Journal articles on the topic 'Lisu language'

Lisu (ISO 639-2 lis) is spoken by just over a million members of the group of this name in south-western China, north-eastern Burma, northern Thailand and north-eastern India. It formerly also had other names used by outsiders, including Yeren (Chinese yeren ‘wild people’), and Yawyin in Burma and Yobin in India (both derived from the Chinese term). Other names included Lisaw from the Shan and Thai name for the group, also seen in the former Burmese name Lishaw. About two-thirds of the speakers live in China, especially in north-western Yunnan Province, but also scattered elsewhere in Yunnan and Sichuan. About a quarter live in the Kachin State and the northern Shan State in Burma, with a substantial number in Chiangmai, Chiangrai and other provinces of Thailand, and a few thousand in Arunachal Pradesh in India. It is also spoken as a second language by many speakers of Nusu, Anung, Rawang and others in north-western Yunnan and northern Burma. Lisu has almost completely replaced Anung in China and is replacing Lemei in China. The Lisu are one of the 55 national minorities recognised in China, one of 135 ethnic groups recognised in Burma, a scheduled (officially listed and recognised) tribe in India, and one of the recognised hill tribe groups of Thailand. Figure 1 shows a map of the area where Lisu is spoken.

The Lisu are a largely Christian minority group in south-west China who, as an oral culture, express their faith more through a set of Christian practices done as a group and less through bible reading as individuals. Even so, the Lisu practice of Christianity specifically, and Lisu culture more generally, was profoundly impacted by the written scriptures. During the initial evangelisation of the Lisu by the China Inland Mission, missionaries created a written script for the Lisu language. Churches were constructed and organised, which led to the creation of bible schools and the work of bible translation. In the waves of government persecution after 1949, Lisu New Testaments were hidden away up in the mountains by Lisu Christians. After 1980, the Lisu reclaimed their faith by listening to the village elders tell the Old Story around the fires and reopening the churches that had been closed for twenty-two years. And they reclaimed their bible by retrieving the scriptures from the hills and copying them in the evening by the light of a torch. The Lisu bible has its own narrative history, consisting of script creating, translating, migrating, and copying by hand. At times it was largely influenced by the mission narrative, but at other times, the Lisu bible itself was the lead character in the story. Ultimately, the story of the Lisu bible reflects the Lisu Christian story of moving from missionary beginnings to local leadership and, ultimately, to local theological inquiry.

David Bradley claims there must be a mindset shift in terms of the treatment given to endangered languages. For that matter, “dead language” is no longer acceptable, but rather “sleeping language”, for instance. Providing examples of awakened languages, such as Lisu and Bisu, Bradley reaches out linguists and non linguists to reclaim languages in order to protect cultural identities. In spite of the work being done by scholars, the presenter argues that research on endangered languages must have governmental support along with universities and other authorities. It is only with conjoined forces that languages can be reclaimed and cultural identities can be preserved.

Lisu is a Sino-Tibetan language of Central Ngwi branch. It has multiple tonal contrasts and a typologically unusual vowel inventory. In this talk, I present an acoustic phonetic study based on data collected from eleven speakers of Northern Lisu, spoken in Nujiang Autonomous Prefecture in Yunnan, Southwestern China. The study focuses on the vowels and tones of the language, and their interaction. Northern Lisu has six tones, including four modal and two creaky-voiced tones; it has ten vowels, including five front vowels, four back vowels, and a central “fricative” vowel. Tone and vowel interaction is analyzed using Esling’s Laryngeal Articulator Model. Results show all speakers produce a lower f0 in the retracted vowel context, but it is not the case that all tones are creakier in this same vowel context. Simultaneously, male and female speakers show differences in terms of voice quality. Examination of the vowel space shows a reduction in many vowel contrasts. It is suggested that the vowel space is becoming regularised, with perceptually difficult contrasts being neutralised. In addition, it is shown that the fricative vowel contains minimal frication compared to the fricative consonants, and as such is better described as a syllabic retroflex approximant.

