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1
Turner, Neil, and Premil Rajakrishna. Pathophysiology of oedema in nephrotic syndrome. Edited by Neil Turner. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0053.
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The mechanism by which loss of serum proteins into the urine causes expansion of extracellular fluid volume and oedema has become clearer. A key initiating abnormality is avid sodium retention by the kidney, leading to increased whole-body sodium and increased extracellular fluid volume. This appears to be driven primarily by overactivation of the amiloride-sensitive epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) in the collecting duct, activated proteolytically through abnormal filtration of plasminogen, and its activation to plasmin in the nephron. Conventional explanations for nephrotic oedema focused on low colloid osmotic pressure as a consequence of loss of serum proteins, leading to egress of extracellular fluid from the intravascular compartment. It was hypothesized that this led to underfilling of the circulation and a drive to sodium retention. While low osmotic pressure may play a part in the clinical picture of nephrotic syndrome, a variety of observations suggest that underfilling is not a common feature except in the most severe nephrotic syndrome. Furthermore the gradient in colloid osmotic pressure between serum and interstitium tends to be preserved in nephrotic syndrome. The distribution of excess extracellular fluid is markedly different in patients with nephrotic syndrome from that seen in patients who have reduced glomerular filtration rate as the cause of sodium retention. This is not fully understood but hypotheses centre on capillary permeability and colloid osmotic pressure effects.
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Pacchioni, Gianfranco. Famous frauds. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198799887.003.0008.
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A large part of the chapter is dedicated to the story of one of the biggest frauds in science. It is the story of Hendrik Schön and his fantastic discoveries in the field of molecular electronics, and how wrong and manipulated papers ended up getting published in the scientific journals Science and Nature. This provides a stimulus to think about the rules of modern science and how it puts high pressure on young researchers to obtain wonderful results. The last part of the chapter deals with the actual dimensions of fraud in science (still low but growing) and with the dimension of other phenomena such as general cases of misconduct.
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Wijdicks, Eelco F. M., and Sarah L. Clark. Antihypertensives and Antiarrhythmics. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190684747.003.0013.
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Acute brain injury can precipitate a hypertensive response, which for the most part is the result of stress-induced, increased sympathetic activity. Acute stroke with hypertension may not be a response but more often a prior, untreated hypertension or a patient with no access to medication. This hypertensive response may wane quickly, and aggressive treatment of these temporary surges in blood pressure could have unwanted consequences. Important characteristics of most antihypertensive drugs used in the neurosciences intensive care unit are cost, having a rapid onset with a short duration of action, and having a low incidence of adverse side effects. Many of the antiarrhythmic drugs also have antihypertensive effects, so these drug classes are best combined in one chapter. This chapter discusses blood pressure targets, the most appropriate antihypertensive medications to use for acute management, and clinically relevant cardiac arrhythmias and their treatment.
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Mary Ellen, O’Connell. Part 3 The Post 9/11-Era (2001–), 63 The Crisis in Ukraine—2014. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198784357.003.0063.
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On 28 February 2014, Russian forces moved out of their base on the Black Sea into Crimea, triggering a crisis with Ukraine that quickly spread to Eastern Ukraine. Russia has attempted to justify its actions in Ukraine. On close analysis, no argument is adequate to avoid the charge of aggression, which is any serious violation of United Nations Charter Article 2(4). Article 2(4) is no mere treaty rule. It is jus cogens, a peremptory norm, meaning it is durable, impervious to modification. Facts on the ground in Ukraine may remain unchanged without sufficient international pressure. Regardless, Russia’s presence will remain unlawful.
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Peter, Rees, and Connors Jess. Part I Commercial Arbitration in the Energy Sector, 5 Energy Construction and Infrastructure Disputes. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198805786.003.0005.
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This chapter discusses the types of disputes which commonly arise in relation to energy and infrastructure construction projects. In terms of physical subject matter — that is, what is being built — this encompasses a wide range of structures, both onshore and offshore. The chapter describes the types of energy and infrastructure construction projects covered here. Moreover, it shows that, despite the variety of problems which can arise in disputes, there are common pressure points in projects which give rise to similar issues. Therefore, the chapter identifies some of the standard form contracts which are used (often in an adapted form) in these types of projects. Next, the chapter considers — from an English law perspective — some of the types of clauses which commonly feature in energy and infrastructure construction contracts.
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Aloysius P, Llamzon. Part I Transnational Corruption and International Efforts at its Control, 2 The Nature of Transnational Corruption. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198714262.003.0002.
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This chapter provides a working definition of transnational corruption, including its history and the elements that constitute the ‘corruption equation’. It then takes a closer look at contemporary corruption by considering two extremes: that of developing States with kleptocratic rulers, and mature industrial democracies. It concludes that in a global environment of contractual uncertainty, corporate actors are under considerable pressure to maintain the economic viability of present and future projects, and ‘the persistence of experienced operators’ in those industries is necessary to produce reasonable returns. In many cases, to help compensate for such uncertainty, corruption is used as a tool to ensure certainty in two areas that may adversely affect their investment: political uncertainty and economic uncertainty.
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Omar, Faraj. Part 5 Liberty, Equality, and The Rights of Minorities, 5.7 Religious Minorities under Pressure: The Situation in Egypt, Iraq, and Syria. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780190627645.003.0034.
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Roger, Mccormick, and Stears Chris. Part IX Legal and Conduct Risk Management, 30 Lawyers’ Responsibility for the Management of Legal and Conduct Risk. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198749271.003.0031.
