendant de gaz et de liquide et à phase liquide continue, en s'intéressant particulièrement aux effets d'échelle, de distributeur et de la présence d'inhibiteurs de coalescence. Une banque de données sur les paramètres hydrodynamiques a été établie ; elle contient actuellement près de 7000 données dues aux travaux de 38 équipes, dont notre groupe. L'étude expérimentale porte sur le minimum de fluidisation, les régimes d'écoulement et les retentions des phases ; elle a été effectuée dans une colonne d'assez grande taille (diamètre 0,15 m, hauteur 5 m). Nous avons effectué des mesures avec quatre configurations d'un distributeur à plaque perforée et un distributeur à mélangeur statique. Les liquides utilisés sont l'eau et des solutions aqueuses diluées de différents alcools ou de sel. Les diamètres de particules sont compris entre 1 et 4 mm. Le type de distributeur et l'inhibiteur de coalescence ont des effets très importants sur les régimes d'écoulement et la vitesse minimale de fluidisation triphasique : en particulier, nous décrivons un régime d'écoulement nouveau, le pistonnage. Nous proposons une corrélation originale pour estimer la vitesse minimale de fluidisation pour l'eau. En ce qui concerne les rétentions de phases, les effets du distributeur et d l'inhibiteur de coalescence sont également très influents, surtout sur la rétention gazeuse et la porosité du lit. Nous proposons une technique de caractérisation du distributeur basée sur le concept de vitesse de glissement. Les corrélations empiriques et les modèles de prédiction fondés sur les modèles de trainées de bulles, d'une manière générale, sont peu satisfaisantes. Nous proposons quelques directions de recherches pour tenter de remédier à cet état
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Gervais, Aroquiaradj. "Étude de l'hydrodynamique et du transfert de matière gaz/liquide dans les lits fluidises tri phasiques : application aux lits fluidises tetraphasiques." Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, INPL, 1993. http://www.theses.fr/1993INPL084N.
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Si le design des colonnes a bulles est assez bien connu en général, celui des lits fluidises triphasiques requiert encore des études plus poussées. L'objectif de cette thèse est de mener une étude couplée de l'hydrodynamique et du transfert de matière gaz/liquide dans les lits fluidises triphasiques. Une nouvelle procédure d'étalonnage d'une sonde électroconductive dans un milieu triphasique a été mise au point. Ceci permet de déterminer les profils axiaux de rétention des phases. L'équation d'étalonnage tient compte de la composition et de la nature des phases dispersées. Quant au transfert gaz/liquide, le modèle de dispersion axiale du liquide généralement utilisé, suppose une ségrégation du réacteur en lit fluidise et freeboard. Cette hypothèse est remise en question par des expériences du traceur qui démontrent un retromélange du liquide à l'interface lit/freeboard. L'impact de ce retro-mélange sur le coefficient de transfert gaz/liquide est étudié en utilisant l'équation de dispersion axiale a coefficient k#l#a et d#z fonctions de la hauteur z. Les procédures développées pour le système triphasique sont appliqués a un lit fluidise tétraphasique gaz/slurry/particules du lit, l'objectif étant de démontrer l'efficacité d'un lit à améliorer le k#l#a d'une colonne a bulles avec slurry
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François, Marie. "Approche expérimentale d’écoulement gaz/liquide en milieu poreux modèle : application aux lits fixes pour la catalyse hétérogène." Thesis, Bordeaux, 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016BORD0216/document.