Aims and objectives: This paper describes the multilingualism patterns practiced in the Zauzou community, a small ethnic group in Southwestern China. Zauzou is in contact with Lisu, Bai, Lama, and Mandarin Chinese. The present study aims to characterize the relationship between the social/linguistic factors including age, second language (L2), types of code-alternation, and the multilingualism patterns in this community. Design/methodology/approach: Self-reports and participant observation were used to discover any recurrent multilingualism patterns regulated by social/linguistic factors. Data and analysis: Self-reported data on Zauzou speakers’ language repertoire and language use were collected by means of demographic survey. Code-alternation between Zauzou and different L2s were collected from systematic linguistic fieldwork. Findings/conclusions: Zauzou is the dominant language in intragroup multilingualism, while intergroup multilingualism is dominated by Zauzou speakers’ L2s. Zauzou speakers exhibit a shift from the local multilingualism toward Mandarin-Zauzou bilingualism. The two patterns can be characterized by speakers’ age, L2, and the type of code-alternation. Zauzou-Mandarin bilingualism is realized as both code-mixing and code-switching, and is pervasive among the younger generation, while multilingualism is realized as code-switching and is dominant among older speakers. This shift is due to the new market economy and the language policy that promotes Mandarin in the whole area. Originality: This study presents naturalistic data on multilingualism practices in a small minority group in China, which is overlooked by most linguistic descriptions and sociolinguistic studies of lesser-studied languages in China. Significance/implications: This paper discovers three parameters to define two cross-linguistic multilingualism patterns in small indigenous societies: the local multilingualism and the national bilingualism, and the shift toward bilingualism that directly results from language policy and economy.

AbstractIt is usually agreed that programming languages for implementing (other) programming languages, or ‘implementation languages’, should be simple low-level languages which are close to the machine code and to the operating system. In this paper it is argued that a very high level implementation language is a good idea, of particular importance for knowledge-based systems, and that Lisp (as a language and as a system) is very well suited to be a very high level implementation language. The significance of special-purpose programming languages is also discussed, and the requirements that they have for a very high level implementation language are considered.

Dutch–English participants named words and nonwords with a between-language phonologically inconsistent rime, e.g., GREED and PREED, and control words with a language-typical rime, e.g., GROAN, in a monolingual stimulus list or in a mixed list containing Dutch words. Inconsistent items had longer latencies and more errors than typical items in the mixed lists but not in the pure list. The consistency effect depended on word frequency, but not on language membership, lexicality, or instruction. Instruction did affect the relative speed and number of errors in the two languages. The consistency effect is the consequence of the simultaneous activation of two sublexical codes in the bilinguals' two languages and its size depends on the activation rate of the associated lexical representations (high-frequency words versus low-frequency words and nonwords) and on the decision criteria that monitor the response conflict at the decision level: the timing for responding (time criterion) in each language depends on the composition of the stimulus list and the likelihood of responses in either language.

Visual LISP language is favored by many people for its simple and practical. Because of most CAD teaching materials centre on introducing concrete languages’ use and single symbol making, lack of a comprehensive descriptionof the whole process of developing professional symbols library, it is very difficult for People having mastery of LISP languages to developing professional symbol library by this language. In this article, the authors develop a symbols library for common Topographic Maps and design an environment to transfer and input the symbols with the aid of Visual LISP language, including defining graphic coordinates systems, coordinates transformations, putting library files in order, calling user-defined file etc. This paper provides great help for people who Devote oneself to map symbol library system development.

The article highlights aspects of the development of the LISP interpreter. Despite the fact that LISP is not the most popular language these days (in the TIOBE index for November 2022, this language is in 30th place), the work done by the authors is relevant. Many popular ideas and software technologies today were first developed using LISP machines. The developed interpreter allows the programmer to avoid defining program elements (functions, classes, etc.) unnecessarily. Also, the development result allows you to run any LISP entity that returns a meaningful result. Modern LISP interpreters do not have the ability to overload functions, which is why users have to memorize a huge number of function names whose actions are of the same type. This greatly complicates the learning process, since you have to look for the names of primitive functions in the documentation. Because of this, most of the potential users drop out of training, returning to modern programming languages, without knowing the possibilities of the LISP language. The article reveals the creation of a LISP interpreter capable of competing with modern programming languages in terms of ease of interaction with objects. The article also suggests an approach that provides a garbage collection mechanism by counting references to objects.

Assessment of the language development of Aboriginal children in Central Australia is a major challenge, because little is known about the children’s language repertoires and paths of development. The Central Australian language context presents a specific challenge for describing what young children are learning and for developing an appropriate vocabulary assessment tool. National Indigenous policies now have a focus on young children’s development, and existing monolingual English language assessment tools are bound to be inaccurate and unfair, either under-reporting knowledge that is present, or under-reporting difficulties children may have. In response, a multilingual ‘spoken’ MacArthur Bates Communicative Development Inventory (CDI) app, the Little Kids' Word List, has been developed for four of the languages spoken by young children in Central Australia: Eastern & Central Arrernte, Western Arrarnta, Warlpiri and English, and another two languages are being added. The Little Kids’ Word List app has been intentionally designed for fairer language assessments of the speech production and comprehension of young Indigenous children in Central Australia. The development processes explored the complex linguistic contexts, multilingual repertoires and cultural practices of the children’s families. This is reflected in the content and design of the app, making it appropriate for these young Aboriginal children developing their languages knowledge. In contrast to a monolingual English-based tool developed in different cultural settings, the Little Kids’ Word List app can make visible the Central Australian cohort's languages strengths and knowledge base.

