Academic literature on the topic 'Logical-deductive reasoning'

‘Scientific reasoning’ asks how much confidence should be placed in the inferences scientists make. What exactly is the nature of scientific reasoning? The important distinction between deductive and inductive patterns of reasoning is explained before Hume's problem is outlined. Science relies on induction and Hume's argument seems to show that induction cannot be rationally justified. Darwin's theory of evolution and Einstein's work on Brownian motion are provided as examples of inference to the best explanation. Finally, the interest of philosophers of science in probability and induction is shown and the frequency, subjective, and logical interpretations of probability are described.

Modern medicine is one of humankind’s greatest achievements. Yet medical errors and irreproducibility in biomedical research suggest something is amiss. Concerns have driven considerable and thoughtful critical analyses, but the apparent intransigence of these problems suggests a different perspective is needed. The perspective pursued in this book begins with the idea that the need for certainty in medical decision-making has been and remains the primary driving force in medical reasoning. Faced with the unique challenges of having to treat the individual patient, the great variety of manifestations across patients is daunting. Either there are as many different “diseases” as there are patients, or there is some economical set of principles and facts that can be combined to explain each patient’s disease. Modern allopathic medicine follows from the presumption that economical sets of principles and facts exist. The challenge is to discover those principles and facts and develop means to reason from them to the individual patient in a way that provides certainty. Medical reasoning implicitly evolved from variations of logical deduction and induction reflected in the hypothetico-deductive, pattern recognition, and intuitive approaches used in medicine today. However, these require the judicious use of logical fallacies that increase utility but at the cost of certainty. Similarly, medical research necessarily requires the judicious use of a variation on syllogistic deduction. Their necessary use creates risks for errors. Many problems in medical reasoning and research are the consequence of injudicious uses. This book is a critical and historical analysis of medical reasoning from this perspective.

AbstractLogical frameworks provide natural and direct ways of specifying and reasoning within deductive systems. The logical framework LF and subsequent developments focus on finitary proof systems, making the formalization of circular proof systems in such logical frameworks a cumbersome and awkward task. To address this issue, we propose $$ \text {CoLF} $$ CoLF , a conservative extension of LF with higher-order rational terms and mixed inductive and coinductive definitions. In this framework, two terms are equal if they unfold to the same infinite regular Böhm tree. Both term equality and type checking are decidable in $$ \text {CoLF} $$ CoLF . We illustrate the elegance and expressive power of the framework with several small case studies.

AbstractThis paper presents a symbolic method for automatic theorem generation based on deductive inference. Many software verification and reasoning tasks require proving complex logical properties; coping with this complexity is generally done by declaring and proving relevant sub-properties. This gives rise to the challenge of discovering useful sub-properties that can assist the automated proof process. This is known as the theory exploration problem, and so far, predominant solutions that emerged rely on evaluation using concrete values. This limits the applicability of these theory exploration techniques to complex programs and properties.In this work, we introduce a new symbolic technique for theory exploration, capable of (offline) generation of a library of lemmas from a base set of inductive data types and recursive definitions. Our approach introduces a new method for using abstraction to overcome the above limitations, combining it with deductive synthesis to reason about abstract values. Our implementation has shown to find more lemmas than prior art, avoiding redundant lemmas (in terms of provability), while being faster in most cases. This new abstraction-based theory exploration method is a step toward applying theory exploration to software verification and synthesis.

AbstractThis invited paper is a passionate pitch for the significance of logic in scientific education. Logic helps focus on the essential core to identify the foundations of ideas and provides corresponding longevity with the resulting approach to new and old problems. Logic operates symbolically, where each part has a precise meaning and the meaning of the whole is compositional, so a simple function of the meaning of the pieces. This compositionality in the meaning of logical operators is the basis for compositionality in reasoning about logical operators. Both semantic and deductive compositionalities help explain what happens in reasoning. The correctness-critical core of an idea or an algorithm is often expressible eloquently and particularly concisely in logic. The opinions voiced in this paper are influenced by the author’s teaching of courses on cyber-physical systems, constructive logic, compiler design, programming language semantics, and imperative programming principles. In each of those courses, different aspects of logic come up for different purposes to elucidate significant ideas particularly clearly. While there is a bias of the thoughts in this paper toward computer science, some courses have been heavily frequented by students from other majors so that some transfer of the thoughts to other science and engineering disciplines is plausible.