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Les réactions de catalyse hétérogène impliquant un gaz et un liquide sont mises en oeuvre dans des réacteurs à lit fixes. Ces réacteurs peuvent être assimilés à un milieu poreux. La nature complexe de ce milieu rend la compréhension des interactions entre phases difficile, et nécessite une étude exhaustive à l’échelle globale et locale afin d’identifier les paramètres clés de l’hydrodynamique, des transferts de chaleur et de matière. Nous avons donc développé une cellule miniaturisée bidimensionnelle transparente, qui permet l’observation directe des écoulements avec une très bonne résolution spatiale et temporelle. En faisant varier le débit total et le rapport des débits gaz/liquide, nous avons mis en évidence l’apparition des régimes ruisselant et pulsé, observés par ailleurs dans des systèmes tridimensionnels. Grâce à une méthode d’analyse d’image, nous sommes capables de quantifier et cartographier la saturation liquide locale apparente et la morphologie des phases. L’analyse des variances a permis d’étudier les transitions de régimes pour différentes propriétés de la phase liquide. Cette approche a permis de comparer avec la littérature, mais aussi de s’intéresser aux mécanismes de génération et propagation des instabilités lors des transitions. Il a été mis en évidence que l’apparition des instabilités responsables de la déstabilisation du régime ruisselant intervient pour un nombre deWeber liquide fixé, indiquant que le régime pulsé apparait suite à la déstabilisation des interfaces gaz /liquides par les forces inertielles. Enfin, une étude préliminaire des transferts thermiques dans la cellule a été réalisée. La cellule est utilisée pour réaliser la réaction exothermique d’hydrogénation de l’alpha-methylstyrène. Un modèle simple de transferts thermique a été utilisé pour caractériser l’augmentation de température dans la cellule. Bien que cette approche ne permette pas des mesures quantitatives, elle ouvre à la perspective de suivi de transferts thermiques par caméra infra-rougeHeterogeneously catalyzed reactions involving a gas and a liquid phase are frequently achieved in fixed bed reactors. These reactors can be described as a porous medium. The complex nature of this medium makes the understanding of the interplay between phases difficult, and requires a thorough study at the global andlocal scale to identify the key parameters of hydrodynamics, mass and heat transfers. Therefore, we have developed a miniaturized two-dimensional system that is transparent to allow the direct observation of the flow with very high spatial and temporal resolution. While varying the total flow rate and the gas/liquid flow rate ratio, we observe the appearance of the trickle and the pulse flow regime, which can be observed in threedimensional beds. Thanks to some image analysis techniques, we are able to quantify and to map the local apparent liquid saturation and the morphology of the phases. Variances analysis allowed the study of the transition for different liquid properties. This approach allowed the comparison with the existing state of art, but also the study of the onset and propagation mechanisms of the instabilities during the transition. We report that the onset of instabilities responsible for the destabilization of the trickle flow regime occurs at a fixed Weber number. This indicates that the pulsed regime is due to the destabilization of the gas/liquid interface by inertial forces. Finally, a preliminary study of thermal transfers in the device was realized. The device was used to perform the exothermic hydrogenation of alpha-methylstyrene. A simple model is used to characterize the temperature increase in the device. Although this approach does not allow quantitative measurements, it opens up the perspective of monitoring thermal transfers with an infra-red camera
Books on the topic "Liquid LIBS"
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Beaton, M. C. Agatha Raisin and love, lies, and liquor. London: Constable & Robinson, 2006.
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Beaton, M. C. Love, lies, and liquor: An Agatha Raisin mystery. New York: St. Martin's Minotaur, 2006.
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The hog ranches of Wyoming: Liquor, lust, and lies under sagebrush skies. Glendo, Wyo: High Plains Press, 1995.
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Keith, Penelope, and M. C. Beaton. Agatha Raisin and Love, Lies, and Liquor Lib/E. Blackstone Publishing, 2014.
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Beaton, M. C. Love, Lies and Liquor (Agatha Raisin Mysteries). St. Martin's Minotaur, 2007.
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Beaton, M. C. Agatha Raisin and Love, Lies, and Liquor. Blackstone Audio, Inc., 2015.
Find full textBook chapters on the topic "Liquid LIBS"
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Lazic, Violeta. "LIBS Analysis of Liquids and of Materials Inside Liquids." In Springer Series in Optical Sciences, 195–225. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-45085-3_8.