Abstract Few previous studies have examined the impact of social class on language attitudes and language use in mainland China. A total of 215 questionnaires were collected from a university in China for this study. The participants were classified into four social classes: upper middle class, middle middle class, lower middle class, and lower class. Then an individual interview was conducted with 10 students. Findings show that the students from the upper middle class had significantly lower attitudes toward local dialects and they had the lowest percentage of current use of dialect at home. The study adds evidence to findings of previous studies that local dialects might face certain danger of maintenance. It also shows that this change would start from people from the upper middle class. The study also points out a possible future tendency that social class privilege will play a more significant role in English learning and education.

To investigate decision level processes involved in bilingual word recognition tasks, Dutch–English participants had to name Dutch–English homographs in English. In a stimulus list containing items from both languages, interlingual homographs yielded longer naming latencies, more Dutch responses, and more other errors in both response languages if they had a high-frequency Dutch reading. Dutch naming latencies were slower than or equally slow as English naming latencies. In a stimulus list containing only English words and homographs, there was no homograph effect in naming latencies, although homographs did elicit more errors than control words. The results are interpreted as the consequence of list-induced variability in the competition between lexical items of the two languages involved. In addition, two additional decision processes have to be assumed: a language check, and a response deadline for non-target-language responses.

Abstract Recent studies on linguistics, cognitive science and psychology have shown that describing lexical frequency characteristics can answer many critical questions on language acquisition, mental lexicon and language use. Given the importance of corpus-based methodology, this study reports the preliminary findings from the objective lexical frequency list in TİD based on 103.087 sign tokens. This paper shows that frequency occurrence has a very decisive role on the linguistics categories and language in use. With respect to the multi-functionality of pointing in signed languages, the top ranked ID-gloss occurrences are mostly shaped by the pronominal references. Moreover, when compared to previous studies in terms of lexical density and lexical diversity, TİD shares both similar and different statistical features observed in other signed languages.

Languages in a country are considered to share common characteristics and possibly similar features. This can be attributed to many factors, but one holds true, language is essential in keeping a community. Its vitality molds a society’s identity. The more active the language is, the more its culture gets the exposure it needs. This notion goes two ways for culture cannot also stand without the usage of a language. In this study, Bisayan and Tausug lexicons were compared using a Samarin list to identify factors of similarities as well as their relationship in terms of their semantic and ontological categories. The list was subjected to a qualitative-descriptive analysis. The result of the study revealed that both Tausug and Bisayan (Cebuano) cultures have come from the same linguistic family. Both belong to the Philippine VISAYAN LANGUAGES. Of all the Visayan cultures, the TAUSUG is a Muslim dominated culture which makes it the reason why people associate Tausug language as part of the Mindanao language. The study showed that of the 200 lexicons used based on a Samarin list, 72 of those are true cognates and 28 are cognates with few differences and changes in the spelling. The findings also indicate that these similarities can be attributed to different factors like tracing language relationship by means of genetics, the environmental changes, the language sounds and language arbitrariness.

The People’s Linguistic Survey of India has listed at least 13 languages from Uttarakhand, none of which are a part of Indian Constitution’s Eight Schedule. However, two of them (Kumaoni and Garhwali) are a part of UNESCO’s list of endangered languages. Garhwali is spoken by 23 lakh people in Uttarkahnd, while Kumaoni is the native language of about 20 lakh people. More than 40% of the state's population communicate using native languages and yet Hindi is the only official language of Uttarakhand. This research article seeks to examine the language and educational policies at both state and national level, their goals, implementation, and effectiveness in supporting the regional languages of Uttarakhand.

The article examines the history of the four words found in the Muscovite diplomatic correspondence: mevati ‘to have’, menovati ‘to call, to name’, metsja ‘to feel yourself; to live’, meškaniec ‘inhabitant’. The author aims at proving that these words are lexical borrowings from Polish language. The study is based on a careful comparison of data of various types of dictionaries of the Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian and Polish languages, which made it possible to prove the insincerity of these tokens in the Russian language and to establish the source of borrowing, as well as to identify the intermediary role written language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in Polish-Russian language contacts. The materials in this publication can be used to supplement and clarify the information of the etymological and historical dictionaries of the Slavic languages.

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt:This paper presents the results of a comprehensive search for lookalikes among words for plants and animals in California languages. Words in this domain are typically more prone to borrowing than basic vocabulary, especially when speakers of a language move and encounter different species. A survey of such vocabulary is especially suited to identifying and highlighting old language contact. Since a language may be spoken far away from where its ancestor was once in contact with another language, and since words may spread far from their source through intermediate languages, this study does not exclude any languages in the area from being ultimately interconnected though old contact events.

