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Journal articles on the topic 'Low-voltage scanning electron microscopy'

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Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 8 February 2022

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1

Joy, David C., and Dale E. Newbury. "Low Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy." Microscopy and Microanalysis 7, S2 (August 2001): 762–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600029883.

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Low Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy (LVSEM), defined as operation in the energy range below 5keV, has become perhaps the most important single operational mode of the SEM. This is because the LVSEM offers advantages in the imaging of surfaces, in the observation of poorly conducting and insulating materials, and for high spatial resolution X-ray microanalysis. These benefits all occur because a reduction in the energy E0 of the incident beam leads to a rapid fall in the range R of the electrons since R ∼ k.E01.66. The reduction in the penetration of the beam has important consequences. Firstly, volume of the specimen that is sampled by the beam shrinks dramatically (varying as about E05 ) and so the information generated by the beam is confined to the surface of the sample. Secondly, the yield 8 of secondary electrons is increased from a typical value of 0.1 at 20keV to a value that may be in excess of 1.0 at 1keV.

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2

Joy, David C., and Dale E. Newbury. "Low Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy." Microscopy Today 10, no. 2 (March 2002): 22–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500057813.

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Low Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy (LVSEM), defined as operation in the energy range below 5 keV, has become perhaps the most important single operational mode of the SEM. This is because the LVSEM offers advantages in the imaging of surfaces, in the observation of poorly conducting and insulating materials, and for high spatial resolution X-ray microanalysis. These benefits all occur because a reduction in the energy Eo of the incident beam leads to a rapid fall in the range R of the electrons since R ∼k.E01.66. The reduction in the penetration of the beam has important consequences.

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3

Joy, David C., and Carolyn S. Joy. "Low voltage scanning electron microscopy." Micron 27, no. 3-4 (June 1996): 247–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0968-4328(96)00023-6.

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4

Schatten, G., J. Pawley, and H. Ris. "Integrated microscopy resource for biomedical research at the university of wisconsin at madison." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 45 (August 1987): 594–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100127451.

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The High Voltage Electron Microscopy Laboratory [HVEM] at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, a National Institutes of Health Biomedical Research Technology Resource, has recently been renamed the Integrated Microscopy Resource for Biomedical Research [IMR]. This change is designed to highlight both our increasing abilities to provide sophisticated microscopes for biomedical investigators, and the expansion of our mission beyond furnishing access to a million-volt transmission electron microscope. This abstract will describe the current status of the IMR, some preliminary results, our upcoming plans, and the current procedures for applying for microscope time.The IMR has five principal facilities: 1.High Voltage Electron Microscopy2.Computer-Based Motion Analysis3.Low Voltage High-Resolution Scanning Electron Microscopy4.Tandem Scanning Reflected Light Microscopy5.Computer-Enhanced Video MicroscopyThe IMR houses an AEI-EM7 one million-volt transmission electron microscope.

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5

Joy, David C., and Carolyn S. Joy. "Ultra-low voltage scanning electron microscopy." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 54 (August 11, 1996): 144–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100163186.

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Although the benefits of operating the scanning electron microscope at low beam energies have been evident since the earliest days of the instrument, the successful utilization of the SEM under these conditions has required the development of high brightness field emission electron source, advanced lenses, and clean vacuums. As these technologies became available the level at which imaging became regarded as “low energy” has fallen from 10keV, first to 5keV, and more recently to 1keV. At this energy state of the art instruments can now provide an excellent balance between resolution – which becomes worse with decreasing energy – and desirable goals such as the minimization of sample charging and the reduction of macroscopic radiation damage – which tend to become more challenging as the energy is increased.An interesting new opportunity is to perform imaging in the ultra-low energy region between leV and 500eV. Over this energy range significant changes in the details of electron-solid interactions take place offering the chance of novel contrast modes, and the rapid fall in the electron beam range leads to the condition where the penetration of the incident beam into the sample is effectively limited to 1 or 2 nanometers. The practical problem is that of achieving useful levels of resolution and acceptable signal to noise ratios in the image. At energies below IkeV chromatic aberration dominates the probe formation in conventional instruments even when using an FEG source. However, the use of optimized retarding field optics essentially maintains chromatic aberration independent of landing energy down to very low values. Figure (1) shows an example of the performance that can be achieved on a commercial instrument – an Hitachi S-4500 – modified to operate in this mode, in this case at 50eV landing energy. The resolution of the image is judged from edge sharpness and detail to be significantly better than 0.1µm and, from experimental observation, this performance is apparently limited by residual astigmatism caused by uncorrected sample charging rather than by fundamental aberrations in the probe forming optics. Comparable, if somewhat lower resolution, images have been achieved on this, and other FEG SEMs, at energies as low as leV.