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Bhatt, Chet R., Christian L. Goueguel, Jinesh C. Jain, Dustin L. McIntyre, and Jagdish P. Singh. "LIBS application to liquid samples." In Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy, 231–46. Elsevier, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-818829-3.00009-5.
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McLeish, Tom. "5. Pearliness." In Soft Matter: A Very Short Introduction, 91–114. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780198807131.003.0005.
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‘Pearliness’ focuses on the soft matter class of ‘liquid crystals’ and considers a new ‘phase’ of matter: the ‘nematic’ state. The liquid crystal molecules are built of many atoms; they are mesoscopic objects. Their essential structure lies therefore in their overall rod-like shape, not in their specific atomistic constituents. In consequence, nematic behaviour is universal—there are many examples of molecules which form a nematic state. How do ideas from superconductivity and particle physics theory provide a conceptual framework for the theoretical physics of liquid crystals? There is another class of liquid crystals known as ‘smectic’ which are important to consider in this topic.
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Bowers, David George, and Emyr Martyn Roberts. "8. New frontiers." In Tides: A Very Short Introduction, 116–32. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780198826637.003.0008.
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‘New frontiers’ considers where the future lies for tidal studies. On our own planet there are discoveries to be made in difficult-to-reach places such as deep-sea ecosystems. The interaction between tides and sunlight in shallow water has been barely explored. Innovative computer models allow us to reproduce the tide in the early ocean. Tidal forces are not confined to Earth. Tidal flexing of the icy moons of Jupiter appears to have created a liquid water ocean on Europa. It is possible that this ocean has the right conditions for life, and space probes planned for the next few years will be able to test this possibility.
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Beerling, David. "Leaves, genes, and greenhouse gases." In The Emerald Planet. Oxford University Press, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192806024.003.0009.
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The Galileo spacecraft, named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), who launched modern astronomy with his observations of the heavens in 1610, plunged to oblivion in Jupiter’s crushing atmosphere on 21 September 2003. Launched in 1989, it left behind a historic legacy that changed the way we view the solar system. Galileo’s mission was to study the planetary giant Jupiter and its satellites, four of which Galileo himself observed, to his surprise, moving as ‘stars’ around the planet from his garden in Pardu, Italy. En route, the spacecraft captured the first close-up images of an asteroid (Gaspra) and made direct observations of fragments of the comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 smashing into Jupiter. Most remarkable of all were the startling images of icebergs on the surface of Europa beamed backed in April 1997, after nearly eight years of solar system exploration. Icebergs suggested the existence of an extraterrestrial ocean, liquid water. To the rapt attention of the world’s press, NASA’s mission scientists commented that liquid water plus organic compounds already present on Europa, gave you ‘life within a billion years’. Whether this is the case is a moot point; water is essential for life on Earth as we know it, but this is no guarantee it is needed for life elsewhere in the Universe. Oceans may also exist beneath the barren rocky crusts of two other Galilean satellites, Callisto and Ganymede. Callisto and Ganymede probably maintain a liquid ocean thanks to the heat produced by natural radioactivity of their rocky interiors. Europa, though, lies much closer to Jupiter, and any liquid water could be maintained by heating due to gravitational forces that stretch and squeeze the planet in much the same way as Earth’s moon influences our tides. To reach Jupiter, Galileo required two slingshots (gravitational assists) around Earth and Venus. Gravitational assists accelerate the speed and adjust the trajectory of the spacecraft without it expending fuel. The planets doing the assisting pay the price with an imperceptible slowing in their speed of rotation. In Galileo’s case, the procedure fortuitously permitted close observations of Earth from space, allowing a control experiment in the search for extraterrestrial life, never before attempted.
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Campbell, J. "Entrainment Defects." In Encyclopedia of Aluminum and Its Alloys. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781351045636-140000412.