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The importance of managing legal risk effectively has increased following the recent financial crisis. As the modern regulatory regime for financial markets (global and domestic) continues to evolve, legal risk management techniques must evolve with it. The pressure to attach more importance to ethics and culture within financial institutions will also have an effect on how lawyers do their job. Rightly or wrongly, the responsibility for checking that proper governance principles are observed is bound to fall on their shoulders to some extent. This chapter discusses the role of lawyers and the legal department in legal risk management, opinions and similar documents, document retention, and clarity of lawyer roles.
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Nigel, Blackaby, Partasides Constantine, Redfern Alan, and Hunter Martin. 11 Recognition and Enforcement of Arbitral Awards. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198714248.003.0011.
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This chapter examines the recognition and enforcement of arbitral awards. It discusses the carrying out, or performance, of awards, so as to place recognition and enforcement in their proper context. In arbitration, if the losing party fails to carry out an award, the winning party needs to take steps to enforce performance of it. Two steps may be taken. The first is to exert some form of pressure, commercial or otherwise, in order to show the losing party that it is in its interests to perform the award voluntarily. The second is to invoke the powers of the state to obtain a charge over the losing party’s assets or in other ways to compel performance of the award. Pressure may also be exerted through adverse publicity. This method is adopted by trade associations and has the effect of discouraging other traders in the market from dealing with the defaulting party.
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Traul, David E., and Rachel Diehl. Supratentorial Tumors. Edited by David E. Traul and Irene P. Osborn. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190850036.003.0001.
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Surgical resection of supratentorial brain tumors presents a unique set of challenges to the anesthesiologist. While symptoms from these lesions vary in presentation, increased intracranial pressure (ICP) is frequently part of the constellation and an important piece of anesthetic management. Along with maintenance of ICP, the goals of induction, maintenance, and emergence from these resections are to maintain cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebral metabolic rate and optimize neuroprotection. There is no single technique that is agreed upon in literature to encompass these goals, however a combination of IV anesthetics with low-dose volatile agents (0.5 MAC) is common in practice. Management of ICP is the hallmark of these cases since increased ICP may lead to ischemia, poor surgical visualization, and catastrophic herniation.
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Karmenu, Vella. Part V Regional Perspectives on Global Ocean Governance, 10 International Ocean Governance: An EU Agenda for the Future of our Oceans. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198824152.003.0010.
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This chapter focuses on the fifty actions proposed by the European Commission and its High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy in three priority areas to ensure safe, secure, clean and sustainably managed oceans: improving the international ocean governance framework; reducing pressure on oceans and seas and creating the conditions for a sustainable blue economy; and strengthening international ocean research and data. It also considers a number of policy proposals put forward by the EU with a view to improving the international ocean governance framework. Finally, it discusses the role of the EU in shaping international ocean governance on the basis of its experience in developing a sustainable approach to ocean management, notably through its environment policy, integrated maritime policy, reformed common fisheries policy, and its maritime transport policy.
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Nico, Horn. Part III The Relationship Between the Judiciary and the Political Branches, 13 An Overview of the Diverse Approaches to Judicial and Executive Relations: A Namibian Study of Four Cases. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198759799.003.0014.
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This chapter examines the relationship between the judiciary and executive in Namibia. It begins with a short overview of the last decade before independence to shed some light on the historical tension between the executive and the judiciary that the first democratically elected government inherited. It then considers conflicts that threatened the independence of the judiciary in four different situations: a case where the government ignored judgments against them; the issue of the independence of the prosecutorial authority; the independence of the lower courts; and the indirect influence of the executive on judgments of the court. It concludes that although there has generally been friction between the executive and the judiciary, with the former trying to control the latter, the Namibian judiciary has remained fairly independent and withstood pressure from the executive. This has enabled it to ensure that the executive does not abuse its dominant position.
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Jesse, Eckhard, Tom Mannewitz, and Isabelle-Christine Panreck, eds. Populismus und Demokratie. Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/9783845294773.
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The current populist wave of electoral success has put democracy under pressure. Yet, whereas the tension between populism and democracy appears to be the main challenge of our times, the conflict over the basic principles of constitutional democracy is part of a long historical development. Which conflicts shape democracy today and have shaped it in the past? How do populist actors alter the dispute over democracy in times of globalisation? This anthology analyses the complex interaction between the theory and practice of democracy in Germany, Europe and the US. For the sake of interdisciplinarity, the book unites contributions from political science, communication science, law and research into contemporary history. With contributions by et al Sandra Wirth, Felix Rhein, Robin Graichen, Jens Weinhold-Fumoleau
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Devenney, James. Concentrate Questions and Answers Contract Law. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198817673.001.0001.
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The Concentrate Questions and Answers series offers the best preparation for tackling exam questions. Each book includes typical questions, answer plans and suggested answers, author commentary and other features. Concentrate Q&A Contract Law provides guidance on answering questions on the law of contract. The book starts with an introduction explaining how to use the book and exploring the skills necessary for success in contract law exams. The book then looks at offer and acceptance, certainty of terms, consideration and intention to create legal relations. After that it examines terms of the contract, exclusion/exemption clauses and unfair terms, misrepresentation, improper pressure, mistake and issues relating to illegality and restraint of trade. The final part of the book looks at frustration, damages, additional remedies, privity of contract and has a short section dealing with mixed questions. The book ends with a chapter containing advice on answering coursework questions.
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Fratzscher, Marcel. A fiscally virtuous government? Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190676575.003.0005.