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6

Joy, David C., and Carolyn S. Joy. "Ultra-Low Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy." Microscopy Today 4, no. 7 (September 1996): 12–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500060958.

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Although the benefits of operating the scanning electron microscope at low beam energies have been evident since the earliest days of the instrument, the successful utilization of the SEM under these conditions has required the development of high brightness field emission electron source, advanced lenses, and clean vacuums. As these technologies became available the level at which imaging became regarded as “low energy” has fallen from 10 keV, first to 5 keV, and more recently to 1 keV. At this energy state of the art, instruments can now provide an excellent balance between resolution - which becomes worse with decreasing energy - and desirable goals such as the minimization of sample charging and the reduction of macroscopic radiation damage - which tend to become more challenging as the energy is increased.

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7

Möller, Lars, Gudrun Holland, and Michael Laue. "Diagnostic Electron Microscopy of Viruses With Low-voltage Electron Microscopes." Journal of Histochemistry & Cytochemistry 68, no. 6 (May 21, 2020): 389–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1369/0022155420929438.

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Diagnostic electron microscopy is a useful technique for the identification of viruses associated with human, animal, or plant diseases. The size of virus structures requires a high optical resolution (i.e., about 1 nm), which, for a long time, was only provided by transmission electron microscopes operated at 60 kV and above. During the last decade, low-voltage electron microscopy has been improved and potentially provides an alternative to the use of high-voltage electron microscopy for diagnostic electron microscopy of viruses. Therefore, we have compared the imaging capabilities of three low-voltage electron microscopes, a scanning electron microscope equipped with a scanning transmission detector and two low-voltage transmission electron microscopes, operated at 25 kV, with the imaging capabilities of a high-voltage transmission electron microscope using different viruses in samples prepared by negative staining and ultrathin sectioning. All of the microscopes provided sufficient optical resolution for a recognition of the viruses tested. In ultrathin sections, ultrastructural details of virus genesis could be revealed. Speed of imaging was fast enough to allow rapid screening of diagnostic samples at a reasonable throughput. In summary, the results suggest that low-voltage microscopes are a suitable alternative to high-voltage transmission electron microscopes for diagnostic electron microscopy of viruses.

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8

Jones, Arthur V. "Novel Approaches to Low-Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 48, no. 1 (August 12, 1990): 366–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100180586.

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In comparison with the developers of other forms of instrumentation, scanning electron microscope manufacturers are among the most conservative of people. New concepts usually must wait many years before being exploited commercially. The field emission gun, developed by Albert Crewe and his coworkers in 1968 is only now becoming widely available in commercial instruments, while the innovative lens designs of Mulvey are still waiting to be commercially exploited. The associated electronics is still in general based on operating procedures which have changed little since the original microscopes of Oatley and his co-workers.The current interest in low-voltage scanning electron microscopy will, if sub-nanometer resolution is to be obtained in a useable instrument, lead to fundamental changes in the design of the electron optics. Perhaps this is an opportune time to consider other fundamental changes in scanning electron microscopy instrumentation.

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9

Vaz, O. W., and S. J. Krause. "Low-voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy of polymers." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 44 (August 1986): 676–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100144772.

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Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of polymers at routine operating voltages of 15 to 25 keV can lead to beam damage and sample image distortion due to charging. These problems may be avoided by imaging polymer samples at a “crossover point”, which is located at low accelerating voltages (0.1 to 2.0 keV), where the number of electrons impinging on the sample are equal to the number of outgoing electrons emerging from the sample. This condition permits the polymer surface to remain electrically neutral and prevents image distortion due to “charging” effects. In this research we have examined Teflon (polytetrafluorethylene) samples and studied the effects of accelerating voltage and sample tilting on charging phenomena. We have also determined the approximate position of the “crossover point”.

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10

Berry, V. K. "Low-Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy in polymer characterization." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 45 (August 1987): 468–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100127049.

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The application of low voltage scanning electron microscopy (LVSEM) to the characterization of polymers and non-conducting materials, other than semiconductors, has not been well explored yet. Some of the theoretical considerations and practical limitations which prevented the development of commercial instruments have mostly been addressed with the result that machines are now available which are optimized for low voltage (≥ 0.5 kV) operation. The advantages of working at low voltages are beginning to be recognized outside the semi-conductor industry. When we image uncoated polymer surfaces at low beam energies (0.5-1.5 kV), no beam damage or charging artifacts are experienced, because in this region the emitted electrons are equal to or more than the incident electrons and there is no deposition of charge underneath the surface due to the lower penetration of the incident electrons.