Lexical base as a compressed language model of the world (on material from the Ukrainian language) In the article the fact is verified that the list of words selected by formal statistical methods (frequency and functional genre unrestrictedness) is not a conglomerate of non-related words. It creates a system of interrelated items and it can be named the "lexical base of language". This selected list of words covers all the spheres of human activities. To verify this statement the invariant synoptical scheme common for ideographic dictionaries of different languages was determined.

The article reflects on individual differences of foreign language users from the standpoint of polylingual communication in two related languages (intercommunication), on the basis of the work of Paolo Balboni on intercomprehension, intercommunication and useful approaches to foreign language learning. The author attempts to elaborate a list of individual characteristics which facilitate intercommunication (a conversation in which the participants speak different, but related languages). The discussion relates to features presented by selected authors in the field of foreign language teaching, the European documents on language education (CEFR and FREPA) and to psycholinguistics. The final part describes the characteristics which favour intercommunication.

Abstract People often receive and recount information in different languages. This experiment examined the impact of switching languages on false recall, recognition, and recognition confidence. We presented Spanish–English bilinguals with 10 lists of words associated to a critical non-presented lure, either in English or in Spanish. Each list was followed by free recall either in English or in Spanish. The final stage was a recognition test in either language. Results showed a higher proportion of veridical and false recall in English, the more dominant language, than in Spanish, the native language. Noncritical intrusions were equivalent in both languages. More importantly, false recall, false recognition, and false recognition confidence were higher across languages than within languages. The results are examined in relation to current research and interpretations of bilingual false memory.

AbstractEarlier studies have introduced a list of high-level evaluation criteria to assess how well a language supports generic programming. Languages that meet all criteria include Haskell because of its type classes and C++ with the concept feature. We refine these criteria into a taxonomy that captures commonalities and differences between type classes in Haskell and concepts in C++ and discuss which differences are incidental and which ones are due to other language features. The taxonomy allows for an improved understanding of language support for generic programming, and the comparison is useful for the ongoing discussions among language designers and users of both languages.

Kambera language is a regional language used by speakers who live in the eastern part of the island of Sumba, in this case, East Sumba Regency. In previous studies, the claim stated by the researchers is that there is only 1 language spoken in East Sumba. However, the people of East Sumba, as native speakers, claim that there are several languages ​​used depending on the villages. This study aims to map these languages/dialects. This descriptive preliminary study is limited to make an inventory of basic vocabulary between 11 different locations determined based on the number of paraingu namely kabihu unions or ethnic clans in the past. The basic vocabularies are taken from Sawdesh 200-list and Leipzig-Jakarta 100-list. The combination of these lists results in 223 basic vocabularies which become the main data for this study. The data were collected through recording and note-taking.

This article is a preliminary research on pohutu aadati lihu lo limu, ‘customary ceremonial devices of lemon bath’ which focuses on sign and sign system f language existing in the cultural device. It can be concluded that there are sign and sign system of language based on relation between expression and content (ERC) and sign system of language which is based on the relation of reality and its basic kinds such as icons, indices, and symbols ([R]-[O]-[ I]. Sign and sign system [E]- [R]-[C] have forms like [R] between E and C: that the development of meaning and change to the secondary or connotative direction [C] only once occurs in expression [E] = (E-R-C); in case the event the development of meaning and change to the secondary or connotative direction [C] occurs several times (6x) in the expression [E], the form will be like the relation of [R] E(E-R1-C; E-R2-C; E-R3-C; E-R4-C; E-R5-C; E-R6-C] C. The meaning development of such form of sign and sign system both at the level of first-primary (denotative) and the level of second-secondary (connotative) occurs several times in [E]. It can be said that the meaning development at the level of first-primary (denotative) is synonymous with form indices and icons and the meaning development at the level of second-secondary (connotative) is synonymous with symbols.