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A third success story of Germany has been the impressive fiscal consolidation. This is no small achievement: the global financial crisis and the subsequent European crisis put many European governments under massive pressure to support their economies in order to avoid an even deeper crisis. The chapter shows that fiscal consolidation and public debt reduction are not always virtues. Cutting spending and raising taxes can, in fact, be disastrous during periods of crisis or recession. Fiscal austerity can be destabilizing and trigger a vicious cycle of low supply and low demand, thereby turning out to be counterproductive by weakening potential growth and long-term investment. Fiscal consolidation may be harmful to the long-term potential of an economy and to welfare if it cuts the most productive public spending on education or infrastructure, for example. Assessing German fiscal policy over the past decade reveals that all these elements apply to Germany.
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Baquero Cruz, Julio. Concluding Thoughts. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198830610.003.0008.
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This concluding chapter reviews how the grave crisis that has been haunting the Union has exposed the fragility of the European construction, and among all its elements the impermanence of its law, which many see as an remnant from the past—an obstacle that prevents the Member States from returning to the dubious paradise of unfettered sovereignty. This explains all the pressures exerted to transform integration and its law into a more flexible framework of cooperation. The chapter recalls the reasons for preserving a robust supranational rule of law in the Union and explores the conditions required to make it possible.
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Mee, Jon. Treason, Seditious Libel, and Literature in the Romantic Period. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935338.013.113.
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This article examines the effects of the unprecedented number of prosecutions for political opinion in the 1790s and afterward on romantic period literature. The chief instrument for these prosecutions was the law on libel. This legal framework placed a premium on various forms of metaphor, irony, and allegory, which the Crown had to construe as concrete libels in any prosecution. Many trials became major public events, a visible part of the period’s print culture, widely reported in newspapers and eagerly consumed by the public in a variety of media. The courtroom provided a theater of radical opinion in which defendants could publicize their views and mock the authority of the state. The pressure exerted on writers by the law on libel also conditioned a more general anxiety and may even have influenced developing ideas of the autonomy of the aesthetic.
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Cohen, Amichai, and Eyal Ben-Ari. The Application of International Humanitarian Law by the Israel Defense Forces. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199379774.003.0008.
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This chapter describes how increased juridification and demands to apply international humanitarian law (IHL) have influenced the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). The authors analyze the IDF’s compliance with IHL and other legal frameworks through a multilevel and multidimensional model of military compliance describing the law and external institutions involved in applying it. The past decades have seen the relatively autonomous sphere of the military increasingly come under judicial overview. Judicial and international pressures have also increased the role of the operational legal advisors. The chapter ends by discussing the ceremonies intended to promote compliance with IHL involving soldiers and junior officers. It is based on interviews (with Israeli academic experts, members of nongovernmental organizations [NGOs], and military commanders), off-the-record conversations with members of the IDF’s Military Advocate General, and newspaper articles, reports of NGOs, and secondary material.
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Especificaciones técnicas de la OMS para dispositivos automáticos de medición de la presión arterial no invasivos y con brazalete. Organización Panamericana de la Salud, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.37774/9789275323052.
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La hipertension es el principal factor de riesgo modificable de algunas enfermedades graves como las enfermedades cardiovasculares (accidentes cerebrovasculares y cardiopatías isquémicas), la preeclampsia y la eclampsia (una causa muy importante de muerte en las embarazadas, así como de retraso del crecimiento fetal y mortinatos) y la enfermedad renal crónica. A nivel mundial, más de mil millones de personas tienen hipertensión, y la prevalencia es mayor en los países de ingresos bajos y medianos. La medición exacta de la presión arterial es esencial para detectar y tratar adecuadamente a las personas con hipertensión, un trastorno que constituye un asesino silencioso que causa pocos síntomas. La falta de acceso a dispositivos de determinación de la presión arterial exactos y asequibles constituye un obstáculo importante para una atención médica adecuada, en particular en los entornos de recursos escasos. La medición manual está siendo reemplazada gradualmente por la medición automatizada debido a los problemas ambientales derivados del mercurio, la falta de calibración y las mediciones incorrectas de los dispositivos aneroides en la práctica clínica, así como por la exactitud uniforme superior que ofrecen los dispositivos automáticos validados. Sin embargo, con frecuencia existe cierta preocupación respecto a la exactitud de los dispositivos automatizados que no se han validado. Este documento actualiza la orientación de la OMS sobre dispositivos de medición de la presión arterial del 2005. También responde a la preocupación existente por la carencia de dispositivos exactos y de buena calidad, especialmente en los países de ingresos bajos y medianos mediante una consulta técnica y examen de expertos. Versión oficial en español de la obra original en inglés: WHO technical specifications for automated non-invasive blood pressure measuring devices with cuff. © World Health Organization, 2020 ISBN 978-92-4-000266-1 (print version)
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Dias da Silva, Antonio, Audrey Givone, and David Sondermann. When Do Countries Implement Structural Reforms? Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198821878.003.0002.
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This chapter’s objective is to investigate which factors—macroeconomic, policy-related, or institutional—foster the implementation of structural reforms. We therefore look at episodes of structural reforms over three decades across forty OECD and EU countries and link them to these factors. Our results suggest that structural reforms implementation is more likely during deep recessions and when unemployment rates are high. Moreover, the further it is distant from best practice, the more likely a country is to implement reforms. External pressures, such as being subject to a financial assistance programme, or being part of the European Single Market facilitated pro-competitive reforms. Low interest rates tend to promote rather than discourage structural reforms, while there seems no clear link between fiscal policy and reforms. Moreover, reforms in product markets tend to increase the likelihood of labour market reforms following suit. Many robustness checks have been carried out confirming our main results.