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11

Gauvin, Raynald. "Physics of Low Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy." Microscopy and Microanalysis 8, S02 (August 2002): 116–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927602101905.

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12

Autrata, R., and J. Hejna. "Detectors for low voltage scanning electron microscopy." Scanning 13, no. 4 (1991): 275–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sca.4950130403.

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13

Joy, David C. "Resolution in low voltage scanning electron microscopy." Journal of Microscopy 140, no. 3 (December 1985): 283–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2818.1985.tb02682.x.

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14

Butler, J. H., D. C. Joy, G. F. Bradley, and S. J. Krause. "Low-voltage scanning electron microscopy of polymers." Polymer 36, no. 9 (April 1995): 1781–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0032-3861(95)90924-q.

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15

Böngeler, R., U. Golla, M. Kässens, L. Reimer, B. Schindler, R. Senkel, and M. Spranck. "Electron-specimen interactions in low-voltage scanning electron microscopy." Scanning 15, no. 1 (1993): 1–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sca.4950150102.

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16

Price, C. W., and P. L. McCarthy. "Low-voltage scanning electron microscopy of low-density materials." Scanning 10, no. 1 (1988): 29–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sca.4950100106.

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17

Berry, V. K. "Low-Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy Investigation of Polymers." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 46 (1988): 220–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100103164.

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The morphological characterization of any polymer blend plays an important part in the development of a new blend system because the properties of blends are dictated by phase morphology which is dependent upon the chemistry and the processing conditions. Light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy are the most commonly used microscopical techniques for morphological characterization. Transmission electron microscopy techniques provide the best resolution (≈ 0.3 nm) but are limited in the size of sample area and require elaborate sample preparation procedures. Surface charging and beam damage problems have been some of the drawbacks of conventional scanning electron microscopy with non-conducting materials like polymers.The use of low accelerating voltage scanning electron microscopy (LVSEM) in the characterization of polymers and other non-conducting materials is beginning to be recognized.

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18

Boyes, E. D. "Low Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy (LVSEM) in Perspective." Microscopy and Microanalysis 5, S2 (August 1999): 674–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s143192760001669x.

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In the past quarter century low voltage SEM (LVSEM) has been developed for use in a wide range of applications, and it has become the main area of innovation in SEM, and now perhaps more widely in electron microscopy. The intellectual challenge (1,2) has been transformed into a vital tool of modern technology in the semiconductor, polymer and chemical industries, and is widely used in the materials and biological sciences (3, 4). It has been claimed by this author and others that LVSEM is the rational and preferred state of SEM, but unfortunately at the time of the first SEMs only higher voltage systems could be built with the technologies available half a century ago (1). The primary advantage of the SEM remains the use of real bulk specimens with a minimum of potentially invasive preparation. A wide area in the range of square mms to sq inches can contain aperiodic, or otherwise infrequent, events in or on the surface, or in a simple snapped cross-section, and always using relatively stable bulk samples.

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19

Müllerová, I., and M. Lenc. "Some approaches to low-voltage scanning electron microscopy." Ultramicroscopy 41, no. 4 (June 1992): 399–410. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3991(92)90219-a.

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20

Kim, Kyu-Jin, and Anthony G. Fane. "Low voltage scanning electron microscopy in membrane research." Journal of Membrane Science 88, no. 1 (March 1994): 103–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0376-7388(93)e0176-k.

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21

Joy, David C. "The Low Voltage Scanning Electron Microscope." Microscopy and Microanalysis 3, S2 (August 1997): 1213–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600012952.

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A majority of the scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) now in use are probably employed as low voltage SEMs (LVSEMs), that is to say they are operated to produce beams with energies below 5keV. This trend away from the more conventional mode of operation at 20 or 30keV has gathered momentum over the past decade and has been driven by both theoretical and practical considera-tions.Firstly, the distance travelled by an electron falls rapidly (in fact as about E1.6 ) as the incident ener-gy E is reduced. Images generated by low energy electron beams therefore contain enhanced surface information compared to those images recorded at higher energies. Since surfaces are of great inter-est in both the life sciences and in materials science this has been a persuasive factor. Secondly, both the secondary and the backscattered electrons now come from essentially the same interaction volume, rather than from volumes which are widely different in size and shape.

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22

LIU, JINGYUE. "LOW-VOLTAGE AND ULTRA-LOW-VOLTAGE SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY OF SEMICONDUCTOR SURFACES AND DEVICES." International Journal of Modern Physics B 16, no. 28n29 (November 20, 2002): 4387–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217979202015479.