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Most metals start their lives in the liquid state, and are subjected to various transfers involving pouring or other types of surface turbulence. These actions entrain (fold in) the surface film to create entrainment defects. These are principally (a) bubbles that in turn create bubble trails; (b) bifilms; doubled over surface films, that act as cracklike defects; and (c) sundry entrained debris, collectively known as exogenous inclusions. The bifilm is the subject of this perspective. It appears to be a common, but serious and almost overlooked metallurgical defect. Analysis of bifilms provides a simple, powerful and elegant concept based on an enduring legacy from turbulence during the pouring of liquid metals. Usually large populations of bifilms are introduced into metals at an early stage of their production. In general their presence has been unsuspected because although they can have large area, they can often be only nanometres thick and not easily detected by conventional non-destructive techniques. The populations of cracks in suspension in liquid metal explains many otherwise inexplicable features of cast products such as porosity, hot tearing, the morphologies of second phases, and impaired reliability of mechanical properties. The fundamental difference between such entrained defects (associated with a macroscopic unbonded interface) and defects and inclusions grown in the melt is seen to be of central significance for the failures of metals by mechanical or corrosion type mechanisms. For wrought products the continued presence of bifilms, now usually extended and elongated and mainly occupying grain boundaries, appears to offer explanations for many metallurgical phenomena. Bifilms are likely to influence the development of texture, and are the most likely source for many types of failure in the solid state. Thus the limitations to superplastic forming, cavitation in tertiary creep, pitting corrosion of various types and stress corrosion cracking are likely to be profoundly affected by bifilms. Although the effects of bifilms can be reduced by expensive post-casting operations such as hipping or working, the major future potential lies in techniques for their avoidance. Some casting operations are already taking some first steps in new technology for their avoidance, and benefiting technically and commercially.
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Oliver, James. "The Funding Agenda Social relations and the politics of cultural production." In Key Issues in the Arts and Entertainment Industry. Goodfellow Publishers, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.23912/978-1-906884-20-8-1450.
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Are the arts, so to speak, on the ‘muck heap’ of public spending? From the point of view of an arts activist, or any advocate of public spending on the arts, particularly in times of austerity, it can certainly appear that arts funding is lobbed out of the window at the first opportunity. At best, it appears that many in the arts sector are expected to feed off the scraps of funding from the residue of public spending. There is a certain ‘sink or swim’ attitude that prevails, where the environment of the liquid (or not so liquid) marketplace is deemed the ultimate arbiter of value. However, and despite the protestations of some who may espouse a more Darwinian economic model, making art (whatever the quality) and making money(or should that be making a profit?) are not always going to be in the same trajectory. Sure, at one extreme, some commercial contexts of the creative arts and entertainment industry make some people very rich (and can often employ very many people), but that does not mean that productions will turna profit or that companies will not goout of business, even if they make millionaires and stars out of individuals. The point being, a market-driven privatisation of individual talent, skills and product can have negative effects for the wider ecology of a company or sector. For the everyday arts company or practitioner, the economics is much smaller in scale than that of the celebrity industry; nevertheless, sustainability is as key a concern. Sustainability is the watchword, then, which is why systematic business models are keenly sought out within the sector (see www.missionmodelsmoney.org.uk). The point of this chapter, though, is not to provide such a model but to point out that such models are themselves subject to more systemic economic and political conditions, and crucially, social relations. Traditionally, public funds have been a key issue, not just in broadening the scope and range of access and participation (including the training of artists), but also of sector sustainability, under the broad rubric of public good. And therein lies the conundrum: what does‘public good’ actually come to mean?
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Lipton, Robert, D. M. Gorman, William F. Wieczorek, and Paul Gruenewald. "Spatial Analysis in a Public Health Setting." In Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology, First Edition, 2576–83. IGI Global, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-59140-553-5.ch457.