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Slingenbergh, Jan, Giuliano Cecchi, and Marjan Leneman. Human activities and disease transmission: the agriculture case. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789833.003.0017.
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The time is right to fight poverty, food insecurity and disease. The nexus of agriculture, development and health is presented, highlighting global health security threats of animal origin. Food and Agriculture Organization data illustrate how dynamic farming landscapes modulate livestock disease mosaics. In Latin America, lowland pressures facilitate successful transformation from extensive to intensive agricultural production. In South Asia, smallholders produce the bulk of milk in Asia, despite high disease prevalence and low productivity levels. Disease control improves food security and human and animal health and reduces land and water resources use. A One Health approach is called for to address the health of humans, animals and the environment, as part of sustainable development efforts. The perspective varies by location. Ecology, farming systems, economics and markets differ among world regions, as do the challenges. Despite emerging health security threats, progress has been made toward attaining the 2030 sustainable development goals.
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Reny, Marie-Eve. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190698089.003.0001.
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In China, religious practice is protected under the law only insofar as it is supervised by the state. In reality though, many Protestant churches are unregistered and informally tolerated by local public security bureaus. The empirical starting point of the book is to explain why local public security bureaus tolerate unregistered churches in Chinese cities. It discusses and refutes explanations in the study of Chinese politics and international relations that might address parts of this question. Those focus on the impact of international pressure on autocratic behavior, the principal-agent dilemma, the political economy of religion, social networks, and consultative authoritarianism. It finally introduces the argument, the methodology of the book, and its structure.
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van Prooijen, Jan-Willem. Origins of the Moral Punishment Instinct. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190609979.003.0004.
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Third-party punishment occurs among insect species, cleaner fish, and non-human primates. This suggests that organisms do not need a sophisticated sense of morality to be punitive. Why, then, did humans evolve a moral punishment instinct? The main proposition of this chapter is that people evolved a sense of morality as a consequence of their punishment instincts. In ancestral groups of hunter-gatherers, punishment had genetic consequences, as it frequently meant death, exclusion, or unattractively low social standing. Punishment therefore has put social selection pressures on our ancestors to evolve intrinsic motivations to pursue the interests of the group. Furthermore, whereas punishment is frequently portrayed as costly, the chapter illuminates that punishers also reap important benefits: punishment can be a form of costly signaling, emphasizing punishers’ power, making them attractive mates.
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Kimsma, Gerrit. Physician-Assisted Death in the Netherlands. Edited by Stuart J. Youngner and Robert M. Arnold. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199974412.013.23.
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This chapter deals with physician-assisted dying (PAD) in the Netherlands. The focus is on the emergence, regulation, and effects of this practice that allowsonly physiciansto help patients die actively. To understand the adoption of this widely contested practice, it is necessary to describe the social context, changing legal landscape, medical profession policies, and political stalemate surrounding agreement on a law well after the practice existed and was accepted. Dutch development of regulation by the medical profession and multidisciplinary review committees realizes the goals of societal control, transparency, and physicians’ protection from criminal charges. On the other hand, even when a practice that is regulated by the medical profession is in place, pressure groups in society strive for more options for death with dignity—with orwithout physicians’ involvement. A large part of this physician-independent practice originates in physicians’ refusal of a request and is directly connected to it.
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Wacks, Raymond. 6. The death of privacy? Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780198725947.003.0006.
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Privacy is under attack from several quarters. The ‘war on terror’ has amplified this pressure. The Internet, increased surveillance, and sensationalist journalism seriously undermine individuals’ control over their private lives. Many advocates believe that the protection of privacy stands in need of urgent renewal. Has the Internet sounded privacy’s death knell? The rapid advance of information technology, especially the Internet, has generated widespread concern about protection of personal data, with many jurisdictions adopting data protection legislation. Ironically, technology generates both the malady and part of the cure. While the law is rarely an effective tool against the dedicated intruder, advances in protective software, along with fair information practices of the European Directive and laws of several jurisdictions, afford a rational and sound normative framework for the collection, use, and transfer of personal data. Some of these questions—likely to dominate 21st-century discussions of privacy—are considered in this concluding chapter.
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Zhang, Lu. Whose Hard Times? University of Illinois Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/illinois/9780252038174.003.0011.
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This chapter carries out an in-depth analysis of the transformation of China's automobile industry and its labor force over the past two decades, with particular attention on how shop-floor, national, and global processes interact in complex ways to produce the specific industrial relations and dynamics of labor unrest in the Chinese automobile industry. It argues that the massive foreign investment in China's auto sector through joint ventures and the increased scale and concentration of automobile production have created and strengthened a new generation of autoworkers with growing workplace bargaining power and grievances. However, the acute contradictory pressures of simultaneously pursuing profitability and maintaining legitimacy with labor have driven large state-owned automakers and Sino-foreign joint ventures to follow a policy of labor force dualism, drawing boundaries between formal and temporary workers. While formal workers enjoy high wages, generous benefits, and relatively secure employment, temporary workers suffer comparatively low wages, unsecure employment, and heavier and dirtier job assignments. Temporary and other low-wage autoworkers have also become the main source of militancy in the auto industry.
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Kaufman, J. Gilbert, and Elwin L. Rooy. Aluminum Alloy Castings. ASM International, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.31399/asm.tb.aacppa.9781627083355.