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Low-voltage scanning electron microscopy (LV-SEM) enables us to directly examine non-conducting materials with high spatial resolution. Although use of ultra-low-energy electrons can provide further advantages for characterizing delicate samples, lens aberrations rapidly deteriorates the image resolution. The combined use of a retarding field and the probe-forming lens system can improve the image resolution for electrons with very low energies. In commercially available FEG-SEMs, the retarding field can simply be constructed by applying a negative potential to the specimen. Interesting contrast variations have been observed in ultra-low-voltage SEM images. In this short communication, we discuss the application of LV-SEM to examining semiconductor devices and also the recent development of the ultra-low-voltage SEM technique.

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23

Wergin, William P., Richard M. Sayre, and Terrence W. Reilly. "Low-voltage field-emission scanning electron microscopy applications in nematology." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 46 (1988): 420–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100104169.

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Conventional scanning electron microscopy (CSEM) has long been used to gain structural information on the taxonomy, morphology, host-parasite relationships and predators of plant parasitic nematodes. Although a significant amount of new information has accumulated during the past few years, further gains in structural detail will be hampered because CSEMs have resolutions of 40-70A, 5-20kV accelerating voltages are normally required to excite adequate secondary electrons, and current preparation techniques require specimen coatings of 200-300A.Recently a new SEM, the Hitachi S900, combined a condensor-objective lens system with a field emission electron source. This instrument, known as a field emission (FE) SEM, has a resolution of about 5A or 10 times greater than that of CSEMs, can be used to observe specimens with little or no coating and operates at accelerating voltages as low as 1 or 2 kV while producing electron densities nearly 1000 times brighter than those of CSEMs.

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24

You, Yun-Wen, Hsun-Yun Chang, Hua-Yang Liao, Wei-Lun Kao, Guo-Ji Yen, Chi-Jen Chang, Meng-Hung Tsai, and Jing-Jong Shyue. "Electron Tomography of HEK293T Cells Using Scanning Electron Microscope–Based Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy." Microscopy and Microanalysis 18, no. 5 (October 2012): 1037–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927612001158.

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AbstractBased on a scanning electron microscope operated at 30 kV with a homemade specimen holder and a multiangle solid-state detector behind the sample, low-kV scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) is presented with subsequent electron tomography for three-dimensional (3D) volume structure. Because of the low acceleration voltage, the stronger electron-atom scattering leads to a stronger contrast in the resulting image than standard TEM, especially for light elements. Furthermore, the low-kV STEM yields less radiation damage to the specimen, hence the structure can be preserved. In this work, two-dimensional STEM images of a 1-μm-thick cell section with projection angles between ±50° were collected, and the 3D volume structure was reconstructed using the simultaneous iterative reconstructive technique algorithm with the TomoJ plugin for ImageJ, which are both public domain software. Furthermore, the cross-sectional structure was obtained with the Volume Viewer plugin in ImageJ. Although the tilting angle is constrained and limits the resulting structural resolution, slicing the reconstructed volume generated the depth profile of the thick specimen with sufficient resolution to examine cellular uptake of Au nanoparticles, and the final position of these nanoparticles inside the cell was imaged.

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25

Zach, J., and H. Rose. "Efficient Detection of Secondary Electrons in Low-Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy." Scanning 8, no. 6 (1986): 285–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sca.4950080606.

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26

Orekhov, A. S., V. V. Klechkovskaya, and S. V. Kononova. "Low-voltage scanning electron microscopy of multilayer polymer systems." Crystallography Reports 62, no. 5 (September 2017): 710–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s1063774517050145.

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27

Boyes, E. D. "On Low Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy and Chemical Microanalysis." Microscopy and Microanalysis 6, no. 4 (July 2000): 307–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927602000545.

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AbstractThe current status and general applicability of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) at low voltages is reviewed for both imaging (low voltage scanning electron microscopy, LVSEM) and chemical microanalysis (low voltage energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry, LVEDX). With improved instrument performance low beam energies continue to have the expected advantages for the secondary electron imaging of low atomic number (Z) and electrically non-conducting samples. They also provide general improvements in the veracity of surface topographic analysis with conducting samples of all Z and at both low and high magnifications. In new experiments the backscattered electron (BSE) signal retains monotonic Z dependence to low voltages (<1 kV). This is contrary to long standing results in the prior literature and opens up fast chemical mapping with low dose and very high (nm-scale) spatial resolution. Similarly, energy-dispersive X-ray chemical microanalysis of bulk samples is extended to submicron, and in some cases to <0.1 μm, spatial resolution in three dimensions at voltages <5 kV. In favorable cases, such as the analysis of carbon overlayers at 1.5 kV, the thickness sensitivity for surface layers is extended to <2 nm, but the integrity of the sample surface is then of concern. At low beam energies (E0) the penetration range into the sample, and hence the X-ray escape path length out of it, is systematically restricted (R = F(E05/3)), with advantages for the accuracy or elimination of complex analysis-by-analysis matrix corrections for absorption (A) and fluorescence (F). The Z terms become more sensitive to E0 but they require only one-time calibrations for each element. The new approach is to make the physics of the beam–specimen interactions the primary factor and to design enabling instrumentation accordingly.