Abstract abstract The paper asks under what conditions deductive reasoning transmits justification from its premises to its conclusion. It argues that both standard externalist and standard internalist accounts of this phenomenon fail. The nature of this failure is taken to indicate the way forward: basic forms of deductive reasoning must justify by being instances of ‘blind but blameless’ reasoning. Finally, the paper explores the suggestion that an inferentialist account of the logical constants can help explain how such reasoning is possible.

The essay asks under what conditions deductive reasoning transmits justification from its premises to its conclusion. It argues that both standard externalist and standard internalist accounts of this phenomenon fail. The nature of this failure is taken to indicate the way forward: basic forms of deductive reasoning must justify by being instances of ‘blind but blameless’ reasoning. The essay then explores the suggestion that an inferentialist account of the logical constants, according to which an understanding of the constants constitutively involves a disposition to infer according to their characteristic inferential rules, can help explain how such reasoning is possible. Some salient objections are considered and rebutted.

One of the goals of logical analysis is to construct mathematical models of various practices of deductive inference. Traditionally, this is done by means of giving semantics and rules of inference for carefully specified formal languages. While this has proved to be an extremely fruitful line of analysis, some facets of actual inference are not accurately modeled by these techniques. The example we have in mind concerns the diversity of types of external representations employed in actual deductive reasoning. Besides language, these include diagrams, charts, tables, graphs, and so on. When the semantic content of such non-linguistic representations is made clear, they can be used in perfectly rigorous proofs. A simple example of this is the use of Venn diagrams in deductive reasoning. If used correctly, valid inferences can be made with these diagrams, and if used incorrectly, they can be the source of invalid inferences; there are standards for their correct use. To analyze such standards, one might construct a formal system of Venn diagrams where the syntax, rules of inference, and notion of logical consequence have all been made precise and explicit, as is done in the case of first-order logic. In this chapter, we will study such a system of Venn diagrams, a variation of Shin’s system VENN formulated and studied in Shin [1991] and Shin [1991a] (see Chapter IV of this book). Shin proves a soundness theorem and a finite completeness theorem (if ∆ is a finite set of diagrams, D is a diagram, and D is a logical consequence of ∆ , then D is provable from ∆ ). We extend Shin’s completeness theorem to the general case: if ∆ is any set of diagrams, D is a, diagram, and D is a logical consequence of ∆. then D is provable from ∆. We hope that the fairly simple diagrammatic system discussed here will help motivate closer study of the use of more complicated diagrams in actual inference.

Decisions can be explicated as logical arguments, often poised as deductive and conveying a sense of certainty. Yet these arguments often are logical fallacies, such as the Fallacy of Confirming the Consequence, otherwise known as abduction (e.g., the argument if the patient has disease A then test B would be abnormal; test B is abnormal therefore the patient has disease A). This is invalid. The patient may have disease A but it cannot be certain; hence the logical fallacy. The necessary use of the partial syllogism can be made more rigorous by the use of probabilities and further by analysis of the probabilities of probabilities that constitute statistics. Other fallacies used in medical reasoning include the Fallacy of Pseudotransitivity. Induction, a form of logic, also has limits and risks that require mitigation for sound medical reasoning. These fallacies can be rescued so that risks are mitigated.

One of the most important tasks in database technology is to combine the following activities: data mining or inferring knowledge from data and query processing or reasoning on acquired knowledge. The solution of this task requires a logical language with unified syntax and semantics for integrating deductive (using knowledge) and inductive (acquiring knowledge) reasoning. In this paper, we propose a unified model of commonsense reasoning. We also demonstrate that a large class of inductive machine learning (ML) algorithms can be transformed into the commonsense reasoning processes based on wellknown deduction and induction logical rules. The concept of a good classification (diagnostic) test (Naidenova & Polegaeva, 1986) is the basis of our approach to combining deductive and inductive reasoning.

One of the most important tasks in database technology is to combine the following activities: data mining or inferring knowledge from data and query processing or reasoning on acquired knowledge. The solution of this task requires a logical language with unified syntax and semantics for integrating deductive (using knowledge) and inductive (acquiring knowledge) reasoning. In this paper, we propose a unified model of commonsense reasoning. We also demonstrate that a large class of inductive machine learning (ML) algorithms can be transformed into the commonsense reasoning processes based on wellknown deduction and induction logical rules. The concept of a good classification (diagnostic) test (Naidenova & Polegaeva, 1986) is the basis of our approach to combining deductive and inductive reasoning.