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Aluminum Alloy Castings: Properties, Processes and Applications is a practical guide to the process, structure, property relationships associated with aluminum alloy castings and casting processes. It covers a wide range of casting methods, including variations of sand casting, permanent mold casting, and pressure die casting, showing how key process variables affect the microstructure, properties, and performance of cast aluminum parts. Other chapters provide similar information on the effects of alloying and heat treating and the influence and control of porosity and inclusions. A significant portion of the book contains curated collections of property and performance data, including many previously unpublished aging response curves, growth curves, and fatigue curves; tensile properties at high and low temperatures and at room temperature after high-temperature exposure; the results of creep rupture tests conducted at temperatures from 212 to 600 °F (100 to 315 °C); and stress-strain curves obtained from casting alloys in various tempers under tensile or compressive loads. The book also discusses the factors that contribute to corrosion and fracture resistance and includes test specimen drawings as well as a glossary of terms. For information on the print version, ISBN 978-0-87170-803-8, follow this link.
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Ferro, Charles J., and Khai Ping Ng. Recommendations for management of high renal risk chronic kidney disease. Edited by David J. Goldsmith. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0099.
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Poorer renal function is associated with increasing morbidity and mortality. In the wider population this is mainly as a consequence of cardiovascular disease. Renal patients are more likely to progress to end-stage renal disease, but also have high cardiovascular risk. Aiming to reduce both progression of renal impairment and cardiovascular disease are not contradictory. Focusing on the management of high-risk patients with proteinuria and reduced glomerular filtration rates, it is recommended that blood pressure should be kept below 140/90, or 130/80 if proteinuria is > 1 g/24 h (protein:creatinine ratio (PCR) >100 mg/mmol or 0.9 g/g). These targets may be modified according to age and other factors. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) or angiotensin receptor antagonists should form part of the therapy for patients with proteinuria > 0.5 g/24 h (PCR > 50 mg/mmol or 0.45 g/g). Use of ACEIs or angiotensin receptor blockers in patients with lower levels of proteinuria may be indicated in some patient groups even in the absence of hypertension, notably in diabetic nephropathy. Evidence that other agents that reduce proteinuria bring additional benefits is weak at present. The best studies of ‘dual-blockade’ with various combinations of ACEIs, ARBs, and renin inhibitors have shown additional hazard with little evidence of additional benefit. Hyperlipidaemia—regardless of lipid levels, statin therapy is indicated in secondary cardiovascular prevention, and in primary prevention where cardiovascular risk is high, noting that current risk estimation tools do not adequately account for the increased risk of patients with CKD. There is not substantial evidence that lipid lowering therapy impacts on average rates of loss of GFR in progressive CKD. Non-drug lifestyle interventions to reduce cardiovascular risk, including stopping smoking, are important for all. Acidosis—in more advanced CKD it is justified to treat acidosis with oral sodium bicarbonate. Diet—sodium restriction to < 100 mmol/day (6 g/day) and avoidance of excessive dietary protein are justified in early to moderate CKD. Recommendations to limit levels of protein to 0.8 g/kg body weight are suggested by some, but additional protective effects of this are likely to be slight in patients who are otherwise well managed. Low-protein diets may carry some risk. Lower-protein diets may however be used to prevent symptoms in advanced CKD not treated by dialysis.
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Omstedt, Anders. The Development of Climate Science of the Baltic Sea Region. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.654.
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Dramatic climate changes have occurred in the Baltic Sea region caused by changes in orbital movement in the earth–sun system and the melting of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet. Added to these longer-term changes, changes have occurred at all timescales, caused mainly by variations in large-scale atmospheric pressure systems due to competition between the meandering midlatitude low-pressure systems and high-pressure systems. Here we follow the development of climate science of the Baltic Sea from when observations began in the 18th century to the early 21st century. The question of why the water level is sinking around the Baltic Sea coasts could not be answered until the ideas of postglacial uplift and the thermal history of the earth were better understood in the 19th century and periodic behavior in climate related time series attracted scientific interest. Herring and sardine fishing successes and failures have led to investigations of fishery and climate change and to the realization that fisheries themselves have strongly negative effects on the marine environment, calling for international assessment efforts. Scientists later introduced the concept of regime shifts when interpreting their data, attributing these to various causes. The increasing amount of anoxic deep water in the Baltic Sea and eutrophication have prompted debate about what is natural and what is anthropogenic, and the scientific outcome of these debates now forms the basis of international management efforts to reduce nutrient leakage from land. The observed increase in atmospheric CO2 and its effects on global warming have focused the climate debate on trends and generated a series of international and regional assessments and research programs that have greatly improved our understanding of climate and environmental changes, bolstering the efforts of earth system science, in which both climate and environmental factors are analyzed together.Major achievements of past centuries have included developing and organizing regular observation and monitoring programs. The free availability of data sets has supported the development of more accurate forcing functions for Baltic Sea models and made it possible to better understand and model the Baltic Sea–North Sea system, including the development of coupled land–sea–atmosphere models. Most indirect and direct observations of the climate find great variability and stochastic behavior, so conclusions based on short time series are problematic, leading to qualifications about periodicity, trends, and regime shifts. Starting in the 1980s, systematic research into climate change has considerably improved our understanding of regional warming and multiple threats to the Baltic Sea. Several aspects of regional climate and environmental changes and how they interact are, however, unknown and merit future research.
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Yongue, Julia. A distinctive nation: vaccine policy and production in Japan. Manchester University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.7228/manchester/9781526110886.003.0009.