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28

Blake, D. F., T. W. Reilly, D. E. Brownlee, and T. E. Bunch. "Low voltage scanning electron microscopy of interplanetary dust particles." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 45 (August 1987): 208–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100125944.

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Interplanetary Dust Particles (IDPs) are a relatively new class of extraterrestrial materials which are collected by high-flying aircraft in the stratosphere. The particles, ∼1.0-50 μm in size, enter the earth's atmosphere at ballistic velocities, but are sufficiently small to be decelerated without burning up. IDPs commonly have solar elemental abundances, and are thoughfto have undergone very little differentiation since the formation of the solar system. While these materials are called “particles,” they are in fact aggregates of a variety of mineral phases, glass, and carbonaceous material. Grains within IDPs commonly range from a few microns to a few tens of nanometers. The extraterrestrial origin of IDPs has been established by the discovery of solar flare tracks in some mineral grains, and recent D/H isotopic ratios recorded from individual particles. The source and formational history of the particles is a topic of active research. At present, the primary means of screening and classifying IDPs is Scanning Electron Microscopy, although a variety of electron microbeam and X-ray techniques is used for subsequent analysis.

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29

Krause, S. J., W. W. Adams, S. Kumar, T. Reilly, and T. Suziki. "Low-voltage, high-resolution scanning electron microscopy of polymers." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 45 (August 1987): 466–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100127037.

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Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of polymers at routine operating voltages of 15 to 25 keV can lead to beam damage and sample image distortion due to charging. Imaging polymer samples with low accelerating voltages (0.1 to 2.0 keV), at or near the “crossover point”, can reduce beam damage, eliminate charging, and improve contrast of surface detail. However, at low voltage, beam brightness is reduced and image resolution is degraded due to chromatic aberration. A new generation of instruments has improved brightness at low voltages, but a typical SEM with a tungsten hairpin filament will have a resolution limit of about 100nm at 1keV. Recently, a new field emission gun (FEG) SEM, the Hitachi S900, was introduced with a reported resolution of 0.8nm at 30keV and 5nm at 1keV. In this research we are reporting the results of imaging coated and uncoated polymer samples at accelerating voltages between 1keV and 30keV in a tungsten hairpin SEM and in the Hitachi S900 FEG SEM.

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30

Krause, S. J., G. N. Maracas, W. J. Varhue, and D. C. Joy. "Low-voltage high-resolution Scanning Electron Microscopy of semiconductors." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 47 (August 6, 1989): 82–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100152380.

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The advent of scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) with reliable, high performance field emission guns (FEG) has afforded many opportunities to obtain new information at low voltages not available at higher voltages in traditional SEMs equipped with tungsten hairpin or LaB6 filaments. The FEG SEMs are able to operate at low voltages with both high brightness and high resolution (HR) due to the small source size and low energy spread of the beam. Resolution of 4 nm down to 1.5 nm are routinely possible in the energy range from 1 to 5 keV along with standard image recording times of 1 to 2 minutes. The low voltage capabilities have allowed insulating materials, such as polymers, composites, and ceramics to be imaged at high resolutions at energies below the second crossover, usually around 1 to 2 keV, without experiencing image artifacts from negative surface charging normally found in uncoated insulators at higher operating voltages.

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31

Katnani, A. D., S. Hurban, and B. Rands. "Low‐voltage scanning electron microscopy: A surface sensitive technique." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 9, no. 3 (May 1991): 1426–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.577640.

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32

Wells, Oliver C. "Low Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy and Jack Ramsey's principle." Microscopy Today 10, no. 3 (May 2002): 27–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500058028.

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“Low Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy (LVSEM), defined as operation in the energy range below 5 keV” was described by David Joy and Dale Newbury (1) in the previous issue of this journal as being “perhaps the most important single operational mode of the SEM.” In their paper they describe both the advantages and disadvantages of this method.Ramsey's principle, which was established by Jack Ramsey over many years as a microscopist and microanalyst, is to say: “There is no best way of doing ANYTHING.”