The critical and historical analysis of medical reasoning begins from the central importance of certainty in practice and research. The need for certainty manifests in preference for objective tests, particularly their overutilization, and evidence-based medicine used synonymously with randomized control trials. The variety of manifestations in each patient and each subject of research is a challenge to certainty. The response is a choice of epistemic perspectives. Either there are as many “diseases” as there are patients, or there is an economical set of diseases, defined by principles and facts, by which any patient can be understood. The latter suggests a type of logical deduction, and deductive logic is indeed the model. However, deduction, while providing certainty, does not generate new knowledge. Rather, derivative logical fallacies must be used that provide utility at the expense of certainty. Similarly, induction also is problematic. The implications of the conundrum and responses are introduced.

Building resilience to such an influential process as a war, that is the ability to adapt well to unexpected changes and events arising in the course of its going on, is a vital necessity for either a country's survival or its rebuilding in the after-war period. International trade is one of the most powerful tools for building resilience against human-made challenges like a war. International trade is an important source of money earning for Ukraine and it increased in its importance with the war actions going on on its territory. The following tools and methods of scientific research were used while conducting the research: empirical, statistical and comparative analyses, as well as the logical method, including deductive and inductive reasoning, the method of trends, different visualization tools like vertical and horizontal bar and pie charts as well as combined charts, etc. Ukraine noted either its exports or imports decrease in 2022, if compared to those of 2021, while noting its imports increase along with the further exports decrease in 2023. The projections of the country's international trade in general and its exports and imports in particular for the next two time periods are lower than the last available data values, showing the continuous and long-term impact of the war on the country's international trade, weakening, at the same time, its resilience.

Machine reading is a fundamental task for testing the capability of natural language understand- ing, which is closely related to human cognition in many aspects. With the rising of deep learning techniques, algorithmic models rival human performances on simple QA, and thus increasingly challenging machine reading datasets have been proposed. Though various challenges such as evidence integration and commonsense knowledge have been integrated, one of the fundamental capabilities in human reading, namely logical reasoning, is not fully investigated. We build a comprehensive dataset, named LogiQA, which is sourced from expert-written questions for testing human Logical reasoning. It consists of 8,678 QA instances, covering multiple types of deductive reasoning. Results show that state-of-the-art neural models perform by far worse than human ceiling. Our dataset can also serve as a benchmark for reinvestigating logical AI under the deep learning NLP setting. The dataset is freely available at https://github.com/lgw863/LogiQA-dataset.

Multi-hop reasoning over real-life knowledge graphs (KGs) is a highly challenging problem as traditional subgraph matching methods are not capable to deal with noise and missing information. Recently, to address this problem a promising approach based on jointly embedding logical queries and KGs into a low-dimensional space to identify answer entities has emerged. However, existing proposals ignore critical semantic knowledge inherently available in KGs, such as type information. To leverage type information, we propose a novel type-aware model, TypE-aware Message Passing (TEMP), which enhances the entity and relation representation in queries, and simultaneously improves generalization, and deductive and inductive reasoning. Remarkably, TEMP is a plug-and-play model that can be easily incorporated into existing embedding-based models to improve their performance. Extensive experiments on three real-world datasets demonstrate TEMP’s effectiveness.

This paper deals with the importance of the development of moral thinking, through the interpretation of novels in upper classes of elementary school. A good interpretation starts with student’s experience and assessment of main characters’ acts and their attitudes. Within school classes, it is possible to follow the moral development of students, which is the aim of this paper. In adolescents aged 11 to 14, abstract, logical thinking is developed, as well as inductive-deductive reasoning; therefore, the starting point of this study is based on psychological theories of moral thinking development. By giving concrete methodological examples based on Hoffman’s theory of morality, it is shown how the moral development of students is encouraged and built by interpreting literary works – novels (novels included in the elementary school curriculum). The contribution of this paper is based on the assessment of students’ moral development at certain age.