The article describes the experience of creating a corpus-based list of the most relevant multi-word expressions for Russian L2 learners, distributed across the levels of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) from A1 to C1. Modern linguistic and cognitive research shows that our speech is patterned and largely consists of stable segments. This fact is supported by the linguodidactic idea of teaching not isolated language units but their combinations of different nature. However, the selection and ranking of multi-word expressions based on language proficiency levels is constrained by the difficulty of automatically extracting them from a corpus of texts and estimating their frequency, as well as disagreements in defining the boundaries, linguistic nature, and terminology of multi-word expressions. This article describes the experience of compiling a list of the most valuable fixed-type multi-word expressions from various sources: two types of existing CEFR-graded vocabulary lists for Russian L2 learners – lexical minimums for the TORFL (Test of Russian as a Foreign Language) system and Russian KELLY (KEywords for Language Learning for Young and adults alike); the most frequent n-grams from the RuFoLa – Russian L2 textbook corpus and from the Russian Web corpus of internet texts; list of discourse formulas from the «Pragmaticon» project. The CEFR level of each multi-word expression is predicted using the frequency-based Max Delta measure, and its effectiveness is subsequently validated through annotation by multiple experts. The resulting list of multi-word expressions contains 1645 entries from A1 to C1 levels. The proposed version of the list has been implemented into an automated text analysis system for learners of Russian as a Foreign Language and can be useful for a wide range of professionals in the preparation of educational content for foreign language learners. The suggested Max Delta measure has demonstrated a high degree of agreement with expert evaluations within proficiency levels A1-B1. This signifies the importance of further exploring its potential in addressing related practical tasks and in selecting language learning content derived for other languages.

<p class="p1">Shopping of day-to-day items and keeping track of the shopping list can be a tedious and a time-consuming procedure, especially if it has to be done frequently. mySmartCart is a mobile application design proposed to transform the traditional way of writing a shopping list to a digitalized smart list which implements voice recognition and handwriting recognition for processing the natural language input of the user. The system design comprises four modules: i) input- which takes voice and handwritten list image input from the user; ii) processing- natural language processing of input data and converted to digital shopping list; iii) classification - list items classified into respective categories using machine learning algorithms; iv) output - searching on e-commerce applications and adding to shopping cart. The design proposed utilizes natural languages to communicate with the user thus enhancing their shopping experience. Google cloud speech recognition and tesseract optical character recognition (OCR) for natural language processing have been utilized in the prototype along with Support Vector Machine classifier for categorization.</p>

The paper is devoted to the development of the Russian language corpus in pre-reform spelling and the development of a frequency word list based on this corpus of the Russian language of the 18th - early 20th centuries. Existing approaches to solving this problem are considered and analyzed, including an overview of a number of the most popular electronic national corpuses – Russian, British and Czech. The model of the internal organization of the electronic frequency word list and its functionality are formulated. The software implementation of the Russian pre-reform language corpus and the frequency word list based on it is described using the programming languages Python and Javascript and the Mongo DB database. The issues of web application implementation for access to the developed electronic dictionary are considered.

Karimunjawa can be studied not only from social aspect but also from multilingualism. This paper aims at investigating the languages living in Karimunjawa and their vitality. The study is focused on Kemujan island whose languages are Javanese, Buginese, Maduranese, Mandarese, and bahasa Indonesia. To see the vitality of them, I used UNESCO check list, observation, and interview. Referential and distributional methods were used to show how languages were used, language contact, and language vitality. The result indicates that bahasa Indonesia is the first dominant, Javanese is the second dominant, Buginese is the third, Maduranese is the fourth, and Mandarese is the least dominant.

A special issue of the Journal of Functional Programming will be devoted to the use of functional programming in theorem proving. The submission deadline is 31 August 1997.The histories of theorem provers and functional languages have been deeply intertwined since the advent of Lisp. A notable example is the ML family of languages, which are named for the meta language devised for the LCF theorem prover, and which provide both the implementation platform and interaction facilities for numerous later systems (such as Coq, HOL, Isabelle, NuPrl). Other examples include Lisp (as used for ACL2, PVS, Nqthm) and Haskell (as used for Veritas).This special issue is devoted to the theory and practice of using functional languages to implement theorem provers and using theorem provers to reason about functional languages. Topics of interest include, but are not limited to:– architecture of theorem prover implementations– interface design in the functional context– limits of the LCF methodology– impact of host language features– type systems– lazy vs strict languages– imperative (impure) features– performance problems and solutions– problems of scale– special implementation techniques– term representations (e.g. de Bruijn vs name carrying vs BDDs)– limitations of current functional languages– mechanised theories of functional programming

Purpose of the study: In Nepal, indigenous languages are in danger of disappearing and if the situation does not improve, the dying trend will continue to increase in the future. Thus, this paper aims to explore barriers to indigenous language activities and strategies for revitalizing these dying languages of Nepal. Methodology: To address this objective, the study adopted the qualitative research method, using the data collected from the Focus Group Discussion (FGD) and secondary sources such as the existing literature through print and online sources. The results were presented thematically and discussed for qualitative analysis. Main findings: The overall results of the study indicated that an inclusive language policy should be adopted by the government to accommodate indigenous languages of Nepal, indigenous language communities should be encouraged by the government to insist on speaking their languages, and language communities are also required to collaborate with the government to address the issues related to improving the preservation and promotion of indigenous languages of Nepal. Applications of this study: The outcome of this particular research can be a beneficial act for engaging indigenous communities of Nepal in language revival and protecting threatened languages from extinction. It is the responsibility of the researchers that are expected by each of various indigenous language communities in particular and the Nepali society at large. Novelty/Originality of this Study: Indigenous languages are often considered by many as 'heritage languages' and are used to describe languages that are often in the endangered list. No studies are found on the use of indigenous languages and language revival efforts in the study area such as barriers that prevented indigenous language groups from participating in language activities and ways that can preserve and promote such dying languages in the study area.