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33

Orloff, J. "Thermal field emission for low voltage scanning electron microscopy." Journal of Microscopy 140, no. 3 (December 1985): 303–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2818.1985.tb02684.x.

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34

Boyes, E. D. "On Low Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy and Chemical Microanalysis." Microscopy and Microanalysis 6, no. 4 (July 2000): 307–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s100050010035.

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Abstract The current status and general applicability of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) at low voltages is reviewed for both imaging (low voltage scanning electron microscopy, LVSEM) and chemical microanalysis (low voltage energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry, LVEDX). With improved instrument performance low beam energies continue to have the expected advantages for the secondary electron imaging of low atomic number (Z) and electrically non-conducting samples. They also provide general improvements in the veracity of surface topographic analysis with conducting samples of all Z and at both low and high magnifications. In new experiments the backscattered electron (BSE) signal retains monotonic Z dependence to low voltages (<1 kV). This is contrary to long standing results in the prior literature and opens up fast chemical mapping with low dose and very high (nm-scale) spatial resolution. Similarly, energy-dispersive X-ray chemical microanalysis of bulk samples is extended to submicron, and in some cases to <0.1 μm, spatial resolution in three dimensions at voltages <5 kV. In favorable cases, such as the analysis of carbon overlayers at 1.5 kV, the thickness sensitivity for surface layers is extended to <2 nm, but the integrity of the sample surface is then of concern. At low beam energies (E0) the penetration range into the sample, and hence the X-ray escape path length out of it, is systematically restricted (R = F(E05/3)), with advantages for the accuracy or elimination of complex analysis-by-analysis matrix corrections for absorption (A) and fluorescence (F). The Z terms become more sensitive to E0 but they require only one-time calibrations for each element. The new approach is to make the physics of the beam–specimen interactions the primary factor and to design enabling instrumentation accordingly.

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35

Rigler, Mark, and William Longo. "High Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy Theory and Applications." Microscopy Today 2, no. 5 (August 1994): 12–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500066256.

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A variety of energy emissions occur as a result of primary beam interaction with the specimen surface. Secondary electrons, x-rays, visible photons, near IR photons, and Auger electrons are emitted during inelastic scattering of electrons. Backscattered electrons (BSE) are emitted during elastic scattering of primary electrons. Backscattered electrons are those electrons which pass through the electron cloud of an atom and change direction without much energy loss. BSEs may diffuse into the sample or may escape from the sample surface. In practice, the primary electron beam penetrates deeply into low Z (atomic number) materials and produces few BSEs while high Z materials retard primary beam penetration and emit large numbers of BSEs. According to Murata et al., the higher the atomic number, the smaller the mean free path between electron scattering events (i.e. 528 Å for Al vs. 50 Å for Au at 30 KeV) and the higher the probability of scattering.

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Gray, J., D. Corey, G. Ellis, and R. Sokol. "Microchannel plate-based detection systems for Scanning Electron Microscopy." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 47 (August 6, 1989): 726–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100155608.

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MicroChannel plate (MCP)-based detectors have distinct advantages over scintillator or solid-state types for low voltage applications in scanning electron microscopy. MCPs exhibit excellent detection efficiencies for electrons of energy down to lOOev and are usable at even lower energies, making them ideal detection elements for non-destructive testing and low voltage contrast measurements on integrated circuits. Major advantages of MCP-based detection systems include the following

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Li Dong-Dong and Zhou Wu. "Low voltage scanning transmission electron microscopy for two-dimensional materials." Acta Physica Sinica 66, no. 21 (2017): 217303. http://dx.doi.org/10.7498/aps.66.217303.

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Liu, Jingyue. "Ultra-Low-Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy In The FEG -SEM." Microscopy and Microanalysis 8, S02 (August 2002): 706–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927602106167.

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Berry, V. K. "Characterization of polymer blends by low voltage scanning electron microscopy." Scanning 10, no. 1 (1988): 19–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sca.4950100105.

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Hejna, J. "Topographic and material contrast in low-voltage scanning electron microscopy." Scanning 17, no. 6 (December 7, 2006): 387–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sca.4950170607.

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Tzolov, Marian B., Nicholas C. Barbi, Christopher T. Bowser, and Owen Healy. "First-Surface Scintillator for Low Accelerating Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Imaging." Microscopy and Microanalysis 24, no. 5 (October 2018): 488–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927618015027.