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Factors such as climate and geography were important determinants of the types vaccines selected for use and the prevalence of certain infectious diseases in Japan. However, as shown in this chapter, there is strong evidence that preventive vaccination policies that were strongly influenced by foreign health authorities, changing societal expectations, pressure from special interest groups, and new scientific discoveries played as an important, if not a more significant role in the formation of Japan’s approach to immunisation and vaccine production. By delineating the principal features and influences on the development of Japan’s vaccine policies and production using a wide range of illustrations, the writer argues that Japan’s approach differed markedly from the ones adopted by the health authorities in other nations. This distinctiveness stems from Japan’s unique history of disease, policies and institutions, whose centerpiece is the Preventative Vaccination Law (PVL) introduced in 1947 during the Allied occupation (1945-52). This chapter will trace these influences—both past and present—on Japan’s vaccination policies in order to shed light on its unique approach to immunisation and production.
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Psygkas, Athanasios. From the Democratic Deficit to a Democratic Surplus. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190632762.001.0001.
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The conventional account of a European Union (EU) “democratic deficit” misses part of the story. This book argues that member-state regulatory processes operating under EU mandates may actually have become more democratically accountable, not less. EU law creates entry points for stakeholder participation in the operation of national regulatory authorities; these avenues for public participation were formerly either not open or not institutionalized to this degree. In these cases, we see not a democratic deficit but a democratic surplus generated by EU law in the member states. Moreover, the decentralized EU regulatory structure may promote experimentation, innovation, and policy exchange between the member states. The book discusses a series of case studies demonstrating how EU law influenced telecommunications regulation in France, Greece, and the United Kingdom. It assesses the operation of accountability processes by drawing on data from more than 1,000 public consultations and some 8,000 consultation responses. The analysis is supplemented by interviews with agency officials as well as industry and consumer group representatives in Paris, Athens, Brussels, and London. The study finds increased participation by actors other than the traditional powerful firms as well as significant transparency gains compared to the previous regime. Nonetheless, the three countries did not respond to EU pressures in an identical fashion. The book compares how the same EU mandates were translated into divergent institutional practices as a result of the different administrative traditions, bureaucratic culture, and public law history of these countries. It also documents roadblocks and difficulties along the way.
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Siklos, Pierre L. Central Banks into the Breach. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190228835.001.0001.
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The book covers the global economy and the various pressures faced by central banks. It also provides some ideas for reforming existing monetary policy strategies. The events of the past fifteen years in monetary policy are essentially the story of two mistakes, one triumph, and the real possibility of another mistake to come. Prior to the global financial crisis, many central bankers were glib about the connection between finance and the real economy. This is partly because the last three decades saw many financial crises with apparently little lasting impact on the global economy. Another mistake was the failure to adequately appreciate how interconnected the world’s financial systems had become. The triumph was the recognition that price stability is a desirable objective. Whether low and stable inflation is the cause or the consequence of economic performance during the past three decades remains hotly debated, however. There is also the prospect of another financial shock to come. The outlook at the end of 2016 is clouded by at least three sets of forces. On the domestic front, central banks face a difficult and protracted exit from ultra-loose monetary policies; it is largely a problem of their own making. There is also an unwillingness to implement needed structural economic reforms that lie outside the scope of monetary policy. On the international front, there is limited appetite for cooperation and differences in views about the proper role and function of central banks. Central banking is not broken, but it is in need of repair.
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Yamamoto, Eric K. In the Shadow of Korematsu. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190878955.001.0001.
Full textAbstract:
The national security and civil liberties tensions of the World War II mass Japanese American internment (incarceration) link 9/11 and the 2015 Paris-San Bernardino attacks to the era in America darkened by accelerating discrimination against and intimidation of those asserting rights of freedom of religion, association, and speech, and one marked by increasingly volatile protests against racial and religious discrimination. This book discusses the broad civil liberties challenges posed by these past-into-the-future linkages, highlighting pressing questions about the significance of judicial independence for a constitutional democracy committed both to security and to the rule of law. First, the book portrays the present-day significance of the Supreme Court’s discredited yet never overruled 1944 Korematsu decision—a decision later found in the coram nobis cases to be driven by the government’s presentation of “intentional falsehoods” and “willful historical inaccuracies” to the Court. Second, the book implicates prospects for judicial independence in adjudging harassment, exclusion, and incarceration disputes in contemporary America and beyond. Third, and even more broadly for security and liberty controversies, the book engages the American populace in shaping law and policy at the ground level by placing the courts’ legitimacy on center stage. It addresses how critical legal advocacy and organized public pressure targeting judges and policymakers—realpolitik advocacy—at times can foster judicial fealty to constitutional principles while promoting accountability of the elective branches. Finally it addresses who we are as Americans and whether we are genuinely committed to a checks-and-balances democracy governed by the Constitution.
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Marshall, Tim. The Politics and Ideology of Planning. Policy Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781447337201.001.0001.
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The present time is one of considerable political and ideological turmoil. This affects urban planning, like all areas of public policy. This book sets out to analyse the political and ideological dimensions of planning, focusing on the UK and particularly on England. These have been underplayed or obscured in the past, partly because professional planners have wished to present themselves as apolitical and non-ideological actors. The book proposes that good planning practice will be helped by a more explicit engagement with how planning is affected by political activity and by ideological thinking. The book therefore takes a series of cuts into the subject, starting with a survey of recent planning literature and proceeding to a historical overview of the relationship of planning to ideological currents, including a brief study of one recent UK government. There is then a survey of the main ideological composites active in Britain. There follows a chapter on the relationships between technical work, law and planning, to establish to what degree the political forces allow autonomy for technical skill and the force of legal thinking. Three chapters deal with dimensions of politics and ideology as they operate within government, pressure politics and the media, as well as the place of public deliberation in planning. Two chapters examine different facets and fields of planning, to identify variation across sub-fields of planning work. The final chapter explores some paths to improving the relationship between politics and planning, in current circumstances.