The article considers the conceptual, organizational and technological aspects of foreign language training. It carries the list of methods and ways of teaching foreign languages. It is noted that these methods can be employed to serve the purpose of targeted communicative and cognitive development of foreign language learners. This process reinforces students' personality progress.

Linguists have long been aware that the ubiquitous distinction between “languages” and “dialects” has more to do with political and social forces, typically nationalism, than with objective linguistic distance.1 This article, an exercise in the history of (linguistic) science, examines political and social factors operating on other levels of linguistic classification than the “language-dialect” dichotomy. Nationalism and linguistic thought are mutually interactive throughout a linguistic classification system: political and social history not only affects a list of “languages,” but also a list of “dialects.”

AbstractThis paper investigates origins, original languages and authors of bestselling translations on the annual Dutch Top 100 bestseller list. Considering the first fifty entries on the lists from the period between 1997 and 2019, the study aims to determine the Dutch position within the World Language System. The results show that about half of all the books surveyed are translations. These come from fifteen different source languages, although a clear majority are translations from English (73.2%). The analysis confirms the notion of a World Language System with central, semi-peripheral and peripheral languages and places Dutch among the peripheral languages. Furthermore, the study reveals strong globalisation and commercialisation tendencies in the Dutch book market.

The Arawan language family of south-western Amazonia was named after the extinct Arawá language, which is only known from a short wordlist collected by William Chandless in 1867. This paper investigates what Chandless’s list tells us about the position of Arawá within the family and what can currently be said about the relationship between the living Arawan languages.

We present data from 17 languages on the frequency with which a common set of words is used in everyday language. The languages are drawn from six language families representing 65 per cent of the world's 7000 languages. Our data were collected from linguistic corpora that record frequencies of use for the 200 meanings in the widely used Swadesh fundamental vocabulary. Our interest is to assess evidence for shared patterns of language use around the world, and for the relationship of language use to rates of lexical replacement, defined as the replacement of a word by a new unrelated or non-cognate word. Frequencies of use for words in the Swadesh list range from just a few per million words of speech to 191 000 or more. The average inter-correlation among languages in the frequency of use across the 200 words is 0.73 ( p < 0.0001). The first principal component of these data accounts for 70 per cent of the variance in frequency of use. Elsewhere, we have shown that frequently used words in the Indo-European languages tend to be more conserved, and that this relationship holds separately for different parts of speech. A regression model combining the principal factor loadings derived from the worldwide sample along with their part of speech predicts 46 per cent of the variance in the rates of lexical replacement in the Indo-European languages. This suggests that Indo-European lexical replacement rates might be broadly representative of worldwide rates of change. Evidence for this speculation comes from using the same factor loadings and part-of-speech categories to predict a word's position in a list of 110 words ranked from slowest to most rapidly evolving among 14 of the world's language families. This regression model accounts for 30 per cent of the variance. Our results point to a remarkable regularity in the way that human speakers use language, and hint that the words for a shared set of meanings have been slowly evolving and others more rapidly evolving throughout human history.

In the field of astronomy and its broader scientific context of space sciences, the English and Romanian languages use terms and sentences on various levels of specialization and therefore, accessibility for the general public as well as for the scientists. The flow of scientific data and information is generated in both languages, which raises the subsequent need of a correct equivalence in specific translations from English to Romanian and vice-versa. In this respect, this study discusses in a multi-disciplinary context a list of terms and expressions translated from English to Romanian that are nowadays used in the fields of astronomy and space sciences. In these scientific areas, the authors of this article considered the English language as being more specific than Romanian and therefore, they aimed to deconstruct the scientific meaning behind each of these specialized English language entries, and point out through additional comments, the rationality of the translation choice they have made, according to the thinking, the ways of expressing and converging ideas in both languages.