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Spatial methods are an increasingly important tool in understanding public health issues. Spatial analysis addresses an often forgotten or misunderstood aspect of public health, namely, studying the dynamics of people in places. As advances in computer technology have continued apace, spatial methods have become an appealing way to understand the manner in which the individual relates to larger frameworks that compose the human community and the physical nature of human environments (streets with intersections, dense vs. sparse neighborhoods, high or low densities of liquor stores or restaurants, etc.). Spatial methods are extremely data-intensive, often pulling together information from disparate sources that have been collected for other purposes, such as research, business practice, governmental policy, and law enforcement. Although initially more demanding in regard to data manipulation compared to typical population level methods, the ability to compile and compare data in a spatial framework provides much additional information about human populations that lies beyond typical survey or census research. We will discuss general methods of spatial analysis and mapping which will help to elucidate when and how spatial analysis might be used in a public health setting. Further, we will discuss a practical research example focusing on the relationship between alcohol and violence.
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Gao, H., and R. Wang. "Effects of mass flow rate and the throat diameter of diffuser on vapor absorptioninto aqueous LiBr solution for a liquid-gas ejector using convergent nozzle." In Frontiers of Energy and Environmental Engineering, 420–23. CRC Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/b13718-98.
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Beris, Antony N., and Brian J. Edwards. "Symplectic Geometry in Optics." In Thermodynamics of Flowing Systems: with Internal Microstructure. Oxford University Press, 1994. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195076943.003.0006.
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The scope of this book is to address the fundamental problem of modeling transport processes within complex systems, i.e., systems with internal microstructure. The classical engineering approach involves the modeling of the systems as structured continua and the subsequent use of the models in order to derive (if possible) analytical results, exact or approximate. The advent of powerful computers and the promise through parallel processing of even more substantial computational gains in the near future have introduced yet another paragon to the established engineering practice: that of the numerical simulation. Numerical simulation has emerged as a viable alternative to experiments (contrast Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations versus wind tunnel experiments); however, the key limitation to a wider application of numerical simulations in engineering practice lies in the reliability of the models (as well as in their simplicity). CFD applications are successful since the Navier/Stokes equations which they employ are quite capable of describing accurately enough the hydrodynamics of air and water. However, as we move our emphasis to materials of such internal complexity as polymer melts, liquid crystals, suspensions, etc., the development of reliable continuum models becomes an increasingly arduous task. The main objective of this treatise is to investigate a more systematic approach through which continuum models may be developed and analyzed. The key issue that the modeler has to cope with is how to construct models which describe more of the underlying physics without, at the same time, becoming excessively complex so that they either require a prohibitively large, experimentally determined number of adjustable parameters (such as current phenomenological theories) or a prohibitively large computational time (such as required for a detailed “brute force” description of the molecular dynamics). It is the thesis of the present work that a lot of effort can be saved if the appropriate formulation is used in deriving model equations, a formulation which is capable of exploiting to a maximum degree the inherent symmetry and consistency of the collective phenomena exhibited by a large number of internal degrees of freedom.
Conference papers on the topic "Liquid LIBS"
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Suyanto, Hery, Ni Nyoman Rupiasih, T. B. Winardi, M. Manurung, and K. H. Kurniawan. "Qualitative analysis of Pb liquid sample using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)." In INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON THEORETICAL AND APPLIED PHYSICS (LCTAP 2012). AIP, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4820982.
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Sabsabi, Mohamad, R. Héon, L. St-Onge, V. Detalle, A. Hamel, and J. Lucas. "On-line analysis of liquid samples by laser induced plasma spectroscopy (LIPS)." In Laser Induced Plasma Spectroscopy and Applications. Washington, D.C.: OSA, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/libs.2002.wd4.
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Rupiasih, Ni Nyoman, Hery Suyanto, Made Sumadiyasa, Christine Prita Purwanto, and Rendra Rustam Purnomo. "Study of filtering Ag liquid sample by chitosan biomembrane using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)." In INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON THEORETICAL AND APPLIED PHYSICS (LCTAP 2012). AIP, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4820987.