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Hodgson, Jacqueline S. The Metamorphosis of Criminal Justice. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199981427.001.0001.
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The focus of this book is the potentially radical and fundamental changes that are taking place within criminal justice in Britain and in France and the ways that these are driven by wider domestic, European, or international concerns. This metamorphosis away from established values and practices is eroding what were once regarded as core rights and freedoms in the name of efficiency, security, and justice to victims. Beginning with a comparative analysis of adversarial and inquisitorial procedural values and traditions, and an examination of broad trends in domestic and European criminal justice, the book then discusses how the roles of prosecution and defense have been reshaped in different ways in both jurisdictions—both in the text of the law and in their practices. The final part considers how systems within different procedural traditions adapt to address, or provide a remedy for, systemic flaws that produce wrongful convictions and, in particular, the role of the defense in these procedures. By adopting a comparative approach with France, the study explores the nature and reach of these trends, the ways that they challenge and disrupt criminal processes and values, and the contrasting responses that they provoke. It reveals how criminal justice traditions continue to be shaped in different ways by broader policy and political concerns; how different systems adapt, change, and distort when faced with (sometimes conflicting) pressures domestically and externally; and how different procedural values may serve to structure or limit reform, and so work to facilitate or resist change.
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Benestad, Rasmus. Climate in the Barents Region. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.655.
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The Barents Sea is a region of the Arctic Ocean named after one of its first known explorers (1594–1597), Willem Barentsz from the Netherlands, although there are accounts of earlier explorations: the Norwegian seafarer Ottar rounded the northern tip of Europe and explored the Barents and White Seas between 870 and 890 ce, a journey followed by a number of Norsemen; Pomors hunted seals and walruses in the region; and Novgorodian merchants engaged in the fur trade. These seafarers were probably the first to accumulate knowledge about the nature of sea ice in the Barents region; however, scientific expeditions and the exploration of the climate of the region had to wait until the invention and employment of scientific instruments such as the thermometer and barometer. Most of the early exploration involved mapping the land and the sea ice and making geographical observations. There were also many unsuccessful attempts to use the Northeast Passage to reach the Bering Strait. The first scientific expeditions involved F. P. Litke (1821±1824), P. K. Pakhtusov (1834±1835), A. K. Tsivol’ka (1837±1839), and Henrik Mohn (1876–1878), who recorded oceanographic, ice, and meteorological conditions.The scientific study of the Barents region and its climate has been spearheaded by a number of campaigns. There were four generations of the International Polar Year (IPY): 1882–1883, 1932–1933, 1957–1958, and 2007–2008. A British polar campaign was launched in July 1945 with Antarctic operations administered by the Colonial Office, renamed as the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey (FIDS); it included a scientific bureau by 1950. It was rebranded as the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) in 1962 (British Antarctic Survey History leaflet). While BAS had its initial emphasis on the Antarctic, it has also been involved in science projects in the Barents region. The most dedicated mission to the Arctic and the Barents region has been the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), which has commissioned a series of reports on the Arctic climate: the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA) report, the Snow Water Ice and Permafrost in the Arctic (SWIPA) report, and the Adaptive Actions in a Changing Arctic (AACA) report.The climate of the Barents Sea is strongly influenced by the warm waters from the Norwegian current bringing heat from the subtropical North Atlantic. The region is 10°C–15°C warmer than the average temperature on the same latitude, and a large part of the Barents Sea is open water even in winter. It is roughly bounded by the Svalbard archipelago, northern Fennoscandia, the Kanin Peninsula, Kolguyev Island, Novaya Zemlya, and Franz Josef Land, and is a shallow ocean basin which constrains physical processes such as currents and convection. To the west, the Greenland Sea forms a buffer region with some of the strongest temperature gradients on earth between Iceland and Greenland. The combination of a strong temperature gradient and westerlies influences air pressure, wind patterns, and storm tracks. The strong temperature contrast between sea ice and open water in the northern part sets the stage for polar lows, as well as heat and moisture exchange between ocean and atmosphere. Glaciers on the Arctic islands generate icebergs, which may drift in the Barents Sea subject to wind and ocean currents.The land encircling the Barents Sea includes regions with permafrost and tundra. Precipitation comes mainly from synoptic storms and weather fronts; it falls as snow in the winter and rain in the summer. The land area is snow-covered in winter, and rivers in the region drain the rainwater and meltwater into the Barents Sea. Pronounced natural variations in the seasonal weather statistics can be linked to variations in the polar jet stream and Rossby waves, which result in a clustering of storm activity, blocking high-pressure systems. The Barents region is subject to rapid climate change due to a “polar amplification,” and observations from Svalbard suggest that the past warming trend ranks among the strongest recorded on earth. The regional change is reinforced by a number of feedback effects, such as receding sea-ice cover and influx of mild moist air from the south.
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Lézine, Anne-Marie. Vegetation at the Time of the African Humid Period. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.530.