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AbstractHighly luminescent thin films of zinc tungstate (ZT) have been deposited on top of conventional scintillators (Yttrium Aluminum Perovskite, Yttrium Aluminum Garnet) for electron detection in order to replace the need for a top conducting layer, such as indium tin oxide (ITO) or aluminum, which is non-scintillating and electron absorbing. Such conventional conducting layers serve the single purpose of eliminating electrical charge build-up on the scintillator. The ZT film also eliminates charging, which has been verified by measuring the Duane–Hunt limit and electron emission versus accelerating voltage. The luminescent nature of the ZT film ensures effective detection of low energy electrons from the very top surface of the structure ZT/scintillator, which we call “first-surfacescintillator”. The cathodoluminescence has been measured directly with a photodetector and spectrally resolved at different accelerating voltages. All results demonstrate the extended range of operation of the first-surface scintillator, while the conventional scintillators with a top ITO layer decline below 5 kV and have practically no output below 2 kV. Scintillators of different types were integrated in a detection system for backscattered electrons (BSE). The quality of the image at high accelerating voltages is comparable with the conventional scintillator and commercial BSE detector, while the image quality at 1 kV from the first-surface scintillator is superior.

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Peters, Klaus-Ruediger. "Current State of Biological High-Resolution Scanning Electron Microscopy." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 46 (1988): 180–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100102985.

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A new generation of high performance field emission scanning electron microscopes (FSEM) is now commercially available (JEOL 890, Hitachi S 900, ISI OS 130-F) characterized by an "in lens" position of the specimen where probe diameters are reduced and signal collection improved. Additionally, low voltage operation is extended to 1 kV. Compared to the first generation of FSEM (JE0L JSM 30, Hitachi S 800), which utilized a specimen position below the final lens, specimen size had to be reduced but useful magnification could be impressively increased in both low (1-4 kV) and high (5-40 kV) voltage operation, i.e. from 50,000 to 200,000 and 250,000 to 1,000,000 x respectively.At high accelerating voltage and magnification, contrasts on biological specimens are well characterized1 and are produced by the entering probe electrons in the outmost surface layer within -vl nm depth. Backscattered electrons produce only a background signal. Under these conditions (FIG. 1) image quality is similar to conventional TEM (FIG. 2) and only limited at magnifications >1,000,000 x by probe size (0.5 nm) or non-localization effects (%0.5 nm).

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HEJNA, J. "Noise coefficients of backscattered electron detectors for low voltage scanning electron microscopy." Journal of Microscopy 252, no. 1 (July 23, 2013): 35–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jmi.12066.

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Frank, Jodi Ackerman. "New electron gun improves imaging resolution of low-voltage scanning electron microscopy." Scilight 2020, no. 17 (April 24, 2020): 171109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/10.0001201.

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Gauvin, Raynald, and Pierre Hovington. "On the Microanalysis of Small Precipitates at Low Voltage with a FE-SEM." Microscopy and Microanalysis 5, S2 (August 1999): 308–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600014860.

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The observation of microstructural features smaller than 300 nm is generally performed using Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) because conventional Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM) do not have the resolution to image such small phases. Since the early 1990’s, a new generation of microscopes is now available on the market. These are the Field Emission Gun Scanning Electron Microscope with a virtual secondary electron detector. The field emission gun gives a higher brightness than those obtained using conventional electron filaments allowing enough electrons to be collected to operate the microscope with incident electron energy, E0, below 5 keV, with probe diameter smaller than 2.5 nm. Furthermore, what gives FE-SEM outstanding resolution is the combination of new magnetic lenses with a virtual secondary electron (SE) detector. The new lenses are designed to reduce the spherical and chromatic aberration coefficients, giving a smaller probe size. Contrary to the conventional systems, the SE detector is located above the objective lens and it becomes a virtual or through-the-lens (TTL) detector. Therefore, the SE image is mostly made up of all SEs of type I, almost eliminating those of type II and III which are generated by the backscattered electrons inside the specimen as well as in the chamber. It has been shown recently that Nb(CN) precipitates in Fe, as small than 10 nm, can be imaged with a FE-SEM Hitachi S-4500 with the TTL detector.

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Vezie, Deborah L. "High-resolution scanning electron microscopy of carbon fiber." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 47 (August 6, 1989): 704–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100155499.