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Taschuk, Mike, Ying Tsui, and Robert Fedosejevs. "Optimization of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for liquid samples at millijoule pulse energies." In Laser Induced Plasma Spectroscopy and Applications. Washington, D.C.: OSA, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/libs.2002.wc4.
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Zakri, Waleed, Muapper Alhadri, AbdulHaq Mohammed, Roja Esmaeeli, Seyed Reza Hashemi, Haniph Aliniagerdroudbari, and Siamak Farhad. "Quasi-Solid Graphite Anode for Flexible Lithium-Ion Battery." In ASME 2018 12th International Conference on Energy Sustainability collocated with the ASME 2018 Power Conference and the ASME 2018 Nuclear Forum. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/es2018-7456.
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Flexible Li-ion batteries (LIBs) have a strong oncoming consumer market demand for use in wearable electronic devices, flexible smart electronics, roll-up displays, electronic shelf labels, active radio-frequency identification tags, and implantable medical devices. This market demand necessitates research and development of flexible LIBs in order to fulfill the power requirements of these next-generation devices. This study investigated the performance of quasi-solid anode — the active and conductive additive materials suspended in liquid electrolyte — for flexible lithium-ion batteries (LIB). A quasi-solid graphite anode was fabricated and tested using different material ratios and compositions, showing an acceptable performance. Furthermore, this study looked into the effect of graphite powder ratios in battery performance. A ratio of over 65% of the specific discharge capacity to the theoretical capacity was achieved maintaining the capacity retention of more than 74% after the second cycle.
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Suyanto, Hery. "Qualitative analysis of black stone and its application for detecting Ag and Pb in liquid sample by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)." In THE 4TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON THEORETICAL AND APPLIED PHYSICS (ICTAP) 2014. AIP Publishing LLC, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4943744.
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Williams, Ammon, and Supathorn Phongikaroon. "Optimization of Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy Parameters in a Novel Molten Salt Aerosol System." In 2016 24th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icone24-60724.
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Pyroprocessing of used nuclear fuel has shown potential as an alternative fuel reprocessing technology to the traditional aqueous technology. Having a clear picture of the actinide, fission product, and rare-earth elements within the salt in realtime is important from processes control, efficiency and material safeguards perspectives. However, measuring the molten salt electrolyte composition within the system is challenging due the high temperature and radiation involved. Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) has been proposed to measure the molten salt composition via a static liquid surface or solid surface approach. These approaches can yield compositional results near real-time; however, concerns with sample homogeneity, splashing, and poor repeatability present significant challenges. A novel molten salt aerosol-LIBS system has been developed to mitigate some of the aforementioned challenges. Here, modifications to the system using a 1-jet nebulizer and sampling chamber are being discussed. Preliminary results demonstrate the advantages and success of the modifications. Experiments were conducted to optimize the spectrometer gate delay and results indicate that the optimal gate delay is greater than 9 μs. In addition, the percent relative standard deviations (%RSD) for this system were found to be approximately 7%.
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Koch, Sandra, Walter Garen, Milos Muller, and Walter Neu. "Detection of chromium in liquids by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)." In SPIE Proceedings, edited by Vadim P. Veiko. SPIE, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.552860.
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Fichet, Paschal, Denis Menut, René Brennetot, and Annie Rivoallan. "Analysis by LIBS of complex solids, liquids and powders with an echelle spectrometer." In Laser Induced Plasma Spectroscopy and Applications. Washington, D.C.: OSA, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/libs.2002.fb4.
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Klarecki, Artur, and Pawel Rozga. "Three-Parameter Weibull Distribution Curves for LIBV of Pressboard Samples Impregnated with Natural Ester and Mineral Oil." In 2019 IEEE 20th International Conference on Dielectric Liquids (ICDL). IEEE, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icdl.2019.8796746.
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