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An orbitally induced increase in summer insolation during the last glacial-interglacial transition enhanced the thermal contrast between land and sea, with land masses heating up compared to the adjacent ocean surface. In North Africa, warmer land surfaces created a low-pressure zone, driving the northward penetration of monsoonal rains originating from the Atlantic Ocean. As a consequence, regions today among the driest of the world were covered by permanent and deep freshwater lakes, some of them being exceptionally large, such as the “Mega” Lake Chad, which covered some 400 000 square kilometers. A dense network of rivers developed.What were the consequences of this climate change on plant distribution and biodiversity? Pollen grains that accumulated over time in lake sediments are useful tools to reconstruct past vegetation assemblages since they are extremely resistant to decay and are produced in great quantities. In addition, their morphological character allows the determination of most plant families and genera.In response to the postglacial humidity increase, tropical taxa that survived as strongly reduced populations during the last glacial period spread widely, shifting latitudes or elevations, expanding population size, or both. In the Saharan desert, pollen of tropical trees (e.g., Celtis) were found in sites located at up to 25°N in southern Libya. In the Equatorial mountains, trees (e.g., Olea and Podocarpus) migrated to higher elevations to form the present-day Afro-montane forests. Patterns of migration were individualistic, with the entire range of some taxa displaced to higher latitudes or shifted from one elevation belt to another. New combinations of climate/environmental conditions allowed the cooccurrences of taxa growing today in separate regions. Such migrational processes and species-overlapping ranges led to a tremendous increase in biodiversity, particularly in the Saharan desert, where more humid-adapted taxa expanded along water courses, lakes, and wetlands, whereas xerophytic populations persisted in drier areas.At the end of the Holocene era, some 2,500 to 4,500 years ago, the majority of sites in tropical Africa recorded a shift to drier conditions, with many lakes and wetlands drying out. The vegetation response to this shift was the overall disruption of the forests and the wide expansion of open landscapes (wooded grasslands, grasslands, and steppes). This environmental crisis created favorable conditions for further plant exploitation and cereal cultivation in the Congo Basin.
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Frew, Anthony. Air pollution. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0341.
Full textAbstract:
Any public debate about air pollution starts with the premise that air pollution cannot be good for you, so we should have less of it. However, it is much more difficult to determine how much is dangerous, and even more difficult to decide how much we are willing to pay for improvements in measured air pollution. Recent UK estimates suggest that fine particulate pollution causes about 6500 deaths per year, although it is not clear how many years of life are lost as a result. Some deaths may just be brought forward by a few days or weeks, while others may be truly premature. Globally, household pollution from cooking fuels may cause up to two million premature deaths per year in the developing world. The hazards of black smoke air pollution have been known since antiquity. The first descriptions of deaths caused by air pollution are those recorded after the eruption of Vesuvius in ad 79. In modern times, the infamous smogs of the early twentieth century in Belgium and London were clearly shown to trigger deaths in people with chronic bronchitis and heart disease. In mechanistic terms, black smoke and sulphur dioxide generated from industrial processes and domestic coal burning cause airway inflammation, exacerbation of chronic bronchitis, and consequent heart failure. Epidemiological analysis has confirmed that the deaths included both those who were likely to have died soon anyway and those who might well have survived for months or years if the pollution event had not occurred. Clean air legislation has dramatically reduced the levels of these traditional pollutants in the West, although these pollutants are still important in China, and smoke from solid cooking fuel continues to take a heavy toll amongst women in less developed parts of the world. New forms of air pollution have emerged, principally due to the increase in motor vehicle traffic since the 1950s. The combination of fine particulates and ground-level ozone causes ‘summer smogs’ which intensify over cities during summer periods of high barometric pressure. In Los Angeles and Mexico City, ozone concentrations commonly reach levels which are associated with adverse respiratory effects in normal and asthmatic subjects. Ozone directly affects the airways, causing reduced inspiratory capacity. This effect is more marked in patients with asthma and is clinically important, since epidemiological studies have found linear associations between ozone concentrations and admission rates for asthma and related respiratory diseases. Ozone induces an acute neutrophilic inflammatory response in both human and animal airways, together with release of chemokines (e.g. interleukin 8 and growth-related oncogene-alpha). Nitrogen oxides have less direct effect on human airways, but they increase the response to allergen challenge in patients with atopic asthma. Nitrogen oxide exposure also increases the risk of becoming ill after exposure to influenza. Alveolar macrophages are less able to inactivate influenza viruses and this leads to an increased probability of infection after experimental exposure to influenza. In the last two decades, major concerns have been raised about the effects of fine particulates. An association between fine particulate levels and cardiovascular and respiratory mortality and morbidity was first reported in 1993 and has since been confirmed in several other countries. Globally, about 90% of airborne particles are formed naturally, from sea spray, dust storms, volcanoes, and burning grass and forests. Human activity accounts for about 10% of aerosols (in terms of mass). This comes from transport, power stations, and various industrial processes. Diesel exhaust is the principal source of fine particulate pollution in Europe, while sea spray is the principal source in California, and agricultural activity is a major contributor in inland areas of the US. Dust storms are important sources in the Sahara, the Middle East, and parts of China. The mechanism of adverse health effects remains unclear but, unlike the case for ozone and nitrogen oxides, there is no safe threshold for the health effects of particulates. Since the 1990s, tax measures aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions have led to a rapid rise in the proportion of new cars with diesel engines. In the UK, this rose from 4% in 1990 to one-third of new cars in 2004 while, in France, over half of new vehicles have diesel engines. Diesel exhaust particles may increase the risk of sensitization to airborne allergens and cause airways inflammation both in vitro and in vivo. Extensive epidemiological work has confirmed that there is an association between increased exposure to environmental fine particulates and death from cardiovascular causes. Various mechanisms have been proposed: cardiac rhythm disturbance seems the most likely at present. It has also been proposed that high numbers of ultrafine particles may cause alveolar inflammation which then exacerbates preexisting cardiac and pulmonary disease. In support of this hypothesis, the metal content of ultrafine particles induces oxidative stress when alveolar macrophages are exposed to particles in vitro. While this is a plausible mechanism, in epidemiological studies it is difficult to separate the effects of ultrafine particles from those of other traffic-related pollutants.