The establishment of the functional duties of employees is an inherent element of the legal employment relationship, whereby the holder of the employment relationship, through the subordination relations he has with the employees, acquired when signing individual employment contracts, establishes the way in which the activities are directed in the entity, the institutional hierarchy, the responsibilities of the employees and others, in order to effectively achieve the work purpose. In this sense, functional tasks are defined as the totality of actions that need to be carried out by the employee in a given work environment, through means of production. Thus, the employee, having a detailed job description in terms of the responsibilities he has to assume within the organization, will know his duties, the tasks to be performed, the environment and the work schedule. On the other hand, the specifics of the job, known to the employee in terms of functional duties, are the basis on which a workplace accident is investigated to determine whether it is work or non-work accident. Thus, in this paper, using general research methods – observation, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, generalization, systematization, analysis, synthesis, applying the principles of logical thinking and scientific research methods - synthetic, axiomatic and systemic method, it will be shown the significance of functional duties when investigating workplace accidents.

"Formative assessment (FA) can potentially provide valuable insights into learners’ conceptual knowledge of Euclidean geometry and contribute to the development of appropriate assessment activities which focus on developing a conceptual understanding of Euclidean geometry. Research indicates that geometry is an abstract yet crucial topic in the school Mathematics curriculum because it helps learners to develop logical thinking, problem-solving skills, deductive reasoning, and analytical reasoning. Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, teachers were forced to integrate technology to continue with teaching, learning, and assessing Mathematics. Following this, the purpose of this study was to determine the influence of online FA in Euclidean geometry on the attitudes of Grade 11 learners in a public school in South Africa. Learner attitudes contribute to performance in Mathematics. Attitudes are formed by the past experiences, observations, and imitations of learners who enter the mathematics classroom with their pre- and misconceptions. Assessing mathematics concepts anywhere facilitates individual assessment, and supports differentiated instruction of Mathematics, which ultimately can lead to an increase in using pedagogical approaches that are learner-centred. Therefore, technology in assessment plays a pivotal role in mathematics teaching and learning. This study was conducted using mixed research methods utilizing semistructured interviews and a questionnaire to collect data. The participants that were purposively sampled in this study were 104 Grade 11 learners. This study was underpinned by Bandura’s Self-efficacy theory derived from the Social Learning Theory. The main findings of this study revealed that learners enjoy online FA, they find it meaningful, it motivates them, and contributes to their self-confidence. The theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed in this research study."

When entering the university, the student is invited to develop another type of learning, more rigorous, and with a more consistent intellectual autonomy, at the same time freshmen are developing new relationships with knowledge. Once in university, the learning habitus the students had at the end of secondary studies such as memorizing, passive assimilation of disparate, disarticulated materials, lose relevance. Meeting the requirements of a university education involves a change in the way of learning and addressing towards academic tasks. This intellectual and methodological metamorphosis is supplemented by other disruptions due to shifting of this new learning environment for instance the acceptance of behaviours and practices adapted to the pedagogical and social context of the university. The student must build a new temporality, he also must learn how to manage and dominate the time, since his/her whole social and psychological life is being targeted by the new settings. Switching from pupil to student means altering his social role, moreover it is essential he/she changes the way of learning and how he/she intermingles with the academic environment. The main difference between school and higher education is often the amount of support and supervision that is being offered. During secondary school a teacher meets his/her students relatively often and together they set up and monitor the assignments on a regular basis, the teacher being willing to lead the learning they hope to develop, in contrast, the professor cannot meet with students too often due to the particularities of the classes. A certain problem arises when as a young student they feel very lonely and somehow, they have a sense of absence of interaction with their professors, so it is very likely that the freshmen have to assume more responsibilities for planning and completing work tasks, far more then when they were in school. The aim of this article is to show students` perception regarding the way ICT is used for making the transition from secondary education to university considering their communication with the administration staff, professors and colleagues. The paper is based on an exploratory empirical research with a hypothetical-deductive reasoning with premises and variables based on postulates and hypotheses with chances of logical verifiability.