Unity in diversity is one of the most distinctive features of Indian civilization. From Jammu & Kashmir to Kanyakumari, every region portrays different customs, cultural traditions, and mother tongues. India is a country of multiple languages and ancient scripts. According to the 2011 census report, 1950 mother tongues were spoken/in use in India. Under Article 344 of the Indian Constitution, only 15 languages ​​were initially recognized as the official language. The 21st Constitution Amendment gave Sindhi the official language status. Based on the 71st Constitution Amendment, the Nepali, Konkani, and Manipuri languages were also included in the above list. Later, by the 92nd Constitution Amendment Act, 2003, four new languages ​​Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, and Santhali, were included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. Thus, now 22 languages ​​have been given the status of official language in the Indian Constitution. The total number of people speaking these 22 languages ​​in India is 90%. Apart from these 22 languages, English is also the official language and is also the official language of Mizoram, Nagaland, and Meghalaya. In all, 60 languages ​​are being taught in schools in India. There was an excellent response to the call for papers for Special Issue on Language Documentation and Archiving of DESIDOC Journal of Library and Information Technology (DJLIT). A total of about 13 Papers were received for the special issue. Based on the review and relevancy of the particular theme, seven papers have been selected for publication in the special issue on Language Documentation and Archiving.

This article examines the literary representation of codeswitching and various accents between Korean and English in two minority women writers’ fictional territory portraying Korean American characters. Min-Jin Lee’s Free Food for Millionaires and Lisa See’s The Island of Sea Women center around the lives of Korean American women who speak English as a primary language and Korean as a home language or heritage language. The characters’ idea of Korea and “Koreanness” mostly manifests in their identity formation, rather than in their linguistic proficiency or a sense of belonging. Heavily related to the language proficiency and identity of Koreanness, the Korean American protagonists alternate between the languages and accents in linguistic repertoire deeply rooted in sociocultural practices that reflect the concept of diaspora and one’s diasporic identity. Their strategic code-switching signifies how one’s diasporic, immigrant identity affects one’s choice of speech that meticulously synthesizes social values, cultural norms, and ethnic/racial belief systems not only emblematic of mainstream American society but also of a minority community as well.

AbstractIn 1836, a British naval surgeon named J.G. Hulton collected lexical data on the Jibbali language spoken on the Omani island of Al-Ḥallaniya (Khuriya Muriya). This is the earliest Jibbali data known to have been collected by a European, and remains today the only published data on the dialect of that island. Wolf Leslau analysed this data (BSOASXII, 1947, pp. 5–19) but Hulton's valuable material can now be reconsidered thanks to recent advances in our understanding of Jibbali and the other Modern South Arabian languages.

In the era of globalization, the problem of maintaining linguistic diversity is often discussed. Language, with its external and substantial features, reflects the thought system, the conceptual apparatus, the everyday and cultural differences of the ethnic group. Determining the place of the Kazakh language in the list of languages used and the areas of its use is one of the urgent problems in linguistics. Studies in the field of the language situation in the country and on the levels of knowledge of the Kazakh language make it possible to determine the priorities of the language policy and organize timely and relevant social, cultural, measures to improve the prestige of the state language.The article examines the research of world scientists in the field of determining the vitality of a language and ranking languages by levels. An analysis was made of the functioning of the Kazakh language in Kazakhstani society and proposals were made to improve the viability of the state language.

It is evident that any language is constantly developing and changing. Neologismsare one of the tools for the development of the word-stock and modernization of the language. Theemergence of neologisms in the language is an indicator of language development. Coronacrisis,which covers the entire modern world, also shows a huge impact on all languages. English is thefirst language to perceive world changes, as it is the language of globalization and development.One of the aspects of the pandemic are English neologisms related to the coronavirus, namedcoronacoins, which appeared in Kazakh and Russian languages during this pandemic. This articlediscusses the definition and ways to create neologisms. The authors represented a list ofneologisms that emerged during the pandemic and trends in their development in the language.Any crisis in the country will certainly stimulate the development of the language of that country,and the absorption of these coronacoins into the language is still unknown, although it is clearthat many of them will stay with us.

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mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:Cambria; mso-ascii-font-family:Cambria; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Cambria; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-ansi-language:NO-BOK;} --> <!--[endif] --> <!--StartFragment--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;ＭＳ 明朝&quot;; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;" lang="NO-BOK">This article analyses how children in a S&aacute;mi kindergarten use their languages, North S&aacute;mi and Norwegian, in everyday life. My focus is on role-play in periods of free play in a kindergarten where children speak both North S&aacute;mi and Norwegian. Role-play is a <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">bilingual context</em> in that one sequence of play most often uses elements from both languages. Role-play as a situation is suitable for studying language alternation and code-switching because it is an in-group driven activity. The language alternation and code-switching which appears in role-play situations is discussed in light of theories advocating dividing code and language, viewing language choice as one of a cluster of codes used in role-play. I argue the children observed for this study have layers of codes to use. I discuss the language codes <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">North S&aacute;mi</em>, <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Norwegian</em> and <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">bilingual</em>, which the children use in the role-play setting; the main codes used are <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">directory utterances</em>, <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">role utterances</em>, <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">magical utterances</em> and <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">out-of-play-utterances</em>.&nbsp;</span><!--EndFragment-->

Abstract We consider the problem of comparison of programming languages with respect to their ability to express programmers’ ideas. Our assumption is that the way of programmers’ thinking is reflected in languages used to describe software systems and programs (modelling languages, type theory, pattern languages). We have developed a list of criteria based on these languages and applied it to comparison of a number of widely used programming languages. The obtained result may be used to select a language for a particular task and choose evolution directions of programming languages.