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As part of an extensive study of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and mesophase pitch-based carbon fibers, high resolution scanning electron microscopy (HRSEM) is shown to provide additional insight into understanding and modelling microstructural origins of mechanical properties of carbon fiber. Although carbon fiber has been studied extensively, no sufficiently clear relationship between structure and mechanical properties such as elastic modulus and compressive strength has yet been developed from quantitative TEM and WAXS investigations.In this study, HRSEM data of selected carbon fibers is used to illustrate the power of HRSEM to elucidate structural differences likely accounting for changes in mechanical properties not sensitively probed either by TEM or WAXS. The three-dimensional nature of SEM imaging with accompanying high resolution permits a clearer visualization and more detailed examination of regional structures within carbon fiber over two-dimensional TEM and globally averaged WAXS data.The design of the high resolution, field emission SEM permits low voltage imaging of poorly conducting samples with resolution an order of magnitude greater than a conventional tungsten hairpin filament SEM under the same operating voltage and sample preparation conditions. Although carbon fiber is a relatively conductive material, charging effects can be seen in uncoated PAN fibers above 3.0 keV in a conventional SEM. Lower accelerating voltages are necessary for uncoated imaging of these fibers, but become impractical due to degradation of conventional SEM performance at these voltages. Uncoated sample imaging is preferred to prevent conventional evaporation or sputter coating techniques from obscuring or altering the sample surface, although charging effects may then be a problem. The high resolution, field emission SEM solves these competing voltage/ charging/ resolution issues for poorly conducting materials with the very nature of its design; the high brightness of the electron gun at low voltage coupled with the “in lens” sample placement and above the objective lens detector dramatically improve the resolution of these instruments, especially at low voltage.

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Simmons, S. R., and R. M. Albrecht. "Low-Voltage, High-Resolution, Scanning Electron Microscopy of Platelet-Bound Fibrinogen." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 54 (August 11, 1996): 316–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100164040.

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An essential element in blood clot formation is fibrinogen-mediated platelet aggregation. Fibrinogen is an adhesive plasma protein which binds to the αIIbp3 integrin on activated platelet surfaces. Platelets do not aggregate in the absence of fibrinogen binding, and fibrinogen bound to surfaces of platelets in aggregates is localized to regions of platelet-platelet contact. The fibrinogen molecule is symmetrical and bifunctional and may directly bridge the gap between platelets to bind to receptors on two adjacent platelets. However, the precise mechanism by which fibrinogen links platelets is unclear.Previously we have utilized colloidal gold labeling with correlative light and electron microscopy to investigate the binding of fibrinogen to receptors on surfaces of spread, substrate adherent platelets. The initial binding of gold-conjugated fibrinogen (FgnAu) and subsequent ligand-triggered receptor movement was followed on living platelets by video-enhanced light microscopy. Fibrinogen receptors initially are dispersed over much of the platelet surface and move centripetally upon fibrinogen binding, ultimately forming a band of bound fibrinogen on the platelet surface overlying a densely woven band of actin filaments surrounding the central granulomere. After preparation for electron microscopy, the same platelets as were followed in the light microscope were located in the high voltage TEM and the low voltage, high resolution, SEM (Hitachi S-900) and the final locations of the gold labeled receptor/ligand complexes were determined relative to internal or surface ultrastructure, respectively. More recently, we have utilized the SEM operated at low (1-2 kV) beam voltage to examine in detail the binding of unlabeled fibrinogen to platelets. With appropriate specimen preparation, individual cell surface macromolecules can be resolved in situ by low voltage SEM. In addition to the centripetal receptor redistribution seen with FgnAu, unlabeled fibrinogen appeared to undergo self-adhesive interactions following binding to platelet fibrinogen receptors, forming small, branched and globular protein aggregates during translocation across the platelet surface.(Fig. 1)

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Simmons, S. R., J. B. Pawley, and R. M. Albrecht. "Optimizing parameters for correlative immunogold localization by video-enhanced light microscopy, high-voltage transmission electron microscopy, and field emission scanning electron microscopy." Journal of Histochemistry & Cytochemistry 38, no. 12 (December 1990): 1781–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/38.12.2254644.

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Correlative video-enhanced light microscopy, high-voltage transmission electron microscopy, and low-voltage high resolution scanning electron microscopy were used to examine the binding of colloidal gold-labeled fibrinogen to platelet surfaces. Optimal conditions for the detection of large (18 nm) and small (3 nm) gold particles are described.

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Hein, Luis Rogerio de Oliveira, Kamila Amato de Campos, and Pietro Carelli Reis de Oliveira Caltabiano. "Low voltage and variable-pressure scanning electron microscopy of fractured composites." Micron 43, no. 10 (October 2012): 1039–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.micron.2012.04.012.

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Felisari, L., V. Grillo, F. Jabeen, S. Rubini, C. Menozzi, F. Rossi, and F. Martelli. "Imaging with low-voltage scanning transmission electron microscopy: A quantitative analysis." Ultramicroscopy 111, no. 8 (July 2011): 1018–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2011.03.016.

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