Sport represents a social and economic phenomenon in continuous development, with an important contribution to the fulfillment of national strategic objectives, especially those regarding solidarity and prosperity. Being a dynamic sector in continuous growth, with a macro economic impact, however underestimated, sport can contribute to economic sustainability and job creation, thus serving as a tool for local and regional development, including urban or rural regeneration. At the same time, an increasing part of the economic value of sport is related to intellectual property rights, namely copyright, the right to communications and trademarks, and last but not least the right to the image and broadcasting rights. In this context, sport is seen as a business, in which the following can be involved: athletes, coaches, clubs, managers, sponsors, sports betting houses and which, through the exercise of contract obligations, are in close connection with direct consumers, respectively, with those who set in motion this whole mechanism. Along with the regulation of sports activity, the establishment of institutional and competitive rules, rights and obligations for its participating actors, of course, situations of conflict, regulatory violations and other disputes may also arise. Thus, the need for the existence of a sports jurisdiction has arisen which, through a judicial body, will resolve these disputes in the spirit of sports fairness and the legislation in force. As a result, these disputes can be resolved through the arbitration institution, independently of the state bodies (courts), so that the principle of the autonomy of sport is respected. The purpose of the research is to present some scientific benchmarks regarding refereeing in sports. The methods used in the research are those relevant to the scientific study of the scientific specialized research and enshrined in the legal methodology, respectively analytical methods (which will involve the study of some legal norms that regulate the criminalization framework of an act), synthetically (which will involve the establishment of some national/international and brief doctrinal jurisprudential knowledge and information), logical (using deductive reasoning), quantitative and qualitative (reflects the fact that the rules for carrying out certain operations or procedures are adopted precisely by assessing the number and type of cases encountered in jurisprudence). Findings and results. Arbitration Agreement constitutes the starting point in the settlement of a sports dispute through the arbitration institution. Normally, in order for a dispute to be settled through sports arbitration, the parties must agree, which can be achieved through an arbitration agreement/clause. In sports, the arbitration clause is not consensual, but more hastily imposed. For example, the arbitration clause may or may not exist in a contract between an athlete and a club, but if it does not exist - expressis verbis - it does not mean that any dispute will necessarily be subject to national courts, but it will also be able to be resolved through arbitration. This is possible by referring to the statutes of the national federations, which include in the internal regulations express provisions regarding arbitration, in the sense that this is the only way to resolve disputes. The Sports Arbitration Institution recognized internationally and accredited by all international sports organizations to settle disputes in the field of sports is the Court of Sports Arbitration. This, also called the Court of Arbitration for Sport, represents an independent authority of the sports forums, which participates through arbitration or mediation in resolving disputes in the field of sports. In the context in which sport is not a field that is eminently linked to a certain jurisdiction (we are talking about international competitions and events) and as the conflicts resulting from the ever-increasing importance of this "business", it had to be found a possibility of solving them at the international level. This is how the Court of Arbitration for Sports from Lausanne (The Court of Arbitration for Sports) was born, in Loussanne, Switzerland, under the auspices of the International Olympic Committee, being the first arbitral tribunal specialized in sports disputes. Sports disputes have always been resolved by bodies with jurisdictional powers, internal bodies created by the federations through the statutory provisions and which prohibit any appeal before common law courts. These decisions adopted by the arbitral institutions are enforced, even if the decision is not pronounced by the court of common law, which highlights the power of the sports authority that can decide, without an actual trial taking place, but respecting the right to defense, according to the institutionalized rules. In this context, we can state that, sports justice presents itself today as a jurisdictional system based on both legal and sports norms, governed by the classic principles of the fair process and made up of all jurisdictional commissions with genuine competences in the sports juris - dictio. The organization of sports activity and its practice, like all human activities, is not without controversies, contestations or disputes. The sports movement has as its main objective the resolution of disputes within it, without the exposure of going "into the open". Concluding, we can affirm that the risks of settling sports disputes outside the sports jurisdictions are obvious, and the reasons are multiple: understanding the nature and specifics of the dispute, the duration of the proceedings, avoiding court fees, the possibility of "choosing" the judge etc. Therefore, sports litigation includes two complementary facets, each with its own field of reference and its own stake, which call for different legitimate solutions in internal jurisdictional proceedings. The dynamics of the sports movement and the issues related to sports led to the need to connect the federal statutory provisions with the evolution of the sports reality. Moreover, from the perspective of federal justice and the desire to maintain it within the intra-federal framework, the federations understood that it is imperative to ensure a fair justice so that affiliated members are induced with the idea of an impartial, professional and functional justice, eliminating the temptation " of going out into the open", that is, of seeking justice in common justice.