The article is devoted to the study of L.N. Tolstoy’s multilingualism on the basis of unexplored from a scientific point of view “Mournful list…” The author of the article focuses on the peculiarities of the use, the meaning and the functions of foreign language inclusions in this work by Tolstoy. The article analyzes word formation, including the combination of different languages in phrases or words. In this regard, problems arise in identifying languages in foreign inclusions and choosing a translation based on authentic grammatical forms. The author of the article proposes possible solutions in each case. The appeal to manuscripts and various publications of the “Mournful list…” contribute to the restoration of the original spelling of some foreign language inclusions and the definition of the meaning nearest to the author’s intention. The research also appeals to the diaries of the writer and the memoirs of his family members. The ideological content of the “Mournful list…” is interconnected with the works of L.N. Tolstoy of the 1880s, which are identical in theme and problematic. Thus, the paper clearly shows the value of the “Mournful list…” not only for the biography, but also for the work of L.N. Tolstoy.

The theoretical achievement in the field of foreign language learning in the 1950s and early ‎‎1960s remained related to the practical side of language teaching. Moreover, The idea of the ‎need for foreign language teaching methodologies for a theory of learning has remained constant ‎since the occurrence of educational reform movements of the late nineteenth century.‎ To come to terms with the current developments in the field of foreign language learning, it is ‎necessary to trace the recent history of the research carried out in this regard. Therefore, we will ‎focus in this article on tracking the most important theoretical assets of foreign language teaching ‎methods, and monitoring the evolution of language teaching and learning methods. This is done ‎to distinguish between two approaches to language teaching; first, Direct teaching that negates ‎the overlap of the learned and acquired language during foreign language instruction. And ‎second Mediated teaching in which the second language is taught through the first language. ‎Through this, we will monitor the cognitive cross-fertilization between acquiring the first ‎language and learning the second one by tracing the relationship between them. We will list the most important assumptions underpinned by approaches to foreign language ‎teaching. And we will monitor the foundations on which each approach is based separately to ‎discover the commonalities between them and the contrast between them. We will then ‎contribute to building a new conception of foreign language learning by making use of the ‎translation action inherent in the procedures adopted in most of these approaches. This is mainly ‎evident in the difference between the necessity of adopting the first language or not during the ‎teaching and learning of the foreign language‎. . Keywords: Applied Linguistics, First Language acquisition, Teaching Foreign Languages approaches, ‎Direct teaching, Mediated teaching‎

This study examines the nominal address terms in Korean and Japanese and argues that the notion of ‘Intimacy’ plays a crucial role in choosing an appropriate nominal address term in both languages. In the past several decades, a long list of researchers working in diverse languages have evaluated the validity of the Power and Solidarity semantics proposed by Brown and Gilman (1960), which provided a ground-breaking framework to account for the selection of pronominal address terms in the T-V languages. Building on the Power and Solidarity semantics, we propose to fine-tune it by adding Intimacy as the third dimension crisscrossing the first two well-established dimensions. We take Power and Solidarity as socially prescribed notions while Intimacy is personally defined. We demonstrate how this highly subjective notion dictates and often manipulates the ways the Korean/Japanese speaker selects an appropriate nominal address term. In particular, we argue that the Korean selection of pseudo-kinship terms over the neutral title ssi, or the Japanese use of chan/kun by adult speakers in lieu of the default ‘Last Name+san’, cannot be accounted for without applying Intimacy as a crucial indexing device. Furthermore, we suggest that Intimacy is not an ad hoc dimension specific to Korean and Japanese, but that it is relevant to all languages whether or not a given language has an overt way of encoding it.

SummaryComputer translation programs for foreign language texts have recently become available commercially and in the public domain, but large medical lexicons for these programs are not readily available. It has been shown that many English words can be “respelled” to form their corresponding translations in other Western European languages. We have used lists of 139,451 English and 185,137 German medical terms to generate respeliings in the Dutch language. The English list yielded 39,035 Dutch respeliings, and the German list yielded 56,683 respeliings. Medical respelling rules can substantially lower the effort of installing and maintaining a medically oriented computer